Part 2

SANS 10160-3:2018
scope, process and contents

scope
• land-based structures with height <100m
• elements with frequency >5Hz
• circular chimneys; height <60m, slenderness <6,5
NB. by principle - structures in isolation ! (most
cases conservative but not always)

i.e. excludes:
• structures >100m
• dynamically sensitive
• off-shore

...furthermore excludes
(for specific reasons):

• bridge structures
• structures of unusual shape
• structures / components with movement
• high-risk structures
• transmission lines

1
 Calculation procedure:
Relevant Peak Wind Speed Pressure
Function of:
• geographic region,
• return period,
• terrain type / category,
• surroundings
• reference height (NB. important specification),
• topography coefficient,
• roughness / height coefficient

Geographic location- fundamental value vb,o

2018

<2011

2
 28m/s 32m/s 36m/s
x 1,4 Polokwane
24

2011 Mmabatho
Pretoria
Nelspruit
Witbank
26
Johannesburg
Vryburg Klerksdorp Standerton

Sishen Kroonstad
Upington Ulundi
28
Bethlehem Ladysmith
Kimberley

Port Nolloth Bloemfontein

Springbok

Durban 30
Brandvlei De Aar

Victoria West Port Shepstone

Umtata
Vredendal Calvinia Queenstown
Beaufort
Cradock 32
West
Bisho
Saldahna East London
Worcester Uitenhage
Oudtshoorn
Cape Town 34
Swellendam Port Elizabeth
Mossel Bay St Francis
Cape Agulhas

20 24 28 32

Implications
(due to quadratic relationship
between speed and pressure / force)

(44 m/s)2 ≈ 2000 m2/s2

(32 m/s)2 ≈ 1000 m2/s2

Significantly cheaper to build a structure
north of the country !

Factorising the fundamental value

For how long will the structure be

subjected ?

Return Period formulations - influence

relatively small), eg.:
20yrs – 0,95
100 yrs – 1,04

3
… in comparison with the Return Period

Critical influence of
terrain roughness !

Terrain roughness > turbulence >

flow correlation > loads

locality
plan

4
 GoogleEearth

Approach sectors

4 Terrain Categories
category C
Area with regular
cover of vegetation or
buildings or with
isolated obstacles
with separations of
maximum 20
obstacle heights
(such as villages,
suburban terrain,
permanent forest)

5
 No city terrain !

category D
Area in which at least
15 % of the surface is
covered with
buildings and their
average height
exceeds 15 m

Power-law formulation
a
æ z - z0 ö
cr ( z ) = 1,36 ç
ç zg - z0 ÷÷
az
c0g è ø
zg z0 zc
Terrain category α

A 250 0 1 0,070

B 300 0 2 0,095

C 350 3 5 0,120

D 400 5 10 0,150

Profiles at low elevations

6
 Terrain transition
Distance from structure to the
Height
influencing terrain category
xz
[m] [km]

Influencing terrain category

Upstream terrain category

B C

5 0,5 5
7 1 10
10 2 20

15 5

… also substantial influence - topography

• difficult to establish – can increase or decrease

wind speeds
• simplified procedure, based on extensive w-t
modelling applicable to 2-dimensional
situations only
• specific range of parameters (not too steep)
• for shallow can be ignored
• for complex topography (eg. CT > wind-tunnel
modelling)

Orographic factor co function of s

7
 Topographical modelling

Immediate surroundings
• Can decrease wind speeds due to shielding, or
• Increase due to e.g. channeling of flow or
buffeting of structures
• Two procedures given in the Annex:
• Tall building surrounded by a cluster of low
rise buildings
• Densely spaced buildings ‘lift-up’ of the wind
profile

8
 Wind pressures

All loading standards idealised case of a

building in isolation – impossible to predict
all possible building forms and situations
Films

Wind pressure
• A combination of external and internal
pressures
• Internal pressures due to permanent /
temporary / accidental openings & leakages
wi = q p ( ze ) ´ c pi
we = q p ( ze ) ´ c pe

NB 1. reference elevation
NB 2. pressurisation of buildings

Generation of loads

9
 Wind forces (force coefficients)

Fw = cs cd ´ c f ´ q p ( ze ) ´ Aref

Fw = cs cd ´ S c f ´ q p ( ze ) ´ Aref
cs cd - structural factor (load correlation and dynamic
resonance) - to be adopted 1,0 - maintained in the
code for alignment purpose with Eurocode

- 2nd equation summation of individual elements

Wind forces (integration of pressures)

Internal forces
Fw,i = å
surfaces
wi ´ Aref
External forces

Fw,e = cs cd ´ å
surfaces
we ´ Aref
Frictional forces
F f r = c f r ´ q p ( ze ) ´ A f r

Loading application principles

(asymmetric forces)

10
 Treatment of pressure correlation - more logical,
most significant departure from the old paradigm of
3, 5 and 10 sec gust

cpe

cpe,1

cpe,10

0,1 1 2 4 6 8 10 A [m2]

for1 m2 < A < 10 m2

cpe = cpe,1 − (cpe,1 − cpe,10) log10A

distribution of
loading over
the windward
walls

Explicit stipulation regarding overhangs –

several failures are triggered in such areas
(current code a footnote)

Pressure at topside as result

of roof pressure

Protruding
roof

Pressure at underside
found from wall pressure

11
 Internal pressures
• very complex physical phenomenon – difficult to
quantify
• especially if internal division into external spaces,
fire walls, ducts, air-conditioning system
• simplest situation corresponds to large industrial
warehouses (but not shopping malls)
• fortunately if no dominant openings present than
typical magnitude substantially lower than the
external pressures
• Guidance and several basic / rules given

• Depend on the size and distribution of openings

• If in two of the sides (walls or roof) more than 30% of
surface open then consider as canopy roof or
freestanding walls
• Openings : doors, windows, ventilation openings, and
leakages due to permeability
• Permeability can be large in cladding
• Doors windows considered as normally closed in a storm
condition – but prudent to consider a loading case of
failure (especially in hurricanes / cyclones)
• reference pressure for internal pressure is the reference
pressure at ze for the external pressures on the façade in
which the openings contribute to the generation of
internal pressures – if several openings – the largest ze

Dominant openings
(possibility of developing the ‘wind sock’ effect)

• Permanent openings – if it can be reasonably assumed to

be open under storm conditions (e.g. large hangars)
• Dominant openings – also if one of the sides has total
area of openings twice larger than in other sides
• If the area of openings twice that of the sum of openings
in remaining facades than internal pressure cpi = 0,75 cpe
• If the area of openings three times of that of the sum of
openings in remaining facades than internal pressure
cpi = 0,90 cpe
• interpolation can be used

12
 For buildings without dominant openings -
internal pressures (air-tightness)
µ=
å area of openings where c is negative or 0,0
pe

å area of all openings

Internal pressures cont.

• applicable to walls and roofs

• buildings with and without partitions
• if not possible / feasible to estimate the air
tightness ratio μ than use Cpi = +0,2 and -0,3
• reference pressure for internal pressure is the
reference pressure at ze for the external
pressures on the façade in which the openings
contribute to the generation of internal
pressures – if several openings – the largest ze

e=b or 2h
whichever is the smaller
D E b
WIND b : crosswind dimension

elevation

description
a) Plan

of pressure WIND
A B C h
WIND
A B C
h

distribution e/5
e
4e/5
d-e
e/5
e
4e/5
d-e

acting on walls
b) Elevation for e<d

h
A B h A B
WIND WIND

e/5 d-e/5 e/5 d-e/5

d d
c) Elevation for e ≥ d

h
A
A h
WIND WIND

d d
d) Elevation for e ≥ 5d

13
 a a
a a
a > 0o a < 0o
h h
q = 0o q = 0o
WIND WIND

Pitch angle positive Pitch angle negative

(a) Side view

description e/4 F

ridge of trough
of pressure I I
ridge of trough

distribution WIND G H J I b

acting on roofs
H H
e/2
e/4 F
F G G F e/10
e/10 e/10 e/4 e/4

WIND
e=b or 2h
e=b or 2h
whichever is the smaller
whichever is the smaller
b : crosswind dimension
b : crosswind dimension

(b) Plan view for indication of zones (c) Plan view for indication of zones
for wind q = 0o and q = 180 o for wind q = 90o
( Wind across building) ( Wind along building)

Presentation of data on pressure coefficients

pitch Cpe,10 Cpe,1

-45 -1,4 -2,0

-30 -1,5 -2,1

Treatment of pressure correlation - more logical,

most significant departure from the old paradigm of
3, 5 and 10 sec gust

cpe

cpe,1

cpe,10

0,1 1 2 4 6 8 10 A [m2]

for1 m2 < A < 10 m2

cpe = cpe,1 − (cpe,1 − cpe,10) log10A

14
 Design information:
parapet walls, curved and mansard roofs
d

e/4 F

e=b or 2h
whichever is the smaller
G H I b
WIND
b : crosswind dimension

e/4 F

e/10

e/2

elevation

(a) Plan

edge of eave
hp a
r
h ze ze=h
WIND WIND

(b) Parapets (c) Curved and mansard eaves

Elevation Elevation

ao a90

a > 0o a > 0o
h h
q = 0o q = 90o
WIND WIND

(a) Side view

b
e/4 e/4

Hipped
e/10 I
e/4 F M J J
L J

roofs WIND G H K I b N N

M L L M
H
e/4 F e/2
L M J
e/10 F G F e/10

e/10 e/4 e/4

WIND

e=b or 2h e=b or 2h
whichever is the smaller whichever is the smaller

b : crosswind dimension b : crosswind dimension

b) Plan view for indication of c) Plan view for indication

zones for wind θ=0º and θ=180º of zones for wind θ=90º
(Wind across building) (Wind along building)

B
A
C
f

WIND h
L
cpe,10 d

0,8

0,6

0,4
0)
h= ,5 )
Vaulted 0,2 A(
A
h ³0
( d

roofs
0
0,05 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
f/d
-0,2

-0,4 C
C
-0,6
h
B A( ³ 0 ,5 )
-0,8
d

-1,0

B
-1,2
h
A( ³ 0 ,5 )
d

15
 Canopy roofs - loading arrangements / combinations to be
considered in the design
cf > 0 cf > 0 cf > 0 cf > 0
a a a a a a

a > 00 h a > 00 h a > 00 h

cf < 0 cf < 0 cf < 0 cf < 0

a a a a a a

a > 00 h a > 00 h a > 00 h

(a) Pitch angle positive

cf > 0 cf > 0 cf > 0 cf > 0

a a a a a a

a < 00 h a < 00 h a < 00 h

cf < 0 cf < 0 cf < 0 cf < 0

a a a a a a

a < 00 h a < 00 h a < 00 h

(b) Pitch angle negative

0,3h 1,7h 2h

A B C D h

L : length of wall
Data on (a) For freestanding-wall and parapet with L >4 h

free-standing 0,3h 1,7h 2h 0.3h 1.7h

walls and A B C h A B h

parapets L

L : length of wall
L

L : length of wall

(several cases of (b) For freestanding-wall and parapet with L <4 h (c) For freestanding-wall and parapet with L <2 h

failures in SA)
No return
Return corner
corner

Use linear interpolation

WIND

WIND

for return corner lengths

<h

(d) Plan view of wall with return corner and without

return corner

Signboards - eccentricity consideration, warning about

flutter and divergence (several cases of failures in SA)

b
h
e e
h
e e

ze
zg zg

16
 Friction over large roofs / buildings –
ignore the separation zone

d d
b
WIND Afr=2db
h Afr=2hd

h
ze
WIND

Reference Area Afr

h
d

D
WIN

c f ,0

WIND b
d

Force
coefficients
for structural
elements
(graphical form
of a continuous
function)

d
b

Information on:

• Distribution of pressures around cylinders

• Force coefficients of circular cylinders (finite and
infinite) - also taking into account type of finish,
• Spheres
• Cylinders in a row
• Lattice structures and scaffolding (in Europe emphasis on the
design of construction stages)
• Taking into account the effective slenderness, the
end-effects and solidity ratio

17
 End-effect factor
(function of solidity and slenderness)

Aerodynamic phenomena –
not covered in the design standards
- Typically at low sustained winds speeds
- Difficult to predict (no clear-cut rules)
- Often depend on insignificant geometrical
features or relationships between
elements
- Function of mass / damping of elements
(steel !)
- Dynamic excitations – can increase
exponentially at low energy inputs
- Introduce fatigue to connections /
elements
- Films

18