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Review on Slow Sand Filtration in Removing Microbial Contamination and

Particles from Drinking Water Ephrem Guchi 1*

Research · April 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3579.8564

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 Review on Slow Sand Filtration in Removing Microbial Contamination and Particles
from Drinking Water

Ephrem Guchi1*

1
Samara University, School of Natural and Computational Sciences, Department of Applied
Biology, Samara, Ethiopia

*
Corresponding author: Ephrem Guchi, Mobile: +251911767906; E-mail:
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The improvement of water quality is closely associated with man-environment relationships.
There should be a dialogue between all actors and the community when undertaking water
and sanitation activities. For positive results and better sustainability, the community should
be involved and participate at all stages of water development and environmental sanitation
schemes. A combination of safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and hygiene practices like
hand washing is a pre-requisite for morbidity and mortality rate reduction, especially among
under five years old children in developing countries. The majority of people in developing
countries do not have access to piped drinking water and must carry; transport and store water
within their homes and in the process the quality of water may deteriorate. Slow sand
filtration is a sustainable technology for rural water treatment because it is low cost and
simple to operate. Therefore, the objective of this review article was to review the efficency of
slow sand filtration in removing microbial contamination and particles from drinking water.
This review article was written using different recent litratures related to the subject matter.
Therefore, slow sand filtration has been recognized as an appropriate technology for drinking
water treatment in rural areas, and is recognized as a suitable filtration technology for
removing water borne pathogens and reducing turbidity. It is capable of improving the
physical, chemical, and microbiological quality of water in a single treatment process without
the addition of chemicals, and can produce an effluent low in particles and free of bacteria,
parasites and viruses.

Key words: bacteria, drinking water, slow sand filter, treatment, turbidity
1. INTRODUCTION

1
Water is the essence of life and access to safe drinking water is a fundamental human need
and, therefore a basic human right essential to all. Supply of safe water of appropriate quality
is important to the well-being of mankind and development of any country because it supports
public health and, therefore, ensures economic growth. The provision of water, sanitation and
good hygiene services is vital for the protection and development of human resources
(Devadas, 1984).

Approximately over one billion people world-wide lacks access to adequate amounts of safe
water and rely on unsafe drinking water sources from lakes, rivers and open well. Nearly all
of these people live in developing countries, especially in rapidly expanding urban fringes,
poor rural areas, and indigenous communities (Gundry et al., 2004; Bartram et al., 2005).
Much of the global population now consumes untreated, non piped drinking water, usually
consisting of small volumes <40 lpcd (liter per capita per day) collected and stored in the
home by users. Typically, people collect water from any available source and store it in a
vessel in the home for domestic and potable use, often without treatment and protection from
further contamination. In many cases, such collected household water is heavily contaminated
with faecal microbes and possess risks of exposure to water borne pathogens and thus to
infectious diseases (Sobsey, 2003).

The greatest risk associated with the ingestion of water is the microbial risk due to water
contamination by human and/or animal feces. The effects of drinking contaminated water
result in thousands of deaths every day, mostly in children under five years of age in
developing countries (WHO, 2004a). Diseases caused by consumption of contaminated water,
and poor hygiene practices are the leading causes of death among children world wide, after
respiratory diseases (WHO, 2003). Thus lack of safe drinking water supply, basic sanitation
and hygienic practices are associated with high morbidity and mortality from excreta related
diseases. Diarrhea remains a major killer in children and it is estimated that 80 % of all
illnesses in developing countries is related to water and sanitation; and that 15 % of all child
deaths under the age of five years in developing countries result from diarrheal diseases
(WHO, 2000, WHO, 2004a; Thompson and Khan, 2003).

Because of the magnitude of the health problems associated with water of inadequate quality
and quantity, substantial efforts have focused on how to evaluate and maximize the health

2
benefits derived from improved water supplies. In many developing countries, the high
incidence of water borne diseases and wide-spread use of untreated and often highly polluted
water sources necessitate the accurate assessment of faecal contamination of water.

Regular examination of water quality for the presence of pathogenic/indicator organisms,

chemicals, and other physical contents provides information on the level of the safety of
water. Frequent examinations of faecal indicator organisms remain the most sensitive way of
assessing the hygienic conditions of water. Indicator organisms of faecal pollution include the
coliform group as a whole and particularly Escherichia coli, Entrococcus faecalis and some
thermotolerant organisms such as Clostridium perferingens (WHO, 1984). The overall
concepts adopted for microbiological quality is that no water intended for human
consumption shall contain E.coli in 100ml sample (WHO, 2004b).

Bacteriological tests for the detection of faecal pollution of water have developed using
indicator bacteria (non-pathogenic groups of bacteria) selected on the basis of the following
criteria; numerous in feces but not other materials, counted by means of simple reliable test,
more resistance than pathogens to physical and chemical inactivating agents and unable to
grow in conditions outside intestine (WHO, 1984).

The coliforms are in the family Enterobacteriaceae and include the genera Escherchia,
Citrobacter, Klebsiela, and Enterobacter (Clark and Pagel, 1977). Because several of these
species are regularly found in unpolluted soils and water, the standard tests for them can not
be said to indicate specific faecal pollution. Escherchia coli are almost exclusively faecal
microorganisms and constitute over 90 % of the coliform flora of the human intestine. It is
easily distinguished from other coliforms on the basis of its growth at 440c on media normally
used for coliform determination. The faecal coliform test must therefore taken as the most
sensitive, reliable and specific indicators of faecal pollution (WHO, 1984; Abebe, 1986).

In order for a household water treatment technology such as SSF to achieve widespread
sustainable use among the poor, it must meet the "criteria of the poor" (Duke and Baker,
2005).
 Effective in cleaning the water and improving its taste, smell and appearance.
 Easy to operate and maintain.
 Affordable and durable, with little or no recurring costs.
3
  Manufactured using local skills and materials.
 Does not use chemicals or energy.

Slow sand filtration process provides treatment through physical filtration of particles and
biological removal of pathogens and organics in the upper biologically active layer of the
sand bed known as biofilm. It has been recognized as an appropriate technology for drinking
water treatment in rural areas, and is recognized as a suitable filtration technology for
removing water borne pathogens and reducing turbidity. It is capable of improving the
physical, chemical, and microbiological quality of water in a single treatment process without
the addition of chemicals, and can produce an effluent low in turbidity, bacteria and viruses.
In fact, Wegelin (1988) states, "no other single treatment process can improve the physical,
chemical, and bacteriological water quality of surface water better than slow sand filtration".
In addition, the USEPA (1997) states, "when used with a source water of appropriate quality,
slow sand filtration may be the most suitable filtration technology in small systems" These
two statements elucidate the important role of slow sand filtration for treating surface water in
small systems.

Slow sand filters can be constructed from local materials, mainly from properly graded
sand/gravel, concrete/clay, and standard piping, can operate without the use of specialized
equipment, and is much less labor intensive than rapid filters. Also slow sand filters operate
under gravity flow conditions, and energy, its on-going energy demand is minimal. Thus,
slow sand filtration is an attractive treatment alternative for local communities. Finally, there
is very little water wastage during cleaning of the filters and the production of sludge is much
less than rapid sand filters. The sludge can subsequently be handled in its dry state, preventing
recontamination of surface water; and can be used to improve agricultural fertility (Huisman
and Wood, 1974).

Slow sand filtration is a sustainable technology for rural water treatment because it is low cost
and simple to operate. In addition, it is able to produce excellent effluent quality without the
use of treatment chemical. In fact, under good source water conditions, Cleasby et al. (1984a)
found that slow sand filtration achieved better treatment than coagulation followed by direct
filtration. In addition to the potential health hazard of long-term chemical exposure, treatment
chemicals are also costly to manage in rural water systems. Due to lack of availability in rural
areas, the transportation costs of importing chemicals can be a major concern for small
4
systems. In addition, the use of chemicals requires more maintenance and monitoring from
skilled personnel, as the chemical dosing-process is highly sensitive to fluctuations in raw
water quality such as pH. Thus the on-going operational costs of a conventional treatment
system that uses chemicals can be overwhelming for a small community.

Therefore, the objective of this review article was to review the efficency of slow sand
filtration in removing microbial contamination and particles from drinking water.

2. Slow Sand Filtration Process

2.1. Brief History of Slow Sand Filtration

Slow sand filtration dates back to 1829 in Paisley, Scotland, where John Gibb supplied water
to the city from the slow sand filter (SSF) at his bleachery (Baker, 1948). However, the
current model for slow sand filtration originated from a one-acre slow sand filter designed by
Jams Simpson for the Chelsea water company in London in 1852, which treated surface water
from the Thames River (Barrett et al., 1991). After John Snow linked the outbreak of disease
such as cholera and typhoid to waterborne contamination, slow sand filter became a legal
requirement for all potable water extracted from the River Thames from 1892 (Huisman and
Wood, 1974). Further convincing proof of the effectiveness of SSF at controlling waterborne
diseases was provided in 1894 by the experience of two neighboring cities, Hamburg and
Altona, which delivered drinking water from the River Elbe. The former delivered drinking
water from the river untreated, while the later filtered the whole of its supply. When the river
water became infected with cholera organisms, Hamburg suffered from a cholera epidemic
while Altona did not. SSF was the sole method of water treatment until the advent of rapid
sand filtration at the end of 19th century (Brink and Parks, 1996). Currently, the USEPA
recognized slow sand filtration as an acceptable water treatment technology, which provides
safe water for human consumption.

2.2. Characteristics of Slow Sand Filtration

The basic components of a slow sand filter are: supernatant water layer, sand bed (fine and
coarse sand), gravel and outlet hose. The supernatant water layer provides a head of water that
is sufficient to drive the water through the filter bed, whilst creating a retention period of
several hours for the water. Sand is the usual filter medium because of its low cost, durability
and availability. The sand has a relatively fine grain size (effective size 0.15-0.3mm). The

5
gravel provides an unobstructed passage for treated water from the filter bed, which prevent
sand from clogging the under-drain piping and supports the filter sand bed. Water percolates
slowly through the porous sand medium, and inert particles, organic material, and
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and cysts of Giardia and Cryptosporidium
enteroparasites are removed (Ellis, 1985; Fogel et al., 1993). Organic and inorganic
particulate matter and pathogenic microorganisms are removed by physical filtration and
biological degradation in the sand bed. Most of the treatment occurs at the top of sand bed
where deposits of particulate and algal matter, combined with the dense growth of biomass,
form a surface layer known as the biofilm. However, significant additional treatment also
occurs throughout the rest of the sand bed. The literature reveals some variation in the
recommended design parameters for slow sand filters (Table 1).
Table 1. Characteristics of Slow Sand Filters

Recommendations

Design Criteria Ten states Huisman and Visscher et al.

standards wood
(1987)
USA (1987) (1974)

Bed depth (m) 0.8 1.2 0.9

Effective media size 0.3-0.45 0.15-0.35 0.15-0.3

(mm)

Filtration rate (m/h) 0.08-0.24 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.2

Support bed (m) 0.4-0.6 Not reported 0.3-0.5

Supernatant waters 0.9 1-1.5 1

(m)

Source: Galvis et al. (2002)

2.3. Mechanisms of Filtration

6
Filtration is used primarily for removal of suspended particulates, including pathogens, in the
production of potable water. Table 2 lists the variety of particles found in raw waters. Particle
removal efficiencies in the range of 99% to 99.9% are reported in the literature for
biologically matured slow sand filters (Bellamy et al., 1985a), particularly from surface water
of relatively low turbidity.
Table 2. Particles found in raw waters.

Category Group/name Size (µm)

Mineral Clays (colloidal) 0.001-1

Silicates No data

Non-Silicates No data

Biological Viruses 0.001-0.1

Bacteria 0.3-10

Algae, unicellular 30-50

Giardia cysts 10

Parasite eggs 10-50

Nematode eggs 10

Cryptosporidium oocysts 4-5

Other particles Amorphous debris, small 1-5

Organic colloids No data

Source: Bellamy et al. (1985a)

An important factor affecting removal mechanisms of slow sand filtration is filtration rate. In
particular, sedimentation and biological mechanisms are dependent on filtration rate (Ellis,
1985). As expected, Poynter and Slade (1977) found that removal of viruses decreased with
increased filtration rate. In addition, Muhammad et al. (1996) found that color removals,
which depend mostly on sedimentation, were significantly decreased at higher filtration rates.
This confirms that biological treatment and sedimentation are indeed influenced by filtration

7
rate. Interestingly, Huisman (1977) reported that a higher filtration rate increases the organic
loading rate, which results in higher substrate availability and forces microorganisms to live
deeper than 300-400 mm in the sand bed, leading to potential breakthrough of bacteria. In
some cases, however, filtration rate does not have an effect on bacteria removals. For
example, Poynter and Slade (1977) found that increasing the filtration rate from 0.2 m/h to 0.4
m/h had no effect on removals of coliform bacteria and E. coli.

Also another important factor affecting removal mechanisms of slow sand filtration is bed
depth. The minimum depth for good turbidity and coliform bacteria removal is 300mm, but
600mm is necessary for removal of all viruses (Ellis, 1985). Bellamy et al. (1985c) found
good removals of bacteria with reduced bed depth. Where coliform removals dropped from
97% to only 95% by reducing the bed depth from 0.97 m to 0.48m. This is because most of
the biomass and biological treatment occurs in the upper portion of the sand bed. In fact,
Williams (1987) found that all bacteria reduction occured in the top 20cm of the filter bed,
where a 1 log removal of faecal coliforms was achieved after 5cm depth and another 1.3 log
removal after 20cm depth, for a total of 2.3 log removal (99.5%). Overall, bed depth is more
important for removal of smaller particles, including viruses, colloidal matter, and color, and
less significant for removal of bacteria.

In general, filtration occurs by physical (transport) and chemical mechanisms (attachment).

Additionally, biological processes are important purification mechanisms operating in slow
sand filtration (Huisman and Wood, 1974).

2.3.1. Physical-chemical Mechanisms of Removal in Slow Sand Filtration.

Physical-chemical mechanisms of filtration are divided in to two categories: transport
mechanism and attachment mechanism. Transport mechanism governs the transport of
particulate matter to the filter media (otherwise referred to as collectors) and attachment
mechanisms govern the attachment of particles to the media.

One of the major types of transport mechanisms in slow sand filtration is straining or
screening, where particles larger than the pore size of media are physically removed.
However, as the pore size of the media progressively decrease due to particle deposition and
biofilm growth; straining will become more efficient in capturing particles that are even
smaller in size (Weber-Shirk and Dick, 1997b).

8
There are particles in surface water that are much smaller than the pore size of the media,
such as bacteria (0.01 to 10µm), viruses (0.01 to 0.1µm), and colloidal particles (0.001 to
1µm) (Montgomery, 1985). These particles penetrate deeper into the bed, where other
mechanisms of transport (inertia, sedimentation, interception, hydrodynamic action and
diffusion) become important. Impaction occurs when the inertia of the particle approaching
the collector is greater than the hydrodynamic force that is carrying the water past the
collector (Montgomery, 1985). The particle will deviate from the flow path and impact the
collector. Hydrodynamic forces that result from changes in flow velocity and changes of pore
size may also transport particles to the surface of the collector (Montgomery, 1985).

Sedimentation occurs when the mass density of a particle is much greater than that of water
and its settling velocity causes the particle to deviate from the flow path and settle on to the
media surface. Ellis (1985) reported that sedimentation is probably more important with
suspended particulates between 4 and 20µm in size.

Interception occurs when deposited particles accumulate on the media surface, gradually
reduce the pore size, and act as additional collectors for subsequently passing particles. It is
generally known that as the ratio of the particle size to media size increase, interception also
increases (Montgomery, 1985). Particles in the colloidal range (less than 1µm in diameter) are
influenced by diffusion and will deviate from flow paths toward the filter media, depending
on the electrostatic interaction between the particles and the media (Montgomery, 1985). As
particles are transported to the filter media, attachment mechanisms will act to capture the
particle resulting in a successful collision. Such attachment mechanisms include mass
attraction (van der walls force) and electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
particles (Montgomery, 1985). The effects of van der walls forces, however, are only
significant if the particle can overcome any electrostatic repulsion barrier and reach the
surface of media (Haarhoff and Cleasby, 1991). Mc Connell (1984) suggests the possibility of
multivalent cations acting as abridge between negatively charged surfaces and negatively
charged particles. This theory was confirmed by the finding that "virus adsorption on sand is
enhanced with increasing ionic strength and with higher concentration of higher valance
cations in solution" (Galvis et al., 1998).

9
Adsorption of particles to the media is another important attachment mechanism.
Microorganisms such as algae and bacteria will colonize the filter bed and form a sticky
zoogleal biofilm on the sand grains to which particles can become attached to. Ellis (1985)
suggests that adsorption is more important for smaller particles.

Detachment of particles is another important phenomenon of filters. As particle deposits and

growth of biofilm reduce the pore size of the media, the interstial velocity in the pores
increases. This causes an increase in the hydrodynamic shear force on particle deposits and
may cause particles to become detached. Shearing forces are expected to be highest in the
biofilm (Weber-shirk and Dick, 1997b). Increased detachment may also occur with sudden
increases in the influent solids concentrations. Detached particles can then penetrate deeper in
to the filter bed and may ultimately brake through the filter. For example, Ellis and Aydin
(1995) found that particulate deposits decreased rapidly with depth; however were still
present at depth of 400mm.This highlights the importance of maintaining consistent
operational conditions, and avoiding sudden fluctuation in influent or flow water quality.

2.3.2. Biological Mechanisms of Removal in Slow Sand Filtration

Pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria and viruses, and cysts of enteroparasites may
be effectively removed by SSF (Burman, 1962; Poynter and Slade, 1977). This is partly
explained by the slow filtration rate of water and fine sand used, but also attributed to
biological mechanisms in the biofilm and within the upper layers of the sand bed (Huisman
and Wood, 1974). Among the several biological mechanisms operating in slow sand filters,
predatory activities associated with the maturity of the filter bed are suggested as the main
process responsible for removing and inactivating microbial pathogens during SSF.

Haarhoff and Cleasby (1991) concluded from a review of published literature that predation
of algae and bacteria, scavenging of detritus by aquatic worms found mainly in the deeper
region of the bed, natural death, inactivation, metabolic breakdown (i.e. reduction of organic
carbon), and adsorption to the sticky zoogleal surface of the sand are the principal biological
mechanisms responsible for particle removal by SSF. For example, bacteria removal in SSF
has been attributed to grazing by protozoa. Burman (1962) examined the bacterial condition
of water before, during and after filtration at the Walton treatment works, in London. This
showed that coliform and E. coli counts decreased in the supernatant water during the
hydraulic retention time above the sand. This was attributed to bacterial grazing by protozoa

10
or other predators migrating from the filter surface. Coliform counts increased at the sand
surface, but lower E. coli counts were found, suggesting that growth of coliform bacteria may
occur in the filter mat on the sand surface but there was no evidence for the growth of E. coli
in the filter as un able to grow outside intestine. In another study at Walton on colonization of
a resanded slow sand filter, the numbers of E. coli bacteria in the filtered water were inversely
related to the size of numbers of flagellate and ciliate populations in the filter, suggesting that
protozoa were important agents for bacteria removal (Weber-Shirk and Dick, 1999).

Weber-Shirk and Dick (1997a) suggest that predation of bacteria is the most important of all
these mechanisms, and adsorption is the least significant. However, at a lower water
temperatures, it is suggested that adsorption to biomass is the dominating mechanism, due to
reduced biological activity (Welte and Montiel, 1996).

Duncan (1988) provides a survey of the common organisms that can be found in the sand bed.
These include aerobic bacteria, flagellates, ciliates, rotifers, flatworms (Microturbellaria),
gastrotriches, nematode (round worms), anellida (segmented worms) and arthropods
(harpacticids). Of all these, the predominant organisms are gram-negative pigmented bacteria
such as Pseudomonas and Aeromonas as well as algae, protozoa, and higher order eukaryotes
(Eighmy et al., 1993). Bacteria that are typically present in biological process are generally
classified as oligotrophs (Rittman and Huck, 1989). Oligotrophs are "characterized by their
ability to simultaneously and efficiently utilize a wide array of substrates present at low
concentrations." (Moll and Summers, 1996).

The larger microorganisms such as protozoa either feed on suspended particles or bacteria, or
are predators of other inhabitants of the sand bed. This is confirmed by Weber-Shirk and Dick
(1999) who state, "predators that graze on attached bacteria potentially free up sites for future
bacteria attachment while suspension feeding predators directly remove particles from the
mobile phase". A proven species to be implicated as a bacterial predator is Chrysophyte
(Weber- Shirk, 2002). Other predacious fauna include meiofaunal species (0.1 to 1mm in
size), which feed on individual bacterial or algal cells, suspended particles, or other species
(Duncan, 1988). Some eukaryotes are known to be predators to bacteria, while some
microorganisms simply produce substances that are toxic to enteric bacteria (Lloyd, 1973;
Huisman and Wood, 1974).

11
Aerobic oligotrophic bacteria grow on the sand media to form a dense biofilm. This sticky
biofilm, sometimes referred to as zoogloea, is known to adsorb colloidal material. Some
researchers postulated that filtration efficiency was partially a function of particle adsorption
to the sticky biofilm (Huisman and Wood, 1974). Bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa
are known to produce extra-cellular polymeric substances (EPS), polysaccharides and
proteins, which serve to anchor bacteria to surfaces (Dai et al., 2002). Bellamy et al. (1985b)
suggested that the polymers acted to flocculate organisms and destabilize clay and bacteria to
facilitate attachment. Wheeler et al. (1988) suggested that these extra- cellular polymers could
also provide binding sites for viruses. Removal of viruses is achieved through microbial
predation and adsorption to biomass (Wheeler et al., 1988). Due to the relatively small size of
viruses; physical mechanisms of removal are of less importance. Wheeler et al. (1988) found
that biomass concentration is just as important for the removal of viruses (e.g. rotavirus) as it
is for the removal of pathogenic bacteria. In fact, they found similar patterns of removal
between viruses and bacteria with respect to depth in the filter.

The term 'bioantagonism' has been used by a few authors to explain a mechanism of removal
where by incoming pathogenic bacteria are either 'out competed' or 'inactivated' by
autochthonous (naturally occurring) bacteria in the sand bed. For example, in the natural
environment, Sattar et al. (1999) found that survival of Cryptosporidium declined in the
presence of autochthonous microorganism, and this phenomenon was referred to as
bioantagonism. Although no specific microorganism was determined responsible for oocyst
decay and the actual mechanisms of bioantagonism were unclear, autochthonous bacteria
could similarly be responsible for oocyst decay in slow sand filters. This assumption is
supported by the research of Uhl (2000), which indicates that pathogens in biofilters decrease,
rapidly in the presence of autochthonous bacteria. The reasoning is that pathogenic bacteria,
or autochthonous bacteria, are accustomed to high concentrations of organic matter where
they thrive and experience a high growth rate. However, at low concentrations of organic
matter, their growth rate is low. In contrast, the growth rate of autochthonous bacteria is still
high even at low concentrations of organic matter (less than 1mg/L) of carbon, thus out
competing pathogens (Uhl,2000).

The term,' inactivation', is used to describe the removal of enteric microorganisms due to
predation or bioantagonism (Datta and Chaudhuri, 1991). Each layer of the sand bed has its
own inactivation potential depending on the vertical distribution of biomass. For example,

12
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes were active through out the filter bed in inactivating enteric
microorganisms (E. coli); however inactivation potential was highest near the surface of filter
bed (Datta and Chaudhuri, 1991).

3. Performance of Slow Sand Filtration

Slow sand filtration produces an effluent low in turbidity, free of impurities and more
importantly, virtually free of bacteria, entero-viruses and protozoa (Galvis et al. 1998). Galvis
et al. (1998; 2002) found typical removal efficiencies for slow sand filter as shown in Table 3.
Most of the results are from slow sand filters operating at temperatures above
50C, filtration rates between 0.04 and 0.2 m/h, bed depths above 0.5 m, and effective media
diameters between 0.15 and 0.3mm.
Table3. Typical Removal Efficiencies for Slow Sand Filtration

Parameter Effluent or Removal Efficiencies Comments.

Treatment efficiency depends on quantity, nature and

distribution of particles.
Turbidity <1NTU

Treatment efficiency mostly depends on the

biological maturity of the filter.
Coliform bacteria >99%

Treatment efficiency affected by temperature,

filtration rate, media size, bed depth and cleaning.
Entero bacteria 90-99.9%

Entero viruses and 99-99.9% Effect of cleaning practices on removal efficiency in

13
 Giardia a biologically mature bed is minimal.

True color 25 to 40% Color is associated with organic material and humic
acids. Average 30% removal.

Total organic
Carbon (TOC)
<15-25% Mean 16%

Dissolved organic
carbon (DOC).
5-40% Mean 37%

Biodegradable

dissolved Organic 46-75% Mean 60%

carbon (BDOC)

Assimilable
organic carbon
14-40% Mean 26%
(AOC)

UVabsorbance
(254nm)
5-35% Mean 16-18%

Trihalomethane
(THM)
<25%

Iron and 30to 90% Fe levels> 1mg/L reduce filter run length due to
Manganese precipitation and filter clogging.

Source: Galvis et al. (1998; 2002)

3.1. Removal of Bacteria

It is suggested that slow sand filtration can achieve between 99 and 99.9% of pathogenic
bacterial removal (Van Dijk and Ooman, 1978). However, removal efficiencies may be

14
somewhat site specific as there is some variation in the findings from several authors. The
variation in bacteria removals can be attributed to differences in source water quality
conditions and filter operational conditions. This highlights the importance of onsite pilot
testing to determine treatment performance under the prevailing water quality and operational
conditions.

3.2. Removal of Viruses

Slow sand filtration can achieve very good removal of viruses. Typically virus removals in
slow sand filtration range from 2 to 6 logs (Troyan and Hansen, 1989), and generally increase
with increasing bed depth and decreasing filtration rate and increasing water temperature.
Poynter and Slade (1977) found 99.9% removal of poliovirus I with a bed depth of 600 mm
and filtration rate of 0.2 m/h. Removal efficiencies decreased with lower bed depth and higher
filtration rates, and were only slightly affected by temperature. For example, 99.9% removal
was achieved at a temperature of 11 to 120 C but decreased only slightly to 99% at 60C.
Yahya et al. (1993) studied the removal of bacteriophages MS-2 and PED-I which represent
human enteric viruses because they are similar in shape and size (25nm and 62 nm,
respectively) and they absorb poorly to sand. Removal of MS-2 and PRD-1 was 99% and
99.9%, respectively.
3.3. Removal of Parasites.
Slow sand filtration is very efficient in removing parasites such as Giardia and
Cryptosporidium. A summary of removals reported by several authors is presented in Table 4.
In general Cryptosporidium is more difficult to remove than Giardia because of its smaller
size and has lower collector efficiency than Giardia (Hsu et al., 2001).
Table 4. Removal of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Slow Sand Filters.

Author Giardia Cryptosporid Comments.

ium

Bellamy et al. (1985a) >98% - -

Schuler et al. (1988) 99.8 to 100% 100% -

Schuler et al. (1991) - 3.9 to 7.11og -

Fogel et al. (1993) Average of - -

93%

15
 Logsdon et al. (1993) 93.7 to 99.9% - -

USEPA (2001) - 99.9 to -

99.9%

Timms et al. (1995) - 99.9% Influent spike of

4,000oocyst/L,Filtrati
on rate of 0.3 to 0.4
m/h

Loganetal.(2001) - >3 to 41og Influentspikeof65,00

0oocyst/L, Less
removal with larger
media

Overall, slow sand filtration can achieve excellent removals of bacteria, viruses, Giardia and
Cryptosporidium, suspended particulates or turbidity, so it provides drinking water that is
consistently safe for human consumption.

4. Operational Factors Affecting Removal in Slow Sand Filtration

4.1. Removal Efficiency of Slow Sand Filtration
Slow sand filtration is proven to achieve excellent removals of pathogenic bacteria, protozoa,
viruses, suspended solids, and turbidity. However, removal efficiency is highly dependent on
physical and operational characteristics of the filter including the media size, bed depth,
filtration rate, biological maturity of the filter, and cleaning practices.

Generally, there are similarities in the findings of many authors, who report a decrease in
filter efficiency with increased media size, increased filtration rate, decreased bed depth, and
decreased biological maturity of the sand bed. A smaller media is favored due to its increased
filtration efficiency. Ellis (1985) reports improved bacteria removals with smaller media.
Although, the impact of media size on filter performance largely depends on the size
distribution and surface chemistry of the particulate matter in the source water. For example,
if there is a high proportion of a solid in the water with a relatively large particle diameter,
these solids are more likely to be removed, even in large media. Vander Hoek et al. (1996)
document a varied response from several authors regarding the effect of media size on slow
sand filter performance. Interestingly, Bellamy et al. (1985c) reported that an increase in
16
effective sand size did not necessarily result in poor filter performance. An increase in
effective media diameter from 0.128 mm to 0.615mm resulted in only a small decrease in
bacteria removals from 99.4% to 96%.

4.2. Cleaning of Slow Sand Filtration

Cleaning must be performed at the end of a filter run. Typically, filter run times range from 30
to 60 days, but could reach more than 100 days (Ellis, 1985). The traditional method of
cleaning slow sand filters involves draining the water level down to just below the sand
surface and scarping off the top 1 or 2 cm of biofilm. The biofilm is where the highest
concentration of biomass exists, hence the region where most biological treatment is
achieved. Thus, pathogen removal may be compromised for a couple of days after cleaning
until biofilm maturity is reestablished. In some cases, however, cleaning may have no effect
on treatment efficiency. For example, Fox et al. (1984) found that bacteria removal was
unaffected by scraping, and Poynter and Slade (1977) found that scraping had little effect on
the removal efficiency of viruses.

Burman (1962) found that cleaning of the slow sand filter led to a reduction in the removal of
E.coli from 99 to 94%, although removal of coliform bacteria was unaffected. Burman (1962)
also found that removal of chlorine resistant spore-forming bacilli ranged from 81 to 88%,
and after cleaning these removals dropped from 81 to 73%. Bellamy et al. (1985a) found that
cleaning or replacing the sand resulted in a 1 log decrease in bacteria removal efficiency.

Basically, if the length of filter run is short and cleaning is frequent, the biological layer will
never have enough time to reestablish equilibrium and maturity. Cleasby (1984b) found that
the removal of coliform bacteria increased from 95% to greater than 99% as the filter
matured. Likewise Bellamy et al. (1985a) found that Giardia removal was 98% in new sand,
where as in biologically mature sand, removal was 3 to 4 log. Thus, the importance of lengthy
filter runs, which allow plenty of time for maturation, can not be over stated.

Eighmy and Collins (1988) reported using an alternative method of cleaning known as
"harrowing" where the sand is raked by a comb harrow, which penetrates 30cm in to the sand
bed and detaches particulate debris. The debris is then washed away by a continuous flow of
water across the top of the sand bed.

17
Generally, cleaning times are significantly lower with the harrowing method than the scraping
method, and filters could be put back on line within days instead of weeks. Also this method
results in minimal or no sand loss, thus re-sanding of the filter after many years of operation is
not an issue. But most importantly, Eighmy and Collins (1988) found that very little biomass
was lost during cleaning and biomass populations penetrated deeper in to the sand bed,
providing more biological contact time and improving removals of non- purgeable dissolved
organic carbon.

An additional advantage of harrowing is that it is an in-situ cleaning method, and it is not

necessary to drain the water level down to expose the sand. Lloyd (1996) found that some
protozoa such as spiratichs, which graze on incoming bacteria, are particularly susceptible to
desiccation when the sand is exposed. Thus, in-situ methods of cleaning are preferred to
maintain the viability of the biomass ecosystem in the sand bed.

5.Contamination of drinking water in home storage containers

Most water sources in developing countries are polluted by chemical and biological agents.
Feachem (1980) noted that in developing countries, water sources sometimes show indicator
bacteria concentrations, equivalent to those of weak untreated sewage. These contaminated
water sources can be vehicles for the transmission of pathogens (Esrey et al., 1985).
According to Ngoma (1992) more than one-third of deaths in developing countries are caused
by drinking water from these highly contaminated sources.

In their study on water borne transmission of cholera in Trujillo, Peru, Swerdlow et al.(1992)
tested the variation of water quality at the source (i.e. well water), and later in the household
(i.e. stored water). In this study, progressive deterioration of water quality was observed
during distribution and storage at home. Consequently, the mean coliform counts were higher
(20 faecal coliforms and 794 total coliforms per 100ml) in water sample from household
storage container and lower (1 faecal coliform and 1 total coliform per 100ml) in city well
water (Swerdlow et al., 1992).

The risk of diarrhoeal disease due to contamination of drinking water during household
storage was noted in surveys conducted by different researchers. Pinfold and Horan (1991)
stated that there is higher risk of ingesting faecal micro-organisms with water that is
contaminated during collection and storage than with water from the source.

18
Swerdlow et al. (1992) in a case-control study indicated that stored water contamination
during hand washing and scooping was strongly associated with cholera illness. The stored
water has become contaminated with Vibro cholera and coliform bacteria (Swerdlow et al.,
1992). Mintz et al. (1995) summarized some investigations in which recognized
enteropathogens were identified from stored water. Escherchia coli, Vibro cholera 01,
Strongyloides, and Ascaris were repeatedly isolated from the home storage water samples
(Mintz et al., 1995).

The majority of faecal bacteria found in stored water are, most likely transferred from
environment through water related activities by way of water handling practices (Pinfold and
Horan, 1991). The practices include method of collection from the sources, transport to the
house, drawing of water from storage container, keeping the water container clean, and
washing hands before collecting (Pinfold and Horan, 1991).

Several researchers, Pinfold and Horan (1991), Swerdlow et al. (1992), Bartram and Johns
(1988) and Kelly (1990) stressed the need for hygiene education to the community on the
contamination of water during collection and storage in home. In communities where
household storage of water is common, hygiene education is considered the most effective
means to quality improvement. Guidelines for hygiene education (Boot, 1987) and for cholera
control (WHO, 1993) also emphasized on the prevention of contamination of water borne
diseases.

6. Summary
The improvement of water quality is closely associated with man-environment relationships.
There should be a dialogue between all actors and the community when undertaking water
and sanitation activities. For positive results and better sustainability, the community should
be involved and participate at all stages of water development and environmental sanitation
schemes.

A combination of safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and hygiene practices like hand
washing is a pre-requisite for morbidity and mortality rate reduction, especially among under
five years old children in developing countries. To reduce the incidence and prevalence of
diarrhoeal diseases, improvements in the availability, quantity, and quality of water, improved

19
sanitation, and general personal and environmental hygiene are required. The majority of
people in developing countries do not have access to piped drinking water and must carry;
transport and store water within their homes and in the process the quality of water may
deteriorate.

Therefore, slow sand filtration has been recognized as an appropriate technology for drinking
water treatment in rural areas, and is recognized as a suitable filtration technology for
removing water borne pathogens and reducing turbidity. It is capable of improving the
physical, chemical, and microbiological quality of water in a single treatment process without
the addition of chemicals, and can produce an effluent low in turbidity and free of bacteria,
parasites and viruses.

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