GATEWAY (ICT) POLYTECHNIC, SAAPADE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRONICS III

COURSE CODE: EEC 225
SEMESTER: SECOND LEVEL: ND II

Amplifier V0
b Gain A
VI β

Amplifier
Gain β

Block diagram of a basic feedback amplifier

FEEDBACK: Is the process of injecting a fraction of output energy to some devices back to
input known as feedback.
Types of feedback are divided into two positive and negative feedback
POSITIVE FEEDBACK: This is when the feedback energy (voltage and current) is in
phase with the input signal and thus aids it, is called positive feedback.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: This is when the feedback energy (voltage and current) is out of
phase with the signal and thus opposes it. It is called negative feedback.

EFFECT OF FEEDBACK (NEGATIVE) IN RELATION

Gain:-It has a lower gain than is possible without feedback

Gain stability:- It stabilizes gain and makes it independent of component of amplifier

Bandwidth:- Increase B and reduces frequency dependent

Distortion: It reduces non linear as well as frequency distortion

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Noise: It reduces any noise produced to the amplifier

Output/Input Resistance:- The input resistance is made high than output resistance, thus the
circuit becomes more complex since additional stages are required to store gain.

HOW OSCILLATORS CAN BE PRODUCED BY AN AMPLIFIER

WITH POSITIVE FEEDBACK
A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an oscillator i.e it can generate
oscillators without any external source. A positive amplifier is one that produces a feedback
voltage (Vf) i.e if in phase with the original input signal. A phase shift of 180o is produced by
the amplifier and a further phase shift of 180o is introduced by feedback network, the signal is
shifted by 360o and fed into input i.e feedback voltage is in phase with input signal.

180o
V1 Amplifier
V0

VF Feedback

VF Network

180o

180o
Amplifier
V1 V0

VF
Feedback
VF
Network

180o

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Oscillator: It can be defined as any device which provides an AC output when the input is a
DC source without a switching, rotating or vibrating mechanism. A transistor can act as an
oscillator of any desired frequency and feedback circuit a properly connected to it. Oscillators
under different name have similar functions i.e they produce continuous undamped circuit.

ASSIGNMENT

Explain RC- Oscillators

Explain L-C Oscillator (Hartley and colpitt)
Describe methods of achieving frequency stability of oscillator e.g piezo electric signal.

TYPES OF OSCILLATORS
 Tuned collector (LC) oscillator
 Hartley oscillator
 Colpitts oscillator
 Phase lift oscillator
 Wein bridge oscillator
 Crystal oscillator

LC Oscillator:- The circuit of the tune (LC) contained tuned circuit L1-C1 in the collector.
The frequency depends upon the values of L1 and C1 and is given by
F = ½ π (L1C1)

The feedback coil L2 and the base circuit is magnetically coupled to the tanked circuit coil L1-
L1 and L2 from the primary and secondary of the transformer respectively. The biasing is
provided by potential divider arrangement. The capacitor C connected in the base circuit
provides low reactance path to the oscillations.

L2 L1 C1
R1
+ VCE
-

R2 CE S
C RE

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Colpitts Oscillator:- It uses 2 capacitors and placed across a common inductor L and the
center of the 2 capacitors is tacked. The tank circuit is made up of C1 and C2 and inductor L.
The frequency oscillations is determined by the valves C1 and C2 and L is given by
F = ½π (LCT)
Where CT= C1C2/C1+C2

RF CHOICE
R2

Vout

C1 L
R1

RE
CE C2

NOTE: C1C2L is also the feedback circuit that produces a phase of 180o

CIRCUIT OPERATION
When the circuit turned on the capacitor C1 and C2 are charged. The capacitor discharged
through inductor L setting up oscillation of frequency. The output voltage of the amp appears
across C1 and feedback voltage is developed across C1 (Volt) voltage feedback is (voltage
across C2) to the transistor provide positive feedback. In phase shift of 180o is produced by a
transistor and a further phase shift of 180o is produced by C1-C2 voltage divider. So therefore,
feedback is properly faced to produce continuous feed undamped operation.

LIMITATION OF LC AND RC OSCILLATOR

The major problem encountered in such circuit is that their operating frequency does
not remain constant and the 2 principal reasons are;
As the circuit operates it will warm up consequently, the values of resistors and
inductors which are frequency determining factors in those circuits will change with
temperature. This causes the change of frequency of the oscillators.
If any component in the feedback method is changed it will shift the operation
frequency of the network.

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 CIRCUIT OPERATION FOR LC OSCILLATORS
When switch S is closed, collector current starts increasing and charges the capacitor
C1, when this capacitor is fully charged, it discharged it through coil L1 setting up oscillations
of frequency. These oscillations induced sum voltage coil down 2 by mutual inductor.
The frequency of the voltage coil in L2 applied between base and emitter. It appears in
the amplified form to the connected circuits thus overcoming the losses occurring in the tank
circuit. The number of turn in L2 and coupling between L1 and L2 are so adjusted that
oscillation across L2 are amplified to a level just sufficient to a supply losses to the tank
circuit.

METHOD OF OBTAINING FREQUENCY STABILITY OF OSCILLATORS

It is desirable and necessary to maintain the frequency instant with extreme low
tolerances. For example, frequency tolerance for a broadcasting station should not exceed
0.002% i.e changes in the frequency due to any reason should not be more than 0.002% of the
specified frequency. The frequency different between the two broadcasting stations is less
than 1%. A change in temperature may cause the frequencies of adjacent broadcasting
stations to overlap.
To maintain constant frequency, piezo-electric crystals are used in place to LC or RC
circuits because the frequency of a crystal oscillator changes by less than 0.1% to the most
satisfactory method of stabilizing the frequency and used in great majority of electronic
applications.
There are three(3) types of multivibrators
 Astable or free running multivibrators
 Constable or one short
 Bi stable or flip flop
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
It consists of two transistors coupled back-to-back and so that the output of one is the input of
other. It automatically between the two states and remains in each for a time dependent upon
the circuit. It is also a multivibrator which generates square eave of its own (i.e without any
external triggering pulse) is known as an ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR OR FREE
RUNNING MULTIVIBRATOR. The astable multivibrator has in stable state. It switches
back and forth from one state to the other remaining in each state for a time determined by
circuit constant.

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 MODE OF OPERATION

When VCC is applied, transistor Q start conducting (i.e ON) and transistor Q2 is circuit
off (i.e OFF). The voltage across C2 is V1 = V1=VCC-VBE. In this case, C1 begins to charge
toward VCC-VCE and as C1 charges, its voltage is sufficient to forward bias, the base emitter
junction of Q2 is turned on and becomes reversed biased Vi = VC-VCE (ON) and turn off.
Immediately after Q is turned off, its base begins to go towards VCC, with a time constant
R2C2 and when it reaches the turn ON voltage of Q1, Q1 turns ON. Q2 is now switched OFF
in the same manner as Q1 was switched off.
Now C1 will begin to charge with a time constant R1C1 and Q2 will gain switch ON
when it base reaches its turn ON voltage. This ON-OFF switching process between Q1 and Q2
is self sustaining and will continue endlessly with C1 and C2 charging and discharging. The
two stage of the transistors are both unstable and the circuit oscillates.
VCC
T0 T T1

t (ms)

-VCC

WAVEFORM AT COLLECTOR OF Q1

VCC

0
t
WAVEFORM AT COLLECTOR OF Q2

Waveform at collector of Q2
For capacitor C1T1 = R1C1
C2T2 = R2C2
Periodic time T = T1+T2 = (R1C1+R2C2)
Output frequency F = 1/T= 1/ (R1C1+R2C2)
F is called pulse repetition frequency (PRF)

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If R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 = C, then the astable multivibrator produces a symmetric square wave
VCC

RL R2 R1 RL

Q2 Q1
ON ON
OFF OFF

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

A monostable mulitvirbrator has only one stable state and it is usually triggered into unstable
state by the application of an external trigger. If one transistor is conducting and the other is
non-conducting, the circuit will remain in this position. Monostable multivibrator does not
generate square waves of its own like an astable mulitivibrator.

+ VCC

RL
RL
C R1
VB1
VC2 VC1

Q2 Q1
VCC

-
VBB

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT

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In the above circuit, Q1 is normally conducting and Q2 is cut off in the stable state. To operate
in the stable state the hissing resistor R is chosen to allow sufficient base current Q1 for
operation in the saturated region. Biasing circuit comprising R1R2 and VBB assures that Q2
remains cut off. Thus one side (positive d.c) of C is at VCC and the other (negative side) is at
VBE (ON).

Therefore, VC1 = VCC-VBE (ON)

A negative voltage trigger pulse applied to the base of Q1 causes it to turn OFF and Q2
becomes conducting. The collector voltage VC2, the drops to VCE and the capacitor voltage
VC1 drops from VCC-VCE (ON) at the collector of Q2 is transferred to the base supply reaches
the turn ON
The above circuit shows the flip-flop circuit of two inverter circuits connected back-
to-back. The two outputs are taken at the two collectors. The flip-flop circuit is designed such
that at any one time, one transistor is ON while the other is OFF.
C1 and C2 improve the switching time of a flip-flop by helping inn reducing the turn
(ON and turn OFF times, R3 and R4 and VCE and VBB1 Q1 can be forward biased and
conducting while Q2 is non conducting.
To turn Q1 OFF, we now apply a trigger pulse to its base so that it base potential falls
and Q1 takes less current and cut-off. Hence, the base potential of Q2 rises and Q2 turn ON.
The base emiiter junction of Q1 in this case must be reversed biased (Q1=0) to turn Q1 OFF
and a reverse biase VBE (OFF).

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

PID CONTROLLER
Kpe (t)

PK2e (t)
Plant/process

U(t) E ect K1S2e(s) d8 + +

y(t)
IK E
+ +
Kd Sec (t)
-
St
D

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 A proportional integral derivative controller (PID) controller is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism (controller) widely uses the industrial control systems. A PID is the
most commonly used feedback controller. A PID controller calculates an ‘error’ valves as the
difference between a measured process variable and a desired set point. The controller
attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs.

Voltage VBE (ON). Q1 will again conduct and Q2 is turned OFF so that the circuit returns to
its stable state.

VC VCC

VCC T(m)
T0

T1

T(m)
-VCC
T 0 T T1
WAVEFORMS FOR THE MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

BI-STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

It has both the states stable. The trigger pulses are always required to switch the act
from one stable to the other and after switching its stays in its new location until another
trigger pulse is applied.
+ VCC

RL1 C1
RL2
C2

R1
R2
ON ON

OFF R3 R4 OFF

-VBB

A BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT

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 The PID controller calculations (algorithm) involves three separate instant parameters
and is accordingly sometimes called three term control; the proportion, the integral and
derivative value, denotes P, I and D. These values can be interpreted in the terms of time; P
depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of past based on current rate of change.
The weighed sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element
such as the position of a control value or the power supplied to a heating element.

By turning the 3 parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide
control action designed for specific process requirements. The purpose of the controller can
be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller overshoots the set points and the
degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not
guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.

CONTROL LOOP BASICS

A familiar example of a control loop is the action taking when adjusting hot and cold
faucets (valves) to maintain the water at a desired temperature. This involves mixing of two
process steams, the hot and cold water.
POWER AMPLIFIERS
Power amplifiers are designed to furnish large amount of current to a load. In power
amplifier there is a loss of power in the load circuit due to current which is necessary for their
operated either class A, B or AB.
An amp designed to drive the loudspeaker of an audio amplifier or a radio or
television is shown below.

R1
L.S

CE Re

CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER

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 Similar to the operation of electron tube amplifiers, a single-ended transistor amplifier
must be operated class: A it is used as linear amplifier, where, there is little distortion in the
output signal and output signal is an exact reproduction of the input signal.

In the case –A amplifier shows the output transformer must be designed to match the
impedance of the collector, yet at the same time match of power output obtained from a
circuit of this type of governed by the size of the batteries and the dissipitation properties of
the transistor itself.

The collector-output current variations in the primary of T setup a flux that produces
voltage variations in the secondary, which are converted into audible sound by the
loudspeaker.

CLASS-B POWER AMPLIFIER

The basic circuit of amp operated class-B is the same for those operated class-A;
however, the class amp is biased differently from the class-A type. In class-B operation, the
transistor is biased in such a manner that the output signal will not be amplified reproduction
of the input signal. Transistors operating class-B are not usually used singly because they
badly distort the output signal.

R1
L.S

CE Re

CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER

In class-B amp, the average current that flows remains steady whether or not a signal
is being applied to the input of the stage. With class B-operation, practically no current flows
and no power is being dissipitated when there is no input signal applied.

The advantages of class-B as compared to class-A operation are the following:

 Greater power output

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  Higher efficiency and there is negligible power loss at no signal

The disadvantages are that the harmonic distortion is higher, inability to use self-bias
and the supply voltage must have good regulation.

CLASS-AB OPERATION
To minimize crossover distortion, the transistor must operate in a class-AB mode,
with a small standby current at zero excitation. In the circuit fig 5.0 the voltage drop across
R2 is adjusted to be approximately equal to cut in voltage (which is 0.1v for germanium and
0.5v for silicon). Class-AB operation result in less distortion than class-B, but there is loss in
efficiency waste of standby power.

Where β = fraction of the output voltage feedback to the input circuit

Av = voltage gain without feedback called the open-loop gain of the amplifier
AvF= effective voltage gain with feedback called the loop gain
Note:
1. If (1-Avβ)<1, then Av i.e. gain increased and feedback is said to be positive
2. If (1-Avβ) = 0, then Avr becomes infinite with V1=0. The circuit is closed as an
oscillation.

Although, negative feedback decreases gain, it is the most generally used for stability

ADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

- It reduces non-linear as well as frequency distortion. Any distortion in amp can be

expressed as error in Avr or Av, thus distortion is lowered by negative feedback while
it is increased by positive feedback.
- Negative feedback stabilize gain and makes it independent of component of amplifier
i.e. if Avβ>>1 then, AVF=Av/(1+Avβ) = Av/Avβ=1/β
- It reduces any noise produced in the amplifier
- It also increases bandwidth and reduces frequency dependence

DISADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

- It has a lower gain than is possible without feedback
- The input resistance is made higher than the output resistance, thus the circuit
becomes more complex since addition and the stages are required to restore gain.

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 - Unstable oscillation can occur in the output as a result of improper application of
negative feedback.

MERIT OF APOSITIVE FEEDBACK

The major advantages of positive feedback are that the overall gain is higher than is possible
without feedback.

DEMERITS OF A POSITIVE FEEDBACK

- It increases non-linear distortion as well as frequency distortion
- Unstable oscillation are more likely with positive than with negative because any
change in the output is amplified more with positive feedback
- Achieving stability with positive feedback alone is difficult, if not impossible

APPLICATION OF CLASS OF AMPLIFIERS

1. Tuned and unturned voltage amplifiers and low power audio frequency amplifier
work in class-A
2. Audio frequency power amplifier work in class-B
3. Oscillators and radio frequency usually operate in class-C

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
Feedback is used to indicate that information or a command signal is directed to its
source in such a way that future information or command area affected.
Open loop amplifiers are those in which the output signal is not monitored and used to
control the amplifiers. If the output is monitored and the information is fed back to the input
of the amplifier correcting action can be taken such feedback amplifier is called close loop
amplifiers because the feedback loop is closed. If the input feedback signal is in anti-phase to
the input signal (i.e. feedback is subtracted from the input signal), the feedback is known as
the negative feedback or degenerative feedback. If the feedback is in phase with the input
signal (i.e. feedback signal is added to the input signal) the feedback is referred to as positive
feedback or regenerative feedback.

In voltage feedback, the signal fed back is proportional to the output voltage of the
amplifier. In current feedback, the fed back is proportional to the output current; in general,
feedback affects such properties as input impedance, output impedance, gain, distortion
bandwidth etc.

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 Without feedback, the voltage gain Av = V0/V1 with feedback, the output voltage
becomes

V0 = Gain x new input voltage

V0 = Av (V1+βV0)……………………………..1

Therefore V0 (1-Avβ) = AvV1

Hence with feedback, the voltage gain becomes

AVF= V0/V1=Av/1=Avβ………………………………..2

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