Hardened Concrete

Strength of Concrete
• Strength of concrete is commonly considered its most
valuable property, although in many practical
cases, other characteristics, such as durability and
permeability may in fact be more important.
• Strength usually gives an overall picture of the quality
of concrete because strength is directly related to the
structure of the hydrated cement paste.
• Strength of concrete could be defined as the ultimate load
that causes failure (or is its resistance to rupture) and its units
are force units divided by area (N/mm2).
Strength of Concrete
 Strength of Concrete
• Characteristic strength - Compressive, Tensile and Flexure
strength
• Modulus of Elasticity THE THREE S-WORDS

• Creep and shrinkage of concrete Stress: a weight or load applied

to the concrete (in N)
Strength: the concrete’s ability
to carry the weight or load (in
N per square mm)

Strain: how much the concrete

stretches or compresses
(deforms) when carrying a
load (in inches per mm)
 Fracture and Failure
• Concrete specimens subjected to any state of stress can
support loads of up to 40–60% of ultimate without any
apparent signs of distress.
•Below this level, any sustained load results in creep
strain which is proportional to the applied stress and can be
defined in terms of specific creep (i.e. creep strain per unit
stress)
•As the load is increased above this level, soft but
distinct noises of internal disruption can be heard until,
at about 70– 90% of ultimate, small fissures or cracks appear
on the surface.
•At ultimate load and beyond; the specimens are
increasingly disrupted and eventually fractured into a
large number of separate pieces.
Fracture and Failure
The stages of cracking (fracture) in concrete
 Types of Concrete Strength
• Compressive Strength
• Tensile Strength
• Shear Strength
• Bond Strength
• Impact Strength
• Fatigue Strength
 Compressive Strength
• The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the
strength of 28 days old specimens tested under monotonic
uniaxial compressive load.
• Testing of cylindrical samples with 15 cm diameter and 30
cm height is standard.
• Cube specimens of 15 cm × 15cm × 15 cm are also being
used.
• Normally, the compressive strength of concrete is
determined by testing, and the tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity are expressed in terms of the
compressive strength.
Compressive Strength
 Compressive Strength
• There are three failure modes for cylinders.
• Under axial compression concrete fails in shear.
• The separation of the specimen into columnar pieces by
what is known as splitting or columnar fracture.
• Combination of shear and splitting failure.
 Compressive Strength
• The compressive strength of concrete is defined as
the strength of 28 days old specimens tested under
monotonic uniaxial compressive load.
• Testing of cylindrical samples with 15 cm diameter and 30
cm height is standard.
• Cube specimens of 15 cm × 15 cm × 15 cm are also being
used
• Normally, the compressive strength of concrete is
determined by testing, and the tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity are expressed in terms of the compressive
strength.
Compressive Strength
 Tensile Strength of Concrete
• The tensile strength of concrete is much lower than
the compressive strength, largely because of the ease with
which cracks can propagate under tensile loads
• The tensile strength of concrete is measured in three
ways: direct tension, splitting tension, and flexural tension
 Tensile Strength of Concrete
• It is difficult to test concrete in direct (uniaxial)
tension because of the problem of gripping the
specimen satisfactorily and because there must be no
eccentricity of the applied load. Therefore, direct
tensile test is not standardized and rarely used
• Modulus of rupture test and splitting test are
commonly used to determine the tensile strength of
concrete
 Tensile Strength of Concrete
• Direct-Tension Test:
• The most direct way of measuring the tensile
strength.
• Not a practical test.
 Tensile Strength of Concrete
• Split-Cylinder Test:
Tensile Strength of Concrete
Split Cylinder Test
 Tensile Strength of Concrete
Modulus of Rupture Test:
Four-point bending (two-point loading)
Three-point bending (third point loading)
 Relationship Between Compressive and
Tensile Strength of Concrete
• Tensile strength of concrete is proportional to the square-
root of the compressive strength.
• The proportionality constant depends on many factors,
such as the concrete strength and the test method used to
determine the tensile strength.
• The following relations can be used as a rule of thumb:
 Concrete Strength
Shear Strength
Shear strength of concrete is taken approximately equal to 20
% its compressive strength
Bond Strength
•The strength of bond between steel reinforcement and
concrete is called as bond strength of concrete
•Bond strength develops primarily due to friction and
adhesion between steel reinforcement and concrete
•In general, bond strength is approximately proportional to
compressive strength of concrete up to about 20 MPa
Shear Strength
Bond Strength
 Concrete Strength
Impact Strength
Impact strength of concrete is of importance in
driving concrete piles, in foundations for machines exerting
impulsive loading, and also when accidental impact is possible,
e.g. when handling precast concrete members
•There is no unique relation between impact strength another
strengths of concrete.
•However, some researchers have found that impact is
related to the compressive strength, and it has been
suggested that the impact strength varies from 0.50 to
0.75 of the compressive cube strength
 Concrete Strength

Fatigue Strength
The strength of concrete against cyclic or repeated
loading is called as its fatigue strength
Factors affecting strength of concrete
• Water/cement ratio and degree of compaction
• Ratio of cement to aggregate

Grading, surface texture, shape, Sstrength andstiffness of

aggregate particles
Maximum size of aggregate.
 Water/cement ratio and degree of
compaction
• Strength of concrete primarily depends upon the
strength of cement paste.
• The strength of cement paste depends upon the
dilution of paste or in other words, the strength of paste
increases with cement content and decreases with air and water
content.
• In 1918; Abrams’ law states that “assuming full
compaction, and at a given age and normal
temperature, strength of concrete can be taken to be
inversely proportional to the water/cement ratio”
 Abrams’ law

where:
•A, B
•w/c is the mass ratio of water to
cement
 Water/cement ratio and degree of
compaction

Water/Cement Ratio:
Typically: 0.35 – 0.45
Smaller w/c ratio → stronger concrete
 Gel/Space Ratio
• Since concrete is a brittle material, its porosity
primarily governs its strength. The compressive strength is
found to be severely decreasing with increase in the porosity.
• The porosity of concrete which governs the strength
of concrete is affected by the gel/space ratio in concrete.
• The gel/space ratio is the ratio of the solid products of
hydration to the space available for these hydration products.
• A higher gel/space ratio reduces the porosity and
therefore increases the strength of concrete.
 Gel/Space Ratio
The gel/space ratio, which
governs the porosity
of concrete affecting
its strength, is affected by
the water/cement ratio of
concrete
A higher water/cement
ratio decreases the
gel/space ratio increasing
the porosity thereby
decreasing the strength of
concrete.
 Influence of Aggregate/Cement Ratio
• The aggregate/cement ratio, is only a secondary factor in the
strength of concrete but it has been found that , for a constant
water/cement ratio, a leaner mix leads to a higher strength.

• Some water may be absorbed by the aggregate: a larger amount

of aggregate absorbs a greater quantity of water, the effective
water/cement ratio being thus reduced.
• A higher aggregate content would lead to lower shrinkage and lower
bleeding, and therefore to less damage to the bond between thee
aggregate and the cement paste

• As a result, in a leaner mix, the voids form a smaller fraction off the
total volume of concrete, and it is these voids that have
an adverse effect on strength
Influence of Aggregate/Cement Ratio
 Effect of Maximum size of Aggregate
• The larger the aggregate the lower is the total surface
area and, therefore, the lower is the requirement of water
for the given workability.
• The use of larger size aggregate did not contribute to
higher strength as expected from the theoretical
considerations due to the following reasons.
• The larger maximum size aggregate gives lower surface
area for developments of gel bonds which is responsible
for the lower strength of the concrete.
• Secondly bigger aggregate size causes a more heterogeneity
in the concrete which will prevent the uniform distribution
of load when stressed.
 Effect of Maximum size of Aggregate

• When large size aggregate is used, due to internal

bleeding, the transition zone will become much
weaker due to the development of micro cracks which
result in lower compressive strength.
Effect of Maximum size of Aggregate
 Age of Concrete
• With an increase in age, the degree of hydration
generally increases the gel/space ratio so that strength
increases
• Increase in the strength of concrete (at same w/c ratio)
with increase in early age (from 1 to 28 days) of concrete.
Age of Concrete
 Influence of Properties of Coarse
Aggregate
• The relation between the flexural and compressive strengths
depends on the type of coarse aggregate because the properties
of aggregate, especially its shape and surface texture, affect the
ultimate strength in compression very much less than the strength in
tension or the cracking load in compression.

• In experimental concrete, entirely smooth coarse aggregate led to a

lower compressive strength, typically by 10 per cent, than when
roughened.

• The influence of the type of coarse aggregate on the strength of

concrete varies in magnitude and depends on the water/cement
ratio of the mix.
Influence of Properties of Coarse Aggregate
For water/cement ratios below 0.4, the use of
crushed aggregate has resulted in strengths up to 38 per
cent higher than when gravel is used.
With an increase in the water/cement ratio to 0.5 ,
influence the of aggregate falls off, presumably because
strength the of the hydrated cement paste itself
becomes
paramount and, at a water/cement ratio of 0.65, no
difference in the strengths of concretes made with crushed
rock and gravel has observed.
 Influence of Temperature on Strength
• The rise in the curing temperature speeds up the
chemical reactions of hydration and thus affects
beneficially the early strength of concrete without any
ill-effects on the later strength.
• Rapid initial hydration appears to form products of a
poorer physical structure, probably more porous, so that a
proportion of the pores will always remain unfilled.
• The gel//space ratio rule that this will lead to a lower
strength compared with a less porous, though slowly
hydrating, cement paste in which a high gel//space ratio
will eventually be reached.
 Fatigue Strength of Concrete

• Modulus of Elasticity,
• Creep
• Shrinkage of concrete
 Stress-Strain Plot of Concrete
• At stress below 30% of ultimate strength, the transition
zone cracks remain stable. The stress-strain plot remains
linear.
• At stress between 30% and 50% of ultimate strength,
the transition zone micro-cracks begin to increase in length,
width and numbers. The stress-strain plot becomes non-linear.
• At 50 to 60% of the ultimate stress, cracks begin to
form in the matrix. With further increase to about 75% of the
ultimate stress, the cracks in the transition become unstable,
and crack propagation in the matrix will increase. The stress-
strain curve bends towards the horizontal.
 Stress-Strain Plot of Concrete
• At 75 to 80% of the ultimate stress, the stress reaches
a critical stress level for spontaneous crack growth
under a sustained stress. Cracks propagate rapidly in both
the matrix and the transition zone. Failure occurs when
the cracks join together and become continuous.

Concrete is not a truly

elastic material, as evident
from the nonlinear stress-
strain curve for concrete,
shown in the fig
 Stress-Strain Plot of Concrete
• The “initial tangent modulus” is given by the slope of
a line drawn tangent to the stress-strain curve at the origin
• The “tangent modulus” is given by the slope of a line
drawn tangent to the stress-strain curve at any point on the
curve
• The “secant modulus” is given by the slope of a line
drawn from the origin to a point on the curve
corresponding to a 40% stress of the failure stress
• The “secant modulus” is given by the slope of a line
drawn from the origin to a point on the curve
corresponding to a 40% stress of the failure stress
Stress-Strain Plot of Concrete
 Determination of modulus of elasticity of
Concrete
• Testing of cube or cylinder in uni-axial compression test.
• Measure load and the corresponding deformation as the
load is increased. Draw the stress strain curve.
• Strain =Dial gauge reading/gauge length = dl/L
• Stress = Load/Cross sectional area= P/A
• Use Compressometer and Extensometer to measure
deformations. Draw stress strain diagram and determine
the required modulus.
• Deflection: E can be determined from testing of beam also.
Determination of Modulus of
Elasticity
 Determination of modulus of elasticity
• The test uses a 150 X 300 mm cylindrical specimen, which
is loaded in compression. A compress meter is used to
measure the longitudinal strains, and an extensometer is used
to measure the transverse strains on the specimen.
• The chord modulus (E) is calculated as:

 where S2 = stress corresponding to 40% of ultimate strength

 S1 = stress corresponding to a strain of 50 X 10-6

 Ε2 = longitudinal strain produced by stress S2

 Poisson’s ratio (Static Method)
• When a material is compressed in one direction, it
usually tends to expand in the other two directions
perpendicular to the direction of compression. This
phenomenon is called the Poisson effect.
• The Poisson ratio is the ratio of the fraction (or percent)
of expansion divided by the fraction (or percent) of
compression, for small values of these changes. μ = 0.15 - 0.20
– Actual value to be found from strain measurements on
concrete cylinder using extensometer.

where εt2,εt1= transverse strains produced by S2& S1,

respectively
 Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and
Strength
• Modulus of elasticity of concrete increases approximately
with the square root of the strength. The IS 456 of 2000
gives the Modulus of elasticity as
 Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity of
Concrete

• Effects of moisture condition

• Specimens tested in dry condition show about 15%
decrease in elastic modulus as compared to the wet
specimens. This is explained by the fact that drying
produces more micro-cracks in the transition zone, which
affects the stress-strain behavior of the concrete.
• This is opposite to its effects on compressive strength.
The compressive strength is increased by about 15%
when tested dry as compared with the wet specimens
 Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity of
Concrete
• Effects of Aggregate properties
• Porosity of aggregate has the most effect on the
elastic modulus of concrete. An aggregates with a low
porosity has a high modulus of elasticity.
• The elastic modulus of concrete is affected by the
volume fraction of the aggregate as well as the elastic
modulus of the aggregate.
 Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity of
Concrete

• Effects of cement matrix

• The lower the porosity of the cement paste, the

higher the elastic modulus of the cement paste.

• The higher the elastic modulus of the cement paste, the higher the
elastic modulus of the concrete.

• Effects of transition zone

• The void spaces and and the micro cracks in the transition play a major
role in affecting the stress-strain behavior of concrete.

• The transition zone characteristics affect the elastic modulus more than
it affects the compressive strength of concrete.
 Creep
The ability of concrete to creep imparts a degree of ductility
to concrete that enables it to tolerate the normal range of
structural deformations encountered in practice.
Creep provides a structure with the ability to redistribute
excessive stresses.
Without the ability to creep, concrete would simply be too
brittle for use in the majority of structures. However, creep
also may have detrimental effects such as increased deflection
resulting in cracking, loss of prestress, and buckling of
slender columns.
It is therefore important that the designer takes the necessary
steps to allow for creep in the design of concrete structures.
Creep
 Definition
Creep is defined as the increase in strain
(deformation) under a sustained stress (load). When
loaded, concrete experiences an instantaneous elastic
strain, which is recoverable. In addition, an inelastic
creep strain takes place that is only partially
recoverable
 Creep
Test methods
Creep is usually determined by measuring the
change in strain with time of a specimen subjected to a
constant stress and stored under appropriate conditions.
Creep
 Factors Influencing Creep
Factors Influencing creep
Creep of concrete is load induced, and is influenced by factors
associated with the application of load and the ability of the
concrete to withstand the load.
The potential of the concrete to creep is determined by mix
materials and proportions of the concrete. The cement paste
creeps, and the role of the aggregate is to:
 Stress Strain Ratio
Creep is linearly proportional to the stress: strength
 Cement Paste Content
Cement paste content Hardened Concrete
A 1% increase in cement paste by volume will result in
approximately a 5% increase in creep. This is applicable for
concretes with a cement paste volume of 28% to 40%.

The cement paste volume is influenced by the aggregate

content of the mix: the greater the aggregate content, the lower
the cement paste content
 Cement Type
Cement Type
The type of cement influences the strength
development of concrete. A high stress : strain ratio
could potentially result if the concrete is loaded at an
early age and the cement has a slow rate of strength
development.
 Durability
The durability of a structure may be defined
as the time for which the structure can fulfill
the function for which it was designed and constructed.
 Durability
• Defined as its resistance to deterioration
processes that may occur as a result of interaction
with its environment (external) or between the
constituent materials or their reaction with
contaminants present (internal).
• Ability to with stand the damaging effects of the
environment over a long period of time.
• The absence of durability maybe caused either by
the environment to which the concrete is exposed
i.e. external or internal causes.
 Factors Influencing Durability
The following factors are of equal importance in
influencing the durability of a concrete structure:
• The achievement of structural durability requires
rigorous attention to detail by the designer,
contractor, supervisory engineer and materials
engineer. Even if the highest possible grades of concrete
are supplied, the structure will only be durable if good
practice prevails in all phases of the building project.
 Factors Influencing Durability
• To accurately predict cracking, concrete properties such as
shrinkage creep are considered
• Member Shapes complicating concrete compaction and
thin concrete section are avoided
• Ponding of water is prevented, Rain and sea water drained
away from structure.
• No ingress of water can occur into joints.
• Correct curing time and methods are specified
Durability
 Durability is Achieved By
• Well Compacted Concrete
• Good workmanship reduced porosity
• Use of aluminosulphate resisting cement ,
Portland blast furnace slag, or Portland
pozzolana cement.
• Sufficient cover over reinforcement
• Use of low water cement Ratio
 Shrinkage

Shrinkage cracks in concrete occur due to change in

moisture of concrete. Most of the building materials
like concrete, mortar, burnt clay bricks are porous in
their structure in the form of inter-molecular space.
They expand when they absorb the moisture and
shrink when they dry. This is the main cause the
concrete shrinks on drying. Shrinkage of concrete is
an irreversible process.
Shrinkage
 Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage can become problematic when
doing any type of construction, but especially when
dealing with floors. Concrete shrinkage is the
contracting of the concrete due to the water evaporating
from the mixture. This evaporation will cause the
concrete to weaken. This can lead to cracks, internal
warping and external deflection
Shrinkage
 Shrinkage
Types of Concrete Shrinkage
There are numerous types of concrete shrinkage
including plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage,
autogenous shrinkage, and carbonation shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage happens soon after the concrete is
poured in the forms. The water evaporates and
results in a reduction of volume, this causes the
concrete on the surface to collapse. It can be reduced by
covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting
immediately after it is poured.
Plastic Shrinkage
 Shrinkage
Drying shrinkage is the ever lasting process for concrete within
drying conditions. The loss of water within the gel pores of the
concrete is what causes the concrete to shrink.
The finer the gel within the pores, the more shrinkage there is.
Autogenous shrinkage is most prevalent within the concrete in
the interior of a dam. When the temperature is constant
shrinkage may occur, especially when there is no moisture
movement
Carbonation shrinkage is where carbon dioxide penetrates
beyond the surface of the concrete. This also depends on the
moisture content and the humidity levels. Carbonation
shrinkage is caused by the disbanding of calcium hydroxide
crystals and the evidence of calcium carbonate
Shrinkage
 Shrinkage
Factors Affecting Shrinkage
There are so many factors that affect the shrinkage of concrete.
The most important factor is the drying condition or the
humidity in the atmosphere. No shrinkage will occur if the
concrete is placed in one hundred percent relative humidity.
The shrinkage rate will decrease rapidly with time. It has
been documented that fourteen to thirty-four percent of the
twenty year shrinkage will occur within two weeks of it being
poured. Within one year of the concrete being poured, shrinkage
will be about sixty-six to eighty-five percent of the twenty year
shrinkage
 Shrinkage
The water to cement ratio will influence the
amount of shrinkage that occurs.
The concrete’s richness also affects the
shrinkage. The process of swelling and then
drying affects the concrete’s integrity and the
shrinkage.
 Shrinkage
Factors affecting shrinkage are:
1. Aggregate -Concrete with higher aggregate
content exhibits smaller shrinkage. Concrete with
aggregates of higher modulus of elasticity or of
rougher surfaces is more resistant to the shrinkage
process.
2. Water-cement ratio - The higher the W/C ratio
is, the higher the shrinkage. As W/C increases, paste
strength and stiffness decrease; and as water content
increases, shrinkage potential increases.
 Shrinkage
3. Member size - Shrinkage decrease with an
increase in the volume of the concrete member
However, the duration of shrinkage is longer for
larger members since more time is needed for
shrinkage effects to reach the interior regions.
4. Medium ambient conditions - The rate of
shrinkage is lower at higher values of relative
humidity. Shrinkage becomes stabilized at low
temperatures.
 Shrinkage
5. Admixtures - effect varies from admixture to
admixture. Any material which substantially changes
the pore structure of the paste will affect the
shrinkage characteristics of the concrete. In general,
as pore refinement is enhanced, shrinkage is increased.
 Permeability
• Concrete has a tendency to be porous due to the
presence of voids formed during or after placing.
• Penetration by substance may adversely affect
durability e.g. Ca(OH) 2 leaches out.
• Ingress of air and moisture resulting in corrosion.
• Important with regards to water tightness of
• liquid retaining structure.
Permeability
 Permeability

To produce concrete of low permeability, full

compaction & proper curing is essential.
Low permeability is important in increasing
resistant to frost action and chemical attack and
in protecting embedded steel against corrosion.
Permeability
 Permeability
The permeability of cement paste varies with the age
of concrete or with progress of hydration.
•With age, the permeability decreases because gel
gradually fill the original water filled space.
•For the same w/c ratio, the permeability of paste
with coarser cement particles is higher than those with
finer cement.
•In general, the higher the strength of cement paste,
the lower will the permeability.
Permeability
 Permeability
Factors influencing permeability are:
i. W/C Ratio
ii. Curing
iii. Method of compaction
iv. Workability
v. Soundness & porosity of the aggregate
vi. Age (permeability decrease with age)
vii. Grading of aggregate
viii.Type of structure
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