ELC 2110

Electronic Devices & Circuits

Course No : ELC 2110

Credits : 4
Course Category : Departmental Core
Pre-requisite(s) : ELA1110 (Principle of Electronics Engineering)
Contact Hours (L-T-P) : 3-1-0
Type of Course : Theory
 Syllabus
Unit I: Semiconductors and PN junction
Energy bands and charge carriers; Diffusion and Drift Current; PN Junction: Barrier Potential,
Energy Band Diagram, Diode Equation, Charge Storage, Recovery Time, Depletion and
Diffusion Capacitances, Special Purpose Diodes: Schottky Diode, LED and Photodiode.
Unit II: Bipolar Junction Transistor
Minority Carrier Profile, Current Equation, Base Width Modulation, Temperature Effects;
Biasing and Bias Stability; Small signal models of BJT; Analysis of BJT Configurations: CE, CE
with degeneration, CC, and CB with passive loads.
Unit III MOSFET
Current Equation, Channel Length Modulation, Oxide Capacitance, MOS Resistor; Biasing and
Bias Stability; Small signal models of MOSFET; Analysis of MOSFET Configurations: CS, CS
with degeneration, CD, and CG with passive loads.
Unit IV: Frequency Response and basic I. C. Amplifiers
Classification of amplifiers; Frequency response, High frequency models of BJT and MOSFET,
Frequency response of CE, CS, RC coupled amplifiers; Amplifiers with current source load;
Cascode amplifiers.
 Books
1. A. S. Sedra, K. C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Oxford Univ Press, 2016.
2. J. Millman, C.Halkias and Chetan D. Parikh, Integrated Electronics, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.
3. Donald A. Neaman, Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3e, Tata McGraw Hill, 2017.
4. Behzad Razavi. Fundamentals of microelectronics. Wiley, 2017.
 Online Resources

Video lectures by Professor Behzad Razavi

Useful links to Electronic Circuits I lectures by Professor Behzad razavi:

1. Web page link: click here
2. You Tube link: click here
 Unit-I
Semiconductors and PN Junction
 Introduction
 Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the
emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter.(wikipedia)
 Electronics is the science and technology of the passage of charged particles in a gas or
vacuum or semiconductor.
 Before electronic Engineering came into existence, electrical engineering flourished.
 Electrical engineering mainly deals with motion of electrons in metals only, whereas electronic
Engineering deals with motion of charged particles (electrons and holes) in metals,
semiconductors and also in vacuum.
 Another difference is, in electrical engineering the voltages and currents are of very high-
kilovolts and Amperes, whereas in electronic Engineering one deals with few volts and mA.
 Yet another difference is, electrical engineering the frequencies of operation are 50 Hertz/ 60
Hertz where is in electronics, it is in KHz, MHz and GHz.
 Electronics versus Microelectronics
 The general area of electronics began about a century ago and proved instrumental in the radio
and radar communications used during the two world wars.
 Early systems incorporated “vacuum tubes,” amplifying devices that operated with the flow of
electrons between plates in a vacuum chamber.
 However, the finite lifetime and the large size of vacuum tubes motivated researchers to seek
an electronic device with better properties.
 The first transistor was invented in the 1940s and rapidly displaced vacuum tubes.
 It exhibited a very long (in principle, infinite) lifetime and occupied a much smaller volume
(e.g., less than 1 cm3 in packaged form) than vacuum tubes did.
 But it was not until 1960s that the field of microelectronics, i.e., the science of integrating
many transistors on one chip, began.
 Early “integrated circuits” (ICs) contained only a handful of devices, but advances in the
technology soon made it possible to dramatically increase the complexity of “microchips”.
 Importance of Silicon

Silicon is one of the most abundant elements in the universe and it is the
second most abundant in the planet after oxygen.
It is also a semiconductor.
Over 80% of the earth’s crust is made of silicate material.
Si has larger bandgap than Ge
Si has more thermal stability
Si has very good natural oxide
Si has lower reveres saturation current
Contd…
SiO2 is a very good insulator (Resistivity > 120 Ω-cm, Energy gap ~ 9eV, High
breakdown strength >10MV/cm)
It is a good masking agent. It can be removed very easily by using HF acid.
It can be used for electrical isolation.
Metal layer are separated by SiO2.
It used for device isolation and field oxide.
The intrinsic resistivity of silicon is about 230,000 Ω-cm compared to Ge (47 Ω-
cm)
Contd…
 Si is available in 3 form:
 Amorphous silicon (poor mobility<1)
 Polycrystalline silicon
 Single crystalline silicon (it has perfect layer and very costly )
 The standard technology stages for making chips

1. Reduction of sand to metallurgical-grade silicon.

2. Purification of MG-Si to semiconductor or electronic grade silicon.

3. Conversion of semiconductor grade silicon to single crystal silicon wafers.

4. Processing of single-crystal silicon wafer into chips.

 Silicon Dioxide Properties
 The melting point of silicon dioxide is very high due to its tetrahedral structure.
 The strong silicon-oxygen covalent bonds get broken at very high temperatures, close to
1700 °C.
 Also, silicon dioxide is very hard and rigid, and this is due to the strong covalent bond that
exists between silicon and oxygen.
 Due to the absence of free electrons, silicon dioxide acts as an insulator.
 It is insoluble in water and in all organic solvents.
 But it is soluble in alkalis and hydrofluoric acid.
 It reacts with very few substances.
Contd…
 Thermal SiO2 is amorphous.
 Weight Density = 2.20 gm/cm3
 Molecular Density = 2.3×1022 molecules/cm3
 Crystalline SiO2 [Quartz] = 2.65 gm/cm3
 Excellent Electrical Insulator
Resistivity > 1×1020 ohm-cm Energy Gap ~ 9 eV
 High Breakdown Electric Field > 10MV/cm
 Stable and Reproducible Si/SiO2 Interface
 Conformal oxide growth on exposed Si surface
Contd…
 SiO2 is a good diffusion mask for common dopants
Dsio2 << Dsi e.g. B, P, As, Sb.

 Very good etching selectivity between Si and SiO2.

 Silicon Dioxide Applications
 Silicon Dioxide is used in semiconductor fabrication especially for MOS technology.
 In comparison to other materials which suffer from one or more problem, SiO2 offers a lot of
desired characteristics and advantages. Some of the important roles of SiO2 are:
 Mask against implantation or diffusion of dopant into Silicon
 Surface passivation
 Device isolation
 Component in MOS structures (gate oxides)
 Electrical isolation of multi-level metallization systems
 High thermal conductivity
 Basic Physics of Semiconductors
 Recall from basic chemistry that the electrons in an atom orbit the nucleus in different
“shells.”
 The atom’s chemical activity is determined by the electrons in the outermost shell,
called “valence” electrons, and how complete this shell is.
 The atoms that are having approximately four valence electrons fall somewhere between inert
gases and highly volatile elements, possibly displaying interesting chemical and physical
properties.
Contd…
Covalent Bonds
 A silicon atom residing in isolation contains four valence electrons requiring another four to
complete its outermost shell.
 If processed properly, the silicon material can form a “crystal” wherein each atom is surrounded
by exactly four others.
 As a result, each atom shares one valence electron with its neighbours, thereby completing its
own shell and those of the neighbours.
 The “bond” thus formed between atoms is called a “covalent bond” to emphasize the sharing of
valence electrons.
At absolute zero temperature, the valence
electrons are confined to their respective covalent
bonds, refusing to move freely. In other words,
the silicon crystal behaves as an insulator for T = 0K.
However, at higher temperatures, electrons gain
thermal energy, occasionally breaking away from the
bonds and acting as free charge
carriers
 Holes
 When freed from a covalent bond, an electron leaves a “void” behind because the bond
is now incomplete. Called a “hole,” such a void can readily absorb a free electron if one
becomes available. Thus, we say an “electron-hole pair” is generated when an electron is freed,
and an “electron-hole recombination” occurs when an electron “falls” into a hole.

Movement of electron through crystal

 Suppose covalent bond number 1 contains a hole after losing an electron some time
before t = t1. At t = t2, an electron breaks away from bond number 2 and recombines with the
hole in bond number 1. Similarly, at t = t3, an electron leaves bond number 3 and falls into the
hole in bond number 2. Looking at the three “snapshots,” we can say one electron has traveled
from right to left, or, alternatively, one hole has moved from left to right. This view of current
flow by holes proves extremely useful in the analysis of semiconductor devices.
 Bandgap Energy

 A minimum energy is required to dislodge an electron from a covalent bond. Called the
“bandgap energy” and denoted by Eg, this minimum is a fundamental property of the material.
For silicon, Eg = 1.12eV
Contd…

 The density (or concentration) of electrons, i.e., the number of electrons per unit volume, ni, for
silicon:

𝑛𝑖 𝑇 = 300𝐾 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑚3

 Calculate ni for T = 300 K and T = 700 K
𝑛𝑖 𝑇 = 700𝐾 = 3.4 × 1016 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑚3
𝐸𝑔 𝑇 = 1.21 − 3.6 × 10−4 (𝑇) For Silicon

𝐸𝑔 𝑇 = 0.785 − 2.2 × 10−4 (𝑇) For Germanium

Where T is in Kelvin
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
 The “pure” silicon an example of “intrinsic semiconductors,” suffering from a very high
resistance.
 Fortunately, it is possible to modify the resistivity of silicon by replacing some of the atoms in
the crystal with atoms of another material.
 In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron density, n (= ni), is equal to the hole density, p. Thus,

 What happens if some P atoms are introduced in a silicon crystal?

Contd…
 Each P atom shares four electrons with the neighboring silicon atoms, leaving the fifth electron
“unattached.” This electron is free to move, serving as a charge carrier.
 The controlled addition of an “impurity” such as phosphorus to an intrinsic semiconductor
is called “doping,”
 Phosphorus itself a “dopant.” Providing many more free electrons than in the intrinsic state, the
doped silicon crystal is now called “extrinsic,” more specifically, an “n-type” semiconductor to
emphasize the abundance of free electrons.
 If an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a density of ND( >>ni) donor atoms per cubic
centimeter, then the mobile charge densities are given by
Contd…
 If Silicon doped with an atom that provides an insufficient number of electrons, then we may
obtain many incomplete covalent bonds. E.g. a boron (B) atom—with three valence electrons
can form only three complete covalent bonds in a silicon crystal.

 As a result, the fourth bond contains a hole, ready to absorb a free electron.
 The doped silicon crystal is now called a “p-type” semiconductor
 The boron atom is called an “acceptor” dopant.
Contd…

 For a density of NA (>>ni) acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter:

 Since typical doping densities fall in the range of 1015to 1018 atoms/cm3
Summary of charge carriers in silicon
 Transport of Carriers
Drift
 We know from basic physics and Ohm’s law that a material can conduct current in response to
a potential difference and hence an electric field.
 The field accelerates the charge carriers in the material, forcing some to flow from one end to
the other. Movement of charge carriers due to an electric field is called “drift.”

Drift in semiconductors

 Semiconductors behave in a similar manner. As shown in figure, the charge carriers are
accelerated by the field and accidentally collide with the atoms in the crystal, eventually
reaching the other end and flowing into the battery.
Contd…
 The acceleration due to the field and the collision with the crystal counteract, leading to a
constant velocity for the carriers.
 The velocity, v, to be proportional to the electric field strength, E:

 where μ is called the “mobility” and usually expressed in cm2/(Vs). For example in silicon,
the mobility of electrons, μn = 1350 cm2/(Vs) and that of holes, μp= 480 cm2/(Vs).
 Of course, since electrons move in a direction opposite to the electric field, we must express
the velocity vector as
For holes
Contd…

Current flow in terms of charge density.

 where v.W.h represents the volume, n.q denotes the charge density in coulombs, and the
negative sign accounts for the fact that electrons carry negative charge.
Contd…
Let us now reduce to a more convenient form. Since for electrons, v = −μnE, and since W.h is
the cross section area of the bar, we write

where Jn denotes the “current density,” i.e., the current passing through a unit cross section
area, and is expressed in A/cm2
In the presence of both electrons and holes, above equation is modified to
or 𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜎𝐸 Resistivity ρ is given by
1
𝜎 = 𝑞 𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝜌=
𝜎
Online resource.
𝜎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
S.No Title Link Duration
1. Razavi Electronics 1, Lec 2. Doping, Drift Click here Complete 1 hour
Problem: Find the resistivity of (a) intrinsic silicon and (b) p-type silicon with NA = 1016/cm3. Use
ni = 1.5 ×1010/cm3, and assume that for intrinsic silicon μn = 1350 cm2/Vs and μp = 480 cm2/Vs,
and for the doped silicon μn = 1110 cm2/Vs and μp = 400 cm2/Vs. (Note that doping results in
reduced carrier mobilities.)
Solution
(a) For intrinsic silicon, p = n = ni = 1.5×1010/cm3
1
Thus, 𝜌 =
𝑞 𝑝𝜇𝑝 +𝑛𝜇𝑛

𝜌 = 2.28 × 105 Ω. 𝑐𝑚

(b) For the p-type silicon

pp ≈ NA = 1016/cm3

𝜌 = 1.56 Ω. 𝑐𝑚

Note: Observe that the resistivity of the p-type silicon is determined almost entirely by the doping
concentration and reduces its resistivity.
 Velocity Saturation
 We have thus far assumed that the mobility of carriers in semiconductors is independent of the
electric field and the velocity rises linearly with E according to v = μE.
 In reality, if the electric field approaches sufficiently high levels, v no longer follows E linearly.
 This is because the carriers collide with the lattice so frequently and the time between the
collisions is so short that they cannot accelerate much.
 As a result, v varies “sublinearly” at high electric fields, eventually reaching a saturated level,
vsat as shown in figure. Called “velocity saturation,” this effect manifests itself in some modern
transistors, limiting the performance of circuits.
Final Expression

where µ0 is the “low-field” mobility

Contd…

Figure: Carrier drift velocity

versus electric field for
high-purity silicon,
germanium, and gallium
arsenide

 The drift velocity of electrons in silicon, for example, saturates at approximately 107 cm/s at an
electric field of approximately 30 kV/cm.
 If the drift velocity of a charge carrier saturates, then the drift current density also saturates and
becomes independent of the applied electric field.
 The low-field electron mobility in gallium arsenide is much larger than in silicon
approximately 8500 cm2/Vs.
 Diffusion
 Suppose a drop of ink falls into a glass of water. Introducing a high local concentration of ink
molecules, the drop begins to “diffuse,” that is, the ink molecules tend to flow from a region of
high concentration to regions of low concentration. This mechanism is called “diffusion.”

Figure: Diffusion in a semiconductor.

 A similar phenomenon occurs if charge carriers are “dropped” (injected) into a semiconductor
so as to create a nonuniform density.
 Even in the absence of an electric field, the carriers move toward regions of low concentration,
thereby carrying an electric current so long as the nonuniformity is sustained.
 Diffusion is therefore distinctly different from drift.
Contd…
 A source on the left continues to inject charge carriers into the semiconductor, a nonuniform
charge profile is created along the x-axis, and the carriers continue to “roll down” the profile.

𝑑𝑛
𝐽∝
𝑑𝑥
 where n denotes the carrier concentration at a given point along the x-axis.
 We call dn/dx the concentration “gradient” with respect to x, assuming current flow only in the
x direction.
 As with the convention used for the drift current, obtaining the current density as

where Dn is a proportionality factor

called the “diffusion constant” and
expressed in cm2/s. For example, in
intrinsic silicon, Dn = 34 cm2/s (for
electrons), and Dp = 12 cm2/s (for
holes).
Contd…
Einstein Relation
Our study of drift and diffusion has introduced a factor for each: μn (or μp) and Dn (or Dp),
respectively. It can be proved that μ and D are related as:

𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝
= = 𝑉𝑇
𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝
𝑘𝑇
Note that 𝑉𝑇 = ≈ 26 𝑚𝑉 at T = 300 K. The parameter VT is known as the thermal voltage.
𝑞

𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K

For more details go to the following online resource.

S.No Title Link Duration
1. Razavi Electronics 1, Lec 3. Diffusion, Intro. to PN Junction Click here Watch upto 34 minutes
 Summary of drift and diffusion mechanisms

𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝
Einstein Relation = = 𝑉𝑇
𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝
 pn Junction
 Significance of the pn junction.
 The device finds application in many electronic systems, e.g., in adaptors that charge the
batteries of cellphones.
 The pn junction is among the simplest semiconductor devices, thus providing a good
entry point into the study of the operation of such complex structures as transistors.
 The pn junction also serves as part of transistors.

pn junction
 pn Junction in Equilibrium
 The pn junction with no external connections, i.e., the terminals are open and no voltage is
applied across the device. The junction is in “equilibrium.”

 The sharp concentration gradient for both electrons and holes across the junction leads to two
large diffusion currents: electrons flow from the n side to the p side, and holes flow in the
opposite direction.
 Formation of depletion region
 For every electron that departs from the n side, a positive ion is left behind, i.e., the junction
evolves with time as conceptually shown in figure below.

 In this illustration, the junction is suddenly formed at t = 0, and the diffusion currents continue
to expose more ions as time progresses.
 Consequently, the immediate vicinity of the junction is depleted of free carriers and hence
called the “depletion region/space charge region/transition region.”
 Electric field in a pn junction.
 From basic physics that a particle or object carrying a net (nonzero) charge creates an electric
field around it.
 Thus, with the formation of the depletion region, an electric field emerges as shown in figure
below

 The field tends to force positive charge flow from left to right whereas the concentration
gradients necessitate the flow of holes from right to left (and electrons from left to right).
 The junction reaches equilibrium once the electric field is strong enough to completely stop the
diffusion currents.
 Alternatively, we can say, in equilibrium, the drift currents resulting from the electric field
exactly cancel the diffusion currents due to the gradients.
Contd…
 Under equilibrium, the drift and diffusion currents are equal, i.e.

 If the number of the electrons flowing from the n side to the p side is equal to that of the holes
going from the p side to the n side, then each side of this equation is zero while electrons
continue to accumulate on the p side and holes on the n side.
 Therefore impose the equilibrium condition on each carrier:
 Energy Band diagram of pn junction

Figure: Energy-band diagram of a pn junction in thermal equilibrium.

Contd..
 If we assume that no voltage is applied across the pn junction, then the junction is in thermal
equilibrium—the Fermi energy level is constant throughout the entire system.
 The conduction and valance band energies must bend as we go through the space charge
region, since the relative position of the conduction and valence bands with respect to the
Fermi energy changes between p and n regions.
 Electrons in the conduction band of the n region see a potential barrier in trying to move into
the conduction band of the p region.
 This potential barrier is referred to as the built-in potential barrier and is denoted by V0 or Vbi

 This potential difference across the junction cannot be measured with a voltmeter because
new potential barriers will be formed between the probes and the semiconductor that will
cancel Vbi.
 The potential Vbi maintains equilibrium, so no current is produced by this voltage.
Contd..
 The intrinsic Fermi level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through the junction;
thus, the built-in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between the intrinsic
Fermi levels in the p and n regions, i.e,

where ni and EFi are the intrinsic carrier concentration and the intrinsic Fermi energy, respectively.
Contd..
The potential ∅𝐹𝑛 in the n region can be defined as

Or

Taking the natural log of both sides of above Equation, setting n0 = Nd, and solving for the
potential, we obtain
Contd..
The potential ∅𝐹𝑃 in the p region can be defined as

Or

Finally, the built-in potential barrier for the step junction is:
 Built-in Potential
 The existence of an electric field within the depletion region suggests that the junction may
exhibit a “built-in potential.” Using the following equation we can compute the built in
potential, we know that

or
 Since the electric field E = −dV/dx, and above equation can be written as:
Contd…
where pn and pp are the hole concentrations at x1 and x2, respectively(as shown in figure below) .

Thus,

 The right side represents the voltage difference developed across the depletion region and
will be denoted by V0. Also, from Einstein’s relation, we can replace Dp/μp with kT/q:

𝐾𝑇 𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝
𝑉0 = ln = = 𝑉𝑇
𝑞 𝑝𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝
Contd… P-Type
N-Type

Finally, using above equations for pp and pn yields:

 The built-in potential is developed to oppose the flow of diffusion currents (and is, in fact,
sometimes called the “potential barrier”).
Problem:
A silicon pn junction employs NA = 2 × 1016 cm-3 and ND = 4 × 1016 cm-3. Determine the built-in
potential at room temperature (T = 300 K). 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3

Answer: 𝑉0 = 751.39 𝑚𝑉

Problem:
(a) Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a silicon pn junction at T =300 K for (i) Na = 5× 1015
cm −3 , Nd =1017 cm−3 and (ii) Na= 2×1016 cm −3, Nd =2×1015 cm −3.
(b) Repeat part (a) for a GaAs pn junction. [𝑛𝑖𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠 = 1.79 × 106 𝑐𝑚−3 ]

[Ans. (a) (i) 0.736 V, (ii) 0.671 V; (b) (i) 1.20 V, (ii) 1.14 V]
 Charge Density

For NA > ND For NA >> ND

Figure: The space charge density in a uniformly doped pn junction assuming the abrupt junction
approximation.

Note: The space charge region abruptly ends in the n region at x = + xn and abruptly ends in the p
region at x = − xp.
 Electric Field
The electric field is determined from Poisson’s equation, which, for a one dimensional analysis, is

(1)

where ∅ 𝑥 is the electric potential, E(x) is the electric field, 𝜌(x) is the volume charge density, and
𝜖𝑠 is the permittivity of the semiconductor. The charge densities are

(2)

(3)
Contd…
The electric field in the p region is found by integrating Equation (1). We have

(4)

The constant of integration is determined by setting E = 0 at x =− xp. The electric field in the p
region is then given by

(5)

Similarly for n region, we have

(6)
Contd…
Setting equation 5 and 6 equal to each other at x = 0, gives

(7)

Equation (7) states that the number of negative charges per unit area in the p region is equal to the
number of positive charges per unit area in the n region.
Figure shows a plot of the electric field in the depletion
region. For the uniformly doped pn junction, the E-field is
a linear function of distance through the junction, and the
maximum (magnitude) electric field occurs at the
metallurgical junction (at x = 0). From Eq.(5) or (6), we
can write:
𝑒𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛 𝑒𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑝 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − =−
𝜖𝑠 𝜖𝑠
Figure: Electric field in the space charge region
of a uniformly doped pn junction.
Contd…

V0 or

Figure: Electric potential through the space charge region of a uniformly doped pn junction.
Contd…

Figure (a) A pn junction with the terminals open-

circuited.
(b) Carrier concentrations; note that NA> ND.
(c) The charge stored in both sides of the
depletion region; QJ = Q+ = Q− .
(d) The built-in voltage V0 or Vbi.
 Depletion Layer Width (W)
The total depletion or space charge width W is the sum of the two components, or

The width W of the depletion layer can be shown to be given by

where ∈s is the electrical permittivity of silicon = 11.7𝜖0 = 11.7×8.85×10−14 F/cm. Typically W is

in the range 0.1 μm to 1 μm. The value of xn and xp can be written in terms of W as:
Contd…
The charge stored on either side of the depletion region can be expressed in terms of W as

or

Depletion Layer Width (W) under forward bias Depletion Layer Width (W) under reverse bias

2 ∈𝑠 1 1 2 ∈𝑠 1 1
𝑊= + 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑓 𝑊= + 𝑉0 + 𝑉𝑅
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
Problem: Consider a pn junction in equilibrium at room temperature (T = 300 K) for which the
doping concentrations are NA = 1018/cm3 and ND = 1016/cm3 and the cross-sectional area A = 10−4
cm2. Calculate pp, np, nn, pn, Vo, W, xn, xp , QJ and Emax .Use ni = 1.5×1010/cm3.
Solution

𝑝𝑝 ≅ 𝑁𝐴 = 1018 𝑐𝑚−3 𝑉0 = 0.814 𝑉

𝑛𝑖2 W = 0.327 𝜇𝑚
𝑛𝑝 ≅ = 2.25 × 102 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝐷 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 𝑥𝑛 = 0.324 𝜇𝑚

𝑛𝑖2 𝑥𝑝 = 0.003 𝜇𝑚
𝑝𝑛 ≅ = 2.25 × 104 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝐷
𝑄𝐽 = 5.18 𝑝𝐶

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −50.13 𝐾𝑉/𝑐𝑚

 Energy Band Diagram of pn junction under different bias conditions

Figure: A pn junction and its associated energy-band diagram for (a) zero bias, (b) reverse bias,
and (c) forward bias.
 pn Junction Under Reverse Bias

Figure: pn junction under

reverse bias.

 An external voltage is applied across the device as shown in figure, where the voltage source
makes the n side more positive than the p side. .
 The junction is under “reverse bias” to emphasize the connection of the positive voltage to the
n terminal.
Contd…

Figure: Variation of depletion width and junction capacitance with reverse bias.

 Since under equilibrium, 𝐸is directed from the n side to the p side, VR enhances the field.
 But, a higher electric field can be sustained only if a larger amount of fixed charge is provided,
requiring that more acceptor and donor ions be exposed and, therefore, the depletion region be
widened.
Contd…
 Since the external voltage has strengthened the field, the barrier rises even higher than that in
equilibrium, thus prohibiting the flow of current.
 In other words, the junction carries a negligible current under reverse bias.
 With no current conduction, a reverse-biased pn junction operates as a capacitor.
 Increasing values of VR, revealing that the capacitance of the structure decreases as the two
plates move away from each other.
 The junction therefore displays a voltage-dependent capacitance.

Where Cj0 denotes the capacitance corresponding to zero bias (VR = 0) and V0 is the built in
potential.
Contd…
The value of Cj0 is in turn given by

where 𝜖𝑠𝑖 represents the dielectric constant of silicon and is equal to 11.7 ×8.85 × 10−14 F/cm.

Figure: Junction capacitance under reverse bias.

Problem: A pn junction is doped with NA = 2 × 1016 cm-3 and ND = 9 × 1015 cm-3. Determine
the capacitance of the device with (a) VR = 0 and VR = 1 V.

In microelectronics, we deal with very small devices and may

rewrite this result as
Problem: A cellphone incorporates a 2-GHz oscillator whose frequency is defined by the
resonance frequency of an LC tank (figure below). If the tank capacitance is realized as the pn
junction of previous problem, calculate the change in the oscillation frequency while the reverse
voltage goes from 0 to 2 V. Assume the circuit operates at 2 GHz at a reverse voltage of 0 V, and
the junction area is 2000 μm2.
The resonance frequency is given by the following
expression:

Figure: Variable capacitor used to tune an oscillator.

Using this value along with L = 11.9 nH , we have
 Summary
 A reverse-biased pn junction carries a negligible current but exhibits a voltage-dependent
capacitance and used extensively in cellphones, microprocessors, personal computers, etc
 Another interesting application of reverse-biased diodes is in digital cameras. If light of
sufficient energy is applied to a pn junction, electrons are dislodged from their covalent bonds
and hence electron-hole pairs are created.
 With a reverse bias, the electrons are attracted to the positive battery terminal and the holes to
the negative battery terminal.
 As a result, a current flows through the diode that is proportional to the light intensity.
 Therefore, the pn junction operates as a “photodiode.”
 pn Junction Under Forward Bias
 The pn junction carries a current if the p side is raised to a more positive voltage than the n
side. This condition is called “forward bias.”

Figure: pn junction under forward bias

Contd…
 In forward bias, the external voltage, VF, tends to create a field directed from the p side
toward the n side—opposite to the built-in field that was developed to stop the diffusion
currents.
 VF in fact lowers the potential barrier by weakening the field, thus allowing greater diffusion
currents.
 Diode Current Equation
We know that 𝐾𝑇 𝑝𝑝 This equation can be rewritten as
𝑉0 = ln
𝑞 𝑝𝑛
where the subscript e emphasizes equilibrium conditions [as shown in figure below] and VT = kT/q
is called the “thermal voltage” (≈26 mV at T = 300 K).

Figure: Carrier profiles (a) in equilibrium and (b) under forward bias
Contd…
In forward bias, the potential barrier is lowered by an amount equal to the applied voltage:

where the subscript f denotes forward bias. Since the exponential denominator drops considerably,
we expect pn,f to be much higher than pn,e (it can be proved that pp,f ≈ pp,e ≈ NA).
 In other words, the minority carrier concentration on the p side rises rapidly with the forward
bias voltage while the majority carrier concentration remains relatively constant. This statement
applies to the n side as well.
 The change in the hole concentration on the n side is given as:
Contd…

or

where IS is called the “reverse saturation current” and given by

Where A is the cross section area of the device, and Ln and Lp are electron and hole “diffusion
lengths,” respectively. Diffusion lengths are typically in the range of tens of micrometers.
 Diffusion length is the average length a carrier moves between generation and recombination.
 Semiconductor materials that are heavily doped have greater recombination rates and
consequently, have shorter diffusion lengths.
 The diffusion length is related to the carrier lifetime by the diffusivity according to the
following formula: 𝐿 = 𝐷𝜏
where: L is the diffusion length; D is the diffusivity and τ is the lifetime in seconds.
Problem: Determine IS for the junction with NA = 2 × 1016 cm-3 and ND = 4 × 1016 cm-3 at
T = 300K if A = 100 μm2, Ln = 20 μm, and Lp = 30 μm.

Use q = 1.6 ×10-19C, ni = 1.08 ×1010 electrons/cm3 , Dn = 34 cm2/s, and Dp = 12 cm2/s

02
Marks

Answer: IS = 1.77 × 10−17 A.

Time: 15 minutes
 Majority carrier profiles outside the depletion region.

 The electrons enter the p side and roll down the gradient, they gradually recombine with the
holes, which are abundant in this region.
 Similarly, the holes entering the n side recombine with the electrons. Thus, in the immediate
vicinity of the depletion region, the current consists of mostly minority carriers, but towards the
far contacts, it is primarily comprised of majority Carriers.
 I/V Characteristics
 In forward bias, the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, raising the diffusion
currents substantially.
 In reverse bias, on the other hand, the applied voltage enhances the field, prohibiting current
flow. We hereafter write the junction equation as:

 As VD becomes positive and exceeds several VT, the exponential term grows rapidly and
ID ≈ IS exp(VD/VT).
Contd…

Figure: I/V characteristic of a pn junction.

 In reverse bias, i.e., for negative VD. Then exp(VD/VT) << 1 and

 Note that IS and hence the junction current are proportional to the device cross section area.
 The temperature dependence of the reverse current is that it doubles for every 10°C rise in
temperature.
Contd…
 Two identical devices placed in parallel (as shown in figure) behave as a single junction with
twice the IS.

Figure: Equivalence of parallel devices to a larger device.

For the junction shown in above figure, determine the forward bias current of the composite
device for VD = 300 mV and 800 mV at T = 300 K. IS = 1.77 × 10-17 A for each junction.
Problem: A diode operates in the forward bias region with a typical current level
[i.e., ID ≈ IS exp(VD/VT)]. Suppose we wish to increase the current by a factor of 10. How much
change in VD is required?

Thus, the diode voltage must rise by VT ln 10 ≈ 60 mV (at T = 300 K) to accommodate a

tenfold increase in the current. The device exhibits a 60-mV/decade characteristic, meaning VD
changes by 60 mV for a decade (tenfold) change in ID.
 Reverse Breakdown
 The pn junction carries only a small, relatively constant current in reverse bias.
 However, as the reverse voltage across the device increases, eventually “breakdown” occurs
and a sudden, enormous current is observed. Figure below shows the plots of device I/V
characteristic, displaying this effect.

Figure: Reverse breakdown characteristic.

Contd…

 The breakdown resulting from a high voltage (and hence a high electric field) can occur

in any material.

 The breakdown phenomenon in pn junctions occurs by one of two possible mechanisms:

“Zener effect” and “avalanche effect.”

 Zener Breakdown
 The depletion region in a pn junction contains atoms that have lost an electron or a hole
and, therefore, provide no loosely-connected carriers.
 However, a high electric field in this region may impart enough energy to the remaining
covalent electrons to tear them from their bonds [as shown in figure].

 Once freed, the electrons are accelerated by the field and swept to the n side of the junction.
 This effect occurs at a field strength of about 106 V/cm (1 V/μm).
 In order to create such high fields with reasonable voltages, a narrow depletion region is
required, which requires high doping levels on both sides of the junction . Called the “Zener
effect,” this type of breakdown appears for reverse bias voltages on the order of 3-8 V.
 Avalanche Breakdown
 Junctions with moderate or low doping levels (<1015 cm3) generally exhibit no Zener breakdown. But, as the
reverse bias voltage across such devices increases, an avalanche effect takes place.

 Even though the leakage current is very small, each carrier entering the depletion region experiences a very high
electric field and hence a large acceleration, thus gaining enough energy to break the electrons from their covalent
bonds. Called “impact ionization,” this phenomenon can lead to avalanche: each electron freed by the impact may
itself speed up so much in the field as to collide with another atom with sufficient energy, thereby freeing one
more covalent-bond electron.
 Now, these two electrons may again acquire energy and cause more ionizing collisions, rapidly raising the number
of free carriers.
 Charge Storage and Diode Transients

 The pn junction is typically used as an electrical switch.

 In forward bias, referred to as the on state, a relatively large current can be produced by a small

applied voltage.

 In reverse bias, referred to as the off state, only a very small current will exist.

 Of primary interest in circuit applications is the speed of the pn junction diode in switching

states.
 The Turn-off Transient

Figure: Simple circuit for switching a

diode from forward to reverse bias.

Figure, shows a simple circuit that will switch the applied bias at t = 0. For t <0, the forward-bias
current is
Contd…
 The minority carrier concentrations in the device, for the applied forward voltage VF, are
shown in Figure (a) below.

Figure (a) Steady-state forward-bias minority carrier concentrations;

Contd…

 There is excess minority carrier charge

stored in both the p and n regions of the
diode.
 The excess minority carrier concentrations at
the space charge (depletion layer) edges are
supported by the forward-bias junction
voltage Va.
 When the voltage is switched from the
forward- to the reverse-biased state, the
excess minority carrier concentrations at the
space charge edges can no longer be
supported and they start to decrease, as
shown in Figure (b). Figure (b) minority carrier concentrations at various
times during switching.
Contd…
 The collapse of the minority carrier concentrations at the edges of the space charge region leads
to large concentration gradients and diffusion currents in the reverse-biased direction.
 If we assume, for the moment, that the voltage across the diode junction is small compared
with VR, then the reverse-biased current is limited to approximately

 The junction capacitances do not allow the junction

voltage to change instantaneously.
 This reverse current IR will be approximately constant for
0 < t < ts, where ts is called the “storage time”.
 The storage time is the length of time required for the
minority carrier concentrations at the space charge edge
to reach the thermal-equilibrium values.
 The reverse current is the flow of the stored minority
carrier charge, which is the difference between the
minority carrier concentrations at t = 0− and t = ∞, as Figure: Current characteristic versus time
shown in previous figure (b). during diode switching.
 Reverse Recovery Time
 If the applied voltage should be reversed to establish a
reverse-bias situation, ideally the diode would change
instantaneously from the conduction state to the non
conduction state.
 However, because of the large number of minority carriers
in each material, the diode current will simply reverse as
shown in figure and stay at this measurable level for the
period of time ts (storage time) required for the minority
carriers to return to their majority-carrier state in the
opposite material.
 In essence, the diode will remain in the short-circuit state
with a current Ireverse determined by the network Figure: Defining the reverse
parameters. recovery time.
 Eventually, when this storage phase has passed, the current will be reduced in level to that
associated with the non conduction state.
 This second period of time is denoted by tt (transition interval). The reverse recovery time is
the sum of these two intervals: trr = ts + tt.
 Capacitances of pn Junction
 There are basically two types of capacitance associated with a junction:

(1) the junction capacitance (Cj) due to the dipole in the transition region and

(2) the charge storage capacitance (Cs) or diffusion capacitance (Cd) arising due to charge

storage effects.

 The junction capacitance is dominant under reverse-bias conditions, and the charge storage

capacitance is dominant when the junction is forward biased.

 In many applications of p-n junctions, the capacitance is a limiting factor in the usefulness of

the device.
Contd…

Figure: Transition and diffusion capacitance versus applied bias for a silicon diode
 Diffusion Capacitance (Cd or Cs)
 For a forward biased junction, holes diffuse
from p-side to the n-side.
 Consequently, in the vicinity of the junction on
the n-side, we have a greater hole concentration
than normally exists because of the diffusion as
shown in figure.
 This “excess” hole density can be considered as
charge storage in the neighborhood of the Figure: Steady-state forward-bias minority
junction. carrier concentrations;

 The amount of excess charge is established by the degree of forward bias.

 As we move further from the junction, the excess hole concentration decreases because of
recombination with the majority electrons.
 Similar statements apply to electrons which diffuse into the p-region.
Contd…
 Diffusion capacitance is given by:
𝜏 𝑇 𝐼𝐷
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑉𝑇

Where, 𝜏 𝑇 = mean transit time or it is the average time it takes for a hole/electron injected into
the n/p- region to recombine with a majority electron/hole

𝐼𝐷 = diode current at bias point

𝑉𝑇 = thermal voltage (26mV)

Transition Capacitance (depletion, barrier or space-charge capacitance)
 The element CT, Cdep or Cj, called the deplection, transistion, barrier or space-charge
capacitance, represents the change in charge stored in the depletion region with respect to a
change in junction voltage.
 The increase in the level of reverse bias caused the width of the depletion region (W) to
increase.
 As increased in width of the depletion region (W) is accompanied by additional uncovered ions
in the space-charge region.
 Because positive ions exist on one side of the junction and negative ions on the other, CT is
analogous to a parallel plate capacitor for which

𝜀𝑠 𝐴 𝐶𝑗0 ∈𝑠 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 1
𝐶𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑗 = Or 𝐶𝑗 = where 𝐶𝑗0 =
𝑊𝑑𝑒𝑝 𝑉𝑅 2 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷 𝑉0
1+
𝑉0
 Schottky Barrier Diode
 One of the first practical semiconductor devices used in the early 1900s was the metal–
semiconductor diode. This diode, also called a point contact diode.
 It was made by touching a metallic whisker to an exposed semiconductor surface.
 These metal–semiconductor diodes were not easily reproduced or mechanically reliable and
were replaced by the pn junction in the 1950s.
 However, semiconductor and vacuum technology is now used to fabricate reproducible and
reliable metal–semiconductor contacts.
 It is also called “hot carrier diode” because when the materials are joined, the electrons in the
n-type silicon semiconductor material immediately flow into the adjoining metal, establishing a
heavy flow of majority carriers.
 Since the injected carriers have a very high kinetic energy level compared to the electrons of
the metal, they are commonly called “hot carriers.”
Contd…
 The ideal energy-band diagram for a particular metal
and n-type semiconductor before making contact is
shown in figure.
 The vacuum level is used as a reference level.
 The parameter ∅m is the metal work function
(measured in volts), ∅s is the semiconductor work
function, ∅𝑚 > ∅𝑠 and 𝜒is known as the electron
affinity. (a)
 Before contact, the Fermi level in the semiconductor
was above that in the metal.
 In order for the Fermi level to become a constant
through the system in thermal equilibrium, electrons
from the semiconductor flow into the lower energy
states in the metal.
 Positively charged donor atoms remain in the
semiconductor, creating a space charge region.

Figure: (a) Energy-band diagram of a metal and semi conductor

before contact; (b) ideal energy-band diagram of a metal–n- (b)
semiconductor junction.
Contd…
 The parameter ∅𝐵𝑂 is the ideal barrier height of the semiconductor contact, the potential barrier
seen by electrons in the metal trying to move into the semiconductor. This barrier is known as
the Schottky barrier and is given by

 On the semiconductor side, Vbi is the built-in potential barrier. This barrier, similar to the case
of the pn junction, is the barrier seen by electrons in the conduction band trying to move into
the metal. The built-in potential barrier is given by

 If we apply a positive voltage to the semiconductor with respect to the metal, the
semiconductor-to-metal barrier height increases, while ∅𝐵𝑂 remains constant. This bias
condition is the reverse bias.
 If a positive voltage is applied to the metal with respect to the semiconductor, the
semiconductor-to-metal barrier Vbi is reduced while ∅𝐵𝑂 again remains essentially constant.
 In this situation, electrons can more easily flow from the semiconductor into the metal since
the barrier has been reduced. This bias condition is the forward bias.
Contd…

Figure: Ideal energy-band diagram of a metal–semiconductor junction (a) under reverse bias and (b) under forward
bias.
Contd…
 The current mechanism here, however, is due to the flow of majority carrier electrons.
 In forward bias, the barrier seen by the electrons in the semiconductor is reduced, so majority
carrier electrons flow more easily from the semiconductor into the metal.
 The forward-bias current is in the direction from metal to semiconductor: It is an exponential
function of the forward-bias voltage Va .
 The electric field can be calculated using the following formula:

 This electric field is a linear function of distance, for the uniformly doped semiconductor, and
reaches a peak value at the metal–semiconductor interface.
 Since the E-field is zero inside the metal, a negative surface charge must exist in the metal at
the metal–semiconductor junction.
Contd…
 The space charge region width, W, can be calculated as:

Table 1:Work function of some elements Table 2: Electron affinity of some semiconductors
Problem:
Determine the theoretical barrier height, built-in potential barrier, and maximum electric field in a
metal–semiconductor diode for zero applied bias. Consider a contact between tungsten and n-type
silicon doped to Nd =1016 cm−3 at T = 300 K.
The metal work function for tungsten (W) from Table 1 is ∅𝑚 = 4.55 𝑉and the electron affinity
for silicon from Table 2 is 𝜒 = 4.01 𝑉. The barrier height is then
Solution:
 Characteristics

Figure: Comparison of characterisctics of Schottky and pn junction diode

 Applications
 Its areas of application were first limited to the very high frequency range due to its quick
response time (especially important at high frequencies) and lower noise figure (a quantity of
real importance in high-frequency applications).
 In recent years, however, it is appearing more and more in low-voltage/high-current power
supplies and ac-to-dc converters.
 Other areas of application of the device include radar systems, Schottky TTL logic for
computers, mixers and detectors in communication equipment, instrumentation, and analog-to-
digital converters.
Comparison of Reverse Recovery Time of pn diode with Schottky diode
 The most important difference between the p-n diode and the Schottky diode is the reverse
recovery time (trr) when the diode switches from the conducting to the non-conducting state.
 In a pn junction diode, the reverse recovery time can be in the order of several microseconds to
less than 100 ns for fast diodes, and it is mainly limited by the diffusion capacitance caused by
minority carriers accumulated in the diffusion region during the conducting state.
 Schottky diodes are significantly faster since they are unipolar devices and their speed is only
limited by the junction capacitance.
 The switching time is ~100 ps for the small-signal diodes, and up to tens of nanoseconds for
special high-capacity power diodes.

Source: Wikipedia contributors. "Schottky diode." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 21 Jun.
2020. Web. 27 Aug. 2020.
Note:
 Before leaving the subject of Schottky-barrier diodes, it is important to note that not every
metal–semiconductor contact is a diode.
 In fact, metal is commonly deposited on the semiconductor surface in order to make terminals
for the semiconductor devices and to connect different devices in an integrated-circuit chip.
 Such metal–semiconductor contacts are known as ohmic contacts to distinguish them from the
rectifying contacts that result in SBDs.
 Ohmic contacts are usually made by depositing metal on very heavily doped (and thus low-
resistivity) semiconductor regions.
For more details go to the following online resource.
S.No Title Source Link
1. Schottky Junction and Ohmic Contacts NPTEL Click here
 Self Study

 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

 Photo Diode