Jerome Bruner (Cognitive Development & Constructivist Theory)

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Bruner

by Saul McLeod   published 2008, updated 2012


The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind
creates from experience "generic coding systems that permit one to
go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner,
1957, p. 234).

Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the


"recurrent regularities" in their environment. 

So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the


concepts, categories, and problem-solving procedures invented
previously by the culture, but also the ability to "invent" these things
for oneself.

Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human


capabilities and "culturally invented technologies that serve as
amplifiers of these capabilities." These culturally invented
technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and
television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture
categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely
agree with Vygotsky that language serves to mediate between
environmental stimuli and the individual's response. 
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).
In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966),
Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:

 Enactive representation (action-based)


 Iconic representation (image-based)
 Symbolic representation (language-based)

Bruner's Three Modes of


Representation
Modes of representation are the way in which information or
knowledge are stored and encoded in memory.

Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes of


representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they
"translate" into each other.

Enactive
(0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and
storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as
a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a
rattle.

The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an


infant will “shake a rattle” which has just been removed or dropped, as
if the movements themselves are expected to produce the
accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to children.

Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a


shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe
in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.
Iconic
(1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a
mental picture in the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others
say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are
learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or
illustrations to accompany verbal information.

Symbolic
(7 years onwards)
This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a
code or symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of
representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which
they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.

Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered,


classified etc., so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In
the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words,
mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with


new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to
symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true
instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even
of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the
instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs
of Piaget and other stage theorists.
The Importance of Language
Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract
concepts. Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and free an
individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to
provide a more complex yet flexible cognition.

The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they
represent and can remove the constraints of the “here & now”
concept. Basically, he sees the infant as an intelligent & active
problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to
those of the mature adult.

Educational Implications
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart
knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem
solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations.
Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in
children.

In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The


main premise of Bruner's text was that students are active learners
who construct their own knowledge.

Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's notion of readiness. He argued that


schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material
to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means students are
held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed too difficult to
understand and must be taught when the teacher believes the child
has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity.
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age)
is capable of understanding complex information: 'We begin with the
hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some
intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development'. (p.
33)
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum.
This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified
level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be
taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching his
way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.
Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge
and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding
system. Bruner believed that the most effective way to develop a
coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher.
The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct
their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist
approach).

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote


learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that
a good teacher will design lessons that help student discover the
relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must
give students the information they need, but without organizing for
them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process
of discovery learning.
Bruner and Vygotsky
Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment,
especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree
that adults should play an active role in assisting the child's learning.

Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing


that other people should help a child develop skills through the
process of scaffolding. The term scaffolding first appeared in the
literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross described how tutors'
interacted with preschooler to help them solve a block reconstruction
problem (Wood et al., 1976).

The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky's notion of


the zone of proximal development, and it's not uncommon for the
terms to be used interchangeably. Scaffolding involves helpful,
structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of
helping the child achieve a specific goal.
'[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of
freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on
the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring' (Bruner, 1978, p.
19).

Bruner and Piaget


Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but an
important difference is that Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of
which presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one
mode may dominate in usage, they coexist. Bruner states that what
determines the level of intellectual development is the extent to which
the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice
or experience. So - the right way of presentation and the right
explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only
understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of education and
the adult.
Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he
doesn’t see them as representing different separate modes of thought
at different points of development (like Piaget). Instead, he sees a
gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques into more
integrated “adult” cognitive techniques.

Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive


development and since language is our primary means of symbolizing
the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining
cognitive development.

BRUNER AGREES WITH


BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET
PIAGET

1. Children are PRE- 1. Development is a CONTINUOUS


ADAPTED to learning PROCESS – not a series of stages

2. The development of LANGUAGE is a


2. Children have a
cause not a consequence of cognitive
NATURAL CURIOSITY
development

3. Children’s COGNITIVE 3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive


development. You don’t have to wait for
STRUCTURES develop
the child to be ready
over time

4. Children are ACTIVE 4. The involvement of ADULTS and


participants in the learning MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS
process makes a big difference

5. Cognitive development 5. Symbolic thought does NOT


entails the acquisition of REPLACE EARLIER MODES OF
SYMBOLS REPRESENTATION

This lesson explores Jerome Bruner's theory of development, his three


modes of representation, and his beliefs on learning, language, and
discovery. It will also differentiate Bruner's views of learning compared to
Jean Piaget's views.

Jerome Bruner and Education


Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner felt the goal of education should be
intellectual development, as opposed to rote memorization of facts.
This lesson will discuss Bruner's theory of development and his three
modes of representation. We will also explore his beliefs on learning,
language, and discovery and differentiate his views from those of Jean
Piaget.
Bruner held the following beliefs regarding learning and education:

 He believed curriculum should foster the development of problem-


solving skills through the processes of inquiry and discovery.
 He believed that subject matter should be represented in terms of the
child's way of viewing the world.
 That curriculum should be designed so that the mastery of skills leads
to the mastery of still more powerful ones.
 He also advocated teaching by organizing concepts and learning by
discovery.
 Finally, he believed culture should shape notions through which
people organize their views of themselves and others and the world
in which they live.

Three Stages of Representation


Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive representation.

1. Enactive, which is the representation of knowledge through actions.


2. Iconic, which is the visual summarization of images.
3. Symbolic representation, which is the use of words and other
symbols to describe experiences.

The enactive stage appears first. This stage involves the encoding and


storage of information. There is a direct manipulation of objects without any
internal representation of the objects.
For example, a baby shakes a rattle and hears a noise. The baby has
directly manipulated the rattle and the outcome was a pleasurable sound.
In the future, the baby may shake his hand, even if there is no rattle,
expecting his hand to produce the rattling sounds. The baby does not have
an internal representation of the rattle and, therefore, does not understand
that it needs the rattle in order to produce the sound.
The iconic stage appears from one to six years old. This stage involves an
internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental
image or icon. For example, a child drawing an image of a tree or thinking
of an image of a tree would be representative of this stage.
The symbolic stage, from seven years and up, is when information is
stored in the form of a code or symbol such as language. Each symbol has
a fixed relation to something it represents. For example, the word 'dog' is a
symbolic representation for a single class of animal. Symbols, unlike
mental images or memorized actions, can be classified and organized. In
this stage, most information is stored as words, mathematical symbols, or
in other symbol systems.
Bruner believed that all learning occurs through the stages we just
discussed. Bruner also believed that learning should begin with direct
manipulation of objects. For example, in math education, Bruner promoted
the use of algebra tiles, coins, and other items that could be manipulated.
After a learner has the opportunity to directly manipulate the objects, they
should be encouraged to construct visual representations, such as a
drawing a shape or a diagram.
Finally, a learner understands the symbols associated with what they
represent. For example, a student in math understands that the plus sign
( + ) means to add two numbers together and the minus sign ( - ) means to
subtract.

Discovery Learning
The concept of discovery learning implies that a learner constructs his or
her own knowledge for themselves by discovering as opposed to being told
about something.
According to Bruner, the teacher should facilitate the learning process by
developing lessons that provide the learner with information they need
without organizing it for them.
This idea of discovery learning is often referred to as constructivism,
which emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding
and making sense of information.

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