CBSE Book For Class 12 Engineering Graphics PDF

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A Text Book on
ENGINEERING
Graphics
L A S S
C
XII
Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India
Note: The Information Provided here is only for Reference.It may Vary the Original.
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A text book on Engineering Graphics, Class XII.
PRICE : Rs.
FIRST EDITION 2010 CBSE, India
COPIES:
"This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by

any person or agency in any manner."
PUBLISHED BY : The Secretary, Central Board of Secondary Education,

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar,
Delhi-110092
DESIGN, LAYOUT : Multi Graphics, 5745/81, Reghar Pura, Karol Bagh,
New Delhi-110005, Phone : 25783846
PRINTED BY :
ii
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Foreword
Design is an integral aspect of the world around us. Every day, we are inundated
with images of current generation products such as automobiles, air crafts, and so on.
Design is crucial to each of these products.
Engineering Graphics is the language of communication for all engineers,

architects, interior decorators, apparel designers and many others. This is needed right
from conceiving the design of any product, upto the mass production stage and beyond
for modification and restructuring of Engineering Graphics finds its use in all fields
work relating to various products and their design.
As a first attempt, CBSE has prepared the text book for Class XI in Engineering
Graphics which has been published in June, 2010. Through Class XI text book you have
already gained an insight into the fundamentals of the subject Engineering Graphics.
In this book for class XII, you will learn about the representation of objects, such as
simple geometrical solids, simple machine blocks, in three dimension form i.e. Isometric
Projections of solids.
You will also begin to look afresh at the nature and function of several ordinary
household engineering hardware such as nuts, bolts, screws, washers, rivets etc. that are
essential to make a household run.
In addition, you will learn to assemble the various simple machine blocks correctly
in order to form a functional machine of appropriate use for household purposes or for
industry.
I would like to place on record my deep appreciation for all the subject experts and
practicing teachers who have put in their sincere efforts in the development of this
textbook. Appreciation is also due to Shri Shashi Bhushan, Director (Academics) & Dr.
(Smt.) Srijata Das, Education Officer for planning and execution of the work and
bringing out this publication.
It is hoped that students and teachers will benefit by making the best use of these
text books. Suggestions from the users for further improvement of these textbooks will
be highly appreciated.
VINEET JOSHI
CHAIRMAN
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THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a 1
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the [unity and integrity of the Nation];
2
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY TO

OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs, by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec. 2, for "Sovereign Democratic Republic (w.e.f.
3.1.1977)
2. Subs, by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec. 2, for "unity of the Nation (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Chapter IV A
Fundamental Duties
ARTICLE 51A
Fundamental Duties - It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-

(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the
National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wild life and to
have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.
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CONTENTS
CHAP
TER ISOMETRIC PROJECTION 1
1
CHAP
TER MACHINE DRAWING 40
2
CHAP
TER BEARINGS 87
3
CHAP
TER ROD JOINTS 108
4
CHAP
TER TIE-ROD AND PIPE JOINTS 135
5
CHAP
TER SHAFT COUPLINGS 150
6
CHAP
TER PULLEYS 165
7
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CHAPTER
1ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The objects we look, around us, are in 3-Dimensional form. When we try to communicate the
structure of objects to others then we take the help of pictures / pictorial drawings. These
pictorial drawings are 'one plane' drawings because our mode of communication is paper which
has only two dimensions and these drawings show the object approximately as it appears to the
viewer.
In engineering, one plane drawings are extensively used in addition to the orthographic views of
an object to give the best understanding. So the practice of drawing the objects in one plane,
pictorial view, from the orthographic views is essential. There are three methods to draw the
pictorial drawings i.e.
1. Perspective Projection 2. Oblique Projection 3. Axonometric Projection
Perspective projection is mostly used by the artists, professional designers and architects to
show the views as it appears to the human eye. It appears to converge at a point, called vanishing
point. The Oblique projection is mostly used by the mathematicians and furniture
manufacturers. They impart third dimension at an angle to the two dimensional images, to show
the depth. The Axonometric projection differs from the other one plane views on the basis of
rotation angle along one or more of its axes relative to the plane of projection. It is extensively
used in mechanical engineering to show the blocks, machine parts, assemblies etc. It shows an
image of an object from a skew direction.
On the basis of inclination angle of the three principal axes to the plane of projection, the
axonometric projection is classified among, isometric projection, diametric projection and
trimetric projection.In isometric projection, all the angles between principal axes are equal
while in diametric projection, only two angles between three principal axes are equal and over
90°and in trimetric projection, all the three angles are unequal and not less than 90°. As the
principal axes are inclined to the plane of projection so the measurement along them are also
foreshortened. But the most advantageous point of isometric projection is that it needs a single
scale to measure along each of the three axes. So in general, we use only isometric projection in
engineering practice.
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS 1
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ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
a a 120°
0°
12
12
c
b
0°
c
b
a≠b≠c a≠b=c a=b=c
TRIMETRIC DIMETRIC ISOMETRIC
Fig 1.1 Types of Axonometric Projections
1.2 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

The isometric projection of an object is a
one plane view drawn with the object so
placed with respect to the plane of
projection that all the three principal
axes appear to be inclined to each other
at an equal angle of 120°.
1.2.1 ISOMETRIC SCALE
The isometric scale is used to measure

the foreshortened length of dimensions
of any object to draw the isometric
projection. The steps of construction of m M
m
isometric scale are given below ; refer

70
Fig. 1.2
60
(i) Draw a horizontal line PQ.

50
TH
G
(ii) Draw the true lengths on a A

N
40
LE
45
line PM inclined at 45° to

E
U
°
30
TR
the horizontal line (say up 70

60
20
30°
to 70 mm )
50 GTH
40 LEN
10
(iii) Draw another line PA at C

30 TRI
E
0
30° to the horizontal line. 20 SOM

I
10
10
P Q
(iv) Draw the vertical 0
10
projection of all the points ISOMETRIC SCALE
of true length from PM to
PA. Fig 1.2
(v) Complete the scale with the details as shown in the figure.
The lengths shown at the line PA are the isometric lengths to be used to draw the isometric
projection.
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1.2.2 POSITIONING OF SOLID
The solids are mostly drawn by placing them as per their specific position with respect to vertical
plane (V.P.) and horizontal plane (H.P.), as discussed earlier in orthographic projections. If not
specified then they are drawn by placement in such a position which describes the shape of the
object in best manner. Here after drawing the isometric projection we can observe the two planes
i.e. vertical plane and profile plane on two sides of the object, so to specify the direction of
viewing we mark an arrow towards the assumed Front of object as per conditions.
VERTICAL LINE
VP PP
B HOR E
A
IZO IN
NT A LL
AL NT
LIN
E IZO
OR
30º
30º
H
O
F
F
S
HP
Fig 1.3
1.2.3 STEPS TO DRAW THE ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1. Draw the base of the solid "with isometric scale" as per specified condition with
respect to V.P. and H.P. as per the rules of orthographic projection. It is called
Helping Figure.
2. Draw the centre of the helping figure and enclose the helping figure in a suitable
rectangle. Transfer the co-ordinates of centre to the sides of the enclosing rectangle
with centre lines.
3. Draw the three principal axes at 30°, 90° and 30° to the horizontal base line.
4. Copy the length of sides of helping figure's rectangle on the respective principal axis
and the height or length of the object on the third principal axis. It will give a box in
which the object will be perfectly/snugly fitted.
5. Copy the co-ordinates of centre and the vertices of the base on this box.
6. Join the visible edges by thick lines and Axis line by the centre line.
7. Complete the isometric projection with dimensioning and direction of viewing.
Now let us draw the isometric projection of regular solids.
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1.3 DRAWING OF ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

The isometric projection of different solids is drawn by keeping the three principal axis at 120° to
each other. The solids are drawn as per the specified condition with respect to V.P. and H.P. In
earlier class we have studied to draw the isometric projection of two dimensional laminae of
regular shapes. Here we will study to draw the isometric projection of single regular solids and
combination of two solids. As per the characteristics of regular solids, we can classify them as
follows:-
(i) Prisms
(ii) Pyramids
(iii) Cylinder and Cone
(iv) Frustum of Pyramids
(v) Sphere and Hemisphere
1.3.1 PRISMS
Prisms are the solids with two bases and rectangular faces. They can be kept horizontal by
resting on face or Vertical by resting on base. Let us consider some examples to
understand it better.
Example 1: A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and height of 70 mm resting on its base on
H.P. with two of its base side parallel to V.P.
Solution : Refer Fig. 1.4
Steps (i) Draw the hexagon with isometric length of 30 mm.
(ii) Complete the helping figure by enclosing hexagon in snugly fitted rectangle and
centre lines of hexagon.
(iii) Draw the isometric box with OA length at the side of direction of viewing, OB
length at the opposite side and OC equal to 70mm, is length of height of prism on
vertical line.
(iv) Copy all the points of hexagon and centre on the box.
(v) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by centre lines.
(vi) Complete the isometric projection of hexagonal prism with dimensioning and
direction of viewing.
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5 4 C
VERTICAL LINE
B
b 3 B HOR E
A
IZO IN
NT A LL
AL NT
LIN
E R IZO
HO
30º
A
30º
O
30 1 a 2
HELPING FIGURE O
(i) (ii) (iii)
F
30
OC = ISO 70mm
70
C
4 3
5
A
B
2
6 a
b
30º
30º
30º
30º
1 F
O F ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
(iv) (v)
30 70
5
3
B
C b A
6 2
a
30º
30º
30º
30º
1 F F
O O
(v) ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
(vi)
Fig 1.4
NGERING GRAPHICS 5
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Example 2 : A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and height of 70 mm resting on its face on
H.P. with two of its bases are parallel to V.P. Then the isometric projection will be
drawn as under.
Solution : Refer Fig 1.4
Steps (i) and (ii) will be same as above in example 1.
(iii) Draw the box with OA length at the side of direction of viewing, OB length on the
vertical line and OC length equal to isometric length of height of prism on the third
principal axis.
(iv), (v) & (vi) will be same as above in example 1.
Let us consider more examples of the prisms with the same steps of construction.
Example 3: Draw the isometric projection of a cube of side 50 mm.
In cube all the sides have equal length. So take isometric 50 mm on each principal
axis and complete the cube with thick lines, dimensioning, center line and
direction of viewing.
. 50
SQ
50
30º
30º
F
Fig 1.5
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Example 4 : Draw the isometric projection of square prism of 40 mm base edge and 60 mm axis
resting;
(a) On its base on H.P. keeping one of its base edge parallel to V.P.
(b) On its face on H.P. keeping its base perpendicular to V.P.
Solution : (a) Refer Fig. 1.6 (a)
To draw the isometric projection of a vertical square prism with vertical axis and
one base side parallel to V.P. take OA & OB equal to 40 mm on each horizontal line
and OC equal to is 60 mm, on vertical line. Complete the isometric projection with
thick lines, dimensioning, center lines and direction of viewing.
40
60
C
60
C
40
B A B
30º
30º
30º
30º
O O F
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION F ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
(a) (b)
Fig 1.6
(b) Refer fig 1.6(b)
To draw the isometric projection of a square prism with horizontal axis and base
perpendicular to V.P. take OB equal to 40 mm on the horizontal line on the side of
direction of viewing, OA equal to 60 mm on another horizontal line and OC equal to
40 mm on vertical line. Complete the isometric projection with thick lines,
dimensioning, center lines and direction of viewing.
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Example 5: Draw the isometric projection of an equilateral triangular prism of 50 mm base

side and 75 mm axis resting on its base in H.P. with one of its base edge parallel to
V.P. in front.
Steps (i) Draw the helping figure of triangle with iso 50 mm length with one of its base edge
parallel to V.P. in front.
(ii) Draw the isometric box with OA and OB from helping figure and OC equal to
isometric 75 mm.
(iii) Copy the points of triangle and co-ordinates of center to isometric box.
(iv) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by center lines.
(v) Complete the isometric projection with dimensioning and direction of viewing.
75
B
A
B
O 50 A
50
30º
30º
HELPING FIGURE
O F
Fig 1.7
Example 6: An equilateral triangular prism of 50 mm base side and 70 mm long resting on one
of its face on H.P. with axis of it perpendicular to V.P. Draw its isometric projection.
Solution: Refer Fig. 1.8
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Steps (i) Draw the helping figure of triangle with iso 50 mm length with one of its base edge
in H.P.
(ii) Draw the isometric box with OA on the horizontal line towards the direction of
viewing, OB on the vertical line and OC equal to isometric 70 mm on another
horizontal line.
(iii) Copy the points of triangle and co-ordinates of centre to isometric box.
(iv) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by centre line.
70
B
C
A
O 50 A
50
30º
30º
HELPING FIGURE O
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION F
Fig 1.8
Example 7: Draw the isometric projection of a pentagonal prism of 30 mm base side and 65 mm
of axis. The axis of the prism is perpendicular to H.P. and one of its base edge is
perpendicular to the V.P.
Steps (i) Draw the helping figure of pentagon with iso 30 mm of its base edge perpendicular
to V.P.
(ii) Draw the isometric box with OA & OB from helping figure and OC equal to iso 65
mm.
(iii) Copy the points of pentagon and co-ordinates of centre to isometric box.
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(iv) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by center line.
65
C
30
O A
HELPING FIGURE B A
30
30º
30º
O
F
Fig 1.9
Example 8: A Pentagonal prism of base side of 25 mm and axis length of 55 mm is resting on its
face with its axis parallel to both H.P and V.P. Draw its isometric projection.
Solution: Refer fig 1.10
B
A O
25
C
HELPING FIGURE
A
25 55
30º
30º
F
O
Fig 1.10
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Steps (i) Draw the helping figure of pentagon with iso 25 mm length as one of its base edge
in H.P.
(ii) Draw the isometric box with OA on the horizontal line parallel to the direction of
viewing, OB on the vertical line and OC equal to iso 55 mm on another horizontal
line.
(iii) Complete the isometric projection of pentagonal prism in this isometric box by the
same step discussed in earlier examples.
1.3.2 PYRAMIDS
Pyramids are the solids with a base and slant triangular faces. These faces meet at a point
called apex of the pyramid. In pyramids if they are kept on their base then they are called
upright / vertical pyramids but if they are kept on their vertex on H.P. then they are called
inverted pyramids.
Let us draw some examples.
Example 9:
Draw the isometric projection of a pentagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis of 60
mm resting on its base on H.P. with one of its base side parallel to V.P. and nearer to the
observer.
Steps (i) Draw the pentagon with iso 30 mm and one of its base edge parallel to V.P. and
nearer to the observer.
(ii) Complete the helping view figure by enclosing rectangle and center lines of
pentagon.
(iii) Copy the dimensions of helping figure i.e. OA and OB on the horizontal line as
shown and draw the center lines of Pentagon in it.
(iv) Draw the vertical axis in upright position from the center of pentagon equal to iso
60 mm.
(v) Join the visible edges, starting from the vertex to base corners by thick lines.
(vi) Complete the isometric projection of pentagonal pyramid with direction of

viewing and dimensioning.
Example 10: Draw the isometric projection of an inverted pentagonal pyramid of base side 30
mm and axis of 60 mm resting on its base on H.P. with one of its base side parallel to
V.P. and nearer to the observer.
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VERTICAL LINE
HO
RI E
ZO L IN
NT AL
AL NT
IZO
30º
30º
LIN
E R
HO
35 O A
(i) (ii) (iii)
75
B A B 75 A
35
30º
30º
30º
30º
O O
(iv) ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
F (v) F
B A B A
35
30º
30º
30º
30º
O F O F
75
75
(vi)
(vii)
Fig. 1.11
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Steps (i) to (iii) will be same as above.
(iv) Draw the vertical axis in downward direction from the center of pentagon equal to
iso 60 mm.
(v) & (vi) will be same.
Example 11: Draw the isometric projection of a square pyramid of base edge 50 mm and axial
height of 80 mm kept in inverted position with two of its base side parallel to V.P.
50
80
30°
30°
Fig 1.12
Example12: A right triangular pyramid of base edge 50 mm and axial height of 80 mm is kept on
its base keeping one of its base side parallel to V.P. and away from it. Draw its
isometric projection.
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80
C
a
B
b
A
O 50 A B
b 30° a
30°
HELPING FIGURE 50
O
F
Fig 1.13
Example:13: Draw the isometric projection of an inverted triangular pyramid of base side 50
mm and axis of 80 mm keeping one of its base side parallel to V.P. and nearer the
observer.
a
A
B
a
B
80
b
O
b
O A
50
HELPING FIGURE
30°
50
30°
C F
Fig 1.14
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Example 14: Draw the isometric projection of a hexagonal pyramid having base edge of 40 mm
and axis 70 mm resting on its base keeping two of its base side parallel to the V.P.
70
40
40
30°
HELPING FIGURE 30°

F
Fig 1.15
Example 15 : Draw the isometric projection of an inverted hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30
mm and height of 60 mm keeping two of its base side parallel to the V.P.
30
60
30
HELPING FIGURE F
30°
30°
Fig 1.16 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
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1.3.3 FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID
We are well aware about the frustum of pyramids that they are the truncated lower
portion of the pyramid. So frustum of pyramid is having one shorter base edge end and
another longer base edge end. To draw the isometric projection of the frustum of
pyramid, we have to draw the helping views for both the ends.
Example 16 : Draw the isometric projection of a frustum of square pyramid of shorter base
edge 30 mm and longer base edge 50 mm with the axial height of 60 mm, kept on
H.P. on its longer end and two of its base edges are parallel to V.P.
Steps (i) Draw the helping figures of both the base ends with iso 30 mm and iso 50 mm.
(ii) Complete the helping figures by enclosing rectangle and centre lines.
(iii) Draw the isometric box with OA length on the side of direction of viewing, OB
length on the another horizontal line and OC equal to iso 60 mm, height of
frustum of pyramid on vertical line.
(iv) Draw the center lines on the upper end of the isometric box and mark centre as M.
(v) Copy the lengths of helping figures of shorter end 'oa' and 'ob' by placing 'm' on 'M'.
(vi) Mark all the points of shorter end helping figure on the upper end of isometric box
and all the points of longer end helping figure on the lower end of isometric box.
(vii) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by center line.
(viii) Complete the isometric projection of frustum of square pyramid with

dimensioning and direction of viewing.
Example 17 : Draw the isometric projection of a frustum of square pyramid of shorter base
edge 30 mm and longer base edge 50 mm with the axial height of 60 mm, kept on
H.P. on its shorter end and two of its base edges are parallel to V.P.
Solution: Refer Fig 1.17
Steps (i) to (iii) will be same as above.
(iv) Draw the center lines of the lower end of the isometric box as the shorter end of
the given frustum of pyramid is at lower end and mark center as M.
(v) to (viii) will be same as above.
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50
VERTICAL LINE
30 B
b HO
R E
IZO IN
m M NT LL
AL NTA
O
30º
30º
LIN IZ
E R
HO
o a
HELPING FIGURE O A (iii)
(i) HELPING FIGURE
(ii)
30
60
b m (M) a
o
C
B A
50
30º
30º
30º
30º
F F
O
(iv) ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
(v)
50
60
B b m (M) a A
o 30
30º
30º
30º
30º
F F
O (vi) (vii)
Fig 1.17
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Example 18 : Draw the isometric projection of the frustum of triangular pyramid having top
base edge 40 mm and bottom base edge 50 mm with a height of 75 mm resting on
its longer base keeping one of its base side parallel to the V.P. and nearer to the
observer.
40
75
40 50
HELPING FIGURE HELPING FIGURE
30º
50
30º F
Fig 1.18
Example 19 : A frustum of an inverted hexagonal pyramid of shorter base side 20 mm and

longer base side 40 mm and axial height of 65 mm resting on its shorter end on
H.P. with two of its base sides perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its isometric
projection.

40
20
HELPING FIGURE
40
65
HELPING FIGURE 20
30º
30º
Fig 1.19 F
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Example 20 : Draw the isometric projection of frustum of pentagonal pyramid having longer
base side 40 mm and shorter base side 30 mm with axis of 70 mm resting on its
longer side base keeping one of its base side parallel to the V.P. and nearer to the
observer.
70
30
HELPING FIGURE
30
30º
30º
40 40
HELPING FIGURE
F
Fig 1.20
1.3.4 CYLINDER AND CONE
Cylinder and cone are the solids in which base is a circle. In our earlier class we have
studied that the circle is drawn in isometric projection by different methods. We can use
the "four centre method" or "circular arc method" to draw the circle in isometric
projection. The cylinders and cones are drawn with the same steps of prism and pyramids
except one additional step for drawing the circle.
Example 21: Draw the isometric projection of a cylinder of diameter 40 mm and axial length of
70 mm lying on the H.P. keeping its axis parallel to H.P. and V.P. both.
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Steps (i) Draw the isometric box of a square prism of 40 mm base side and 70 mm axis by
keeping the axis parallel to both H.P. and V.P.
(ii) In the two rhombuses draw the ellipse by four center method.
(iii) Draw two common tangents to the two ellipses.
(iv) Draw the visible lines and curves by thick lines.
(v) Complete the isometric projection of cylinder with dimensioning and direction of
viewing.
∅
40
70
F
30°
30°
Fig 1.21
Example 22 : Draw the isometric projection of a cylinder of height of 75 mm and diameter of 50

mm resting on its base keeping the axis parallel to V.P.
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50
∅
75
30°
30°
Fig 1.22
Example 23 : Draw the isometric projection of cone of diameter 40 mm and axis of 60 mm

resting on its base perpendicular to H.P.

60
30°
30°
40
∅
Fig 1.23
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Example24 : Draw the isometric projection of an inverted cone of diameter 50 mm and axis of
80 mm keeping its axis perpendicular to H.P.

50
∅
80
30°
30°
F
Fig 1.24
Example 25 : Draw the isometric projection of a frustum of a cone of diameter 30 mm at

smaller end, diameter 50 mm at bigger end and the axial height is 70 mm. It is
resting on its bigger end on H.P. keeping its axis vertical.

50
∅ 30
∅
80
30°
30°
Fig 1.25 F
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1.3.5 SPHERES AND HEMISPHERES
Spheres are the solids without any edge or vertex. When they are visualized from any
direction they look like a circle. Due to this unique characteristic of sphere, they have
only one point of contact with the plane of rest. This point of contact will not be visible in
isometric projection of sphere.
Example 26 : Draw the isometric projection of a sphere of diameter 50 mm.
Steps (i) Draw isometric projection of square in horizontal plane with side of iso 50 mm
length.
(ii) Draw the center lines of this square.
(iii) Take a point O in vertically upward direction equal to iso 25 mm i.e. Isometric
length of radius of spheres from the center of the square drawn in step 2.
(iv) Taking this point O as a center and true 25 mm as the radius, draw a circle.
(v) This drawn circle is the isometric projection of the given sphere.
R=TRUE 25
O
30 o
30
o
r = ISO 25
30 o
30
o
Fig 1.26
Note: Isometric view of a sphere is always a circle of true-radius whose centre is

obtained with isometric radius height.
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Example 27 : Draw the isometric projection of a hemisphere of 60 mm diameter resting on its

curved surface on H.P.
Steps (i) Draw the isometric projection of a circle of 60 mm diameter ie. ellipse by four
center method in H.P. (as learnt in class XI).
(ii) Draw an arc with O as center and half of the major axis of ellipse as radius towards
lower half of the ellipse.
(iii) Complete the hemisphere with dimensioning, center lines and direction of
viewing. Using conventional lines.
60
∅
O 30
30 o
Fig 1.27
EXERCISE
1. Draw an isometric projection of a triangular prism having base edge of 65 mm and axial
height of 85 mm, resting on one of its rectangular faces on H.P. keeping its base
perpendicular to V.P.
2. Draw an isometric projection of a pentagonal prism of base side of 35 mm and axial length
of 60 mm kept on one of its face on H.P. with one rectangular face parallel to H.P. on top
and axis is perpendicular to V.P.
3. A square pyramid is resting on its base, having base edge 60 mm and axial height of 70 mm
with its base edge parallel to V.P. Draw its isometric projection.
4. Draw an isometric projection of a hexagonal pyramid having base edge 35 mm and axis of
65 mm resting on its base on H.P. Keep two of its base side perpendicular to V.P.
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5. Draw an isometric projection of a frustum of hexagonal pyramid of shorter base side of 25

mm and longer base side of 45 mm and height of 75 mm resting on its larger base on H.P.
with two of its base sides parallel to V.P.
6. Draw an isometric projection of a hemisphere of 50 mm diameter kept with circular face

on H.P.
1.4 COMBINATION OF TWO SOLIDS

We have already studied and learnt the isometric projection of single geometrical solids in
vertical position and horizontal position by using box method from the helping view of the solid.
Now we will learn the two geometrical solids placed together i.e. one resting (either vertical or
horizontal) on top of the other solid in isometric position (either vertical or horizontal). This is
known as 'combination of solids'. As per the course content in our syllabus we are going to restrict
our combination using two solids only.
The study of the combination of solids will help us in understanding the machine blocks to be done
in isometric position and assembly drawings of the functional machine components at a later
stage in Engineering Graphics.
Example : 1.21 Draw an Isometric Projection of a square prism having side of the square = 30 mm
and height = 54 mm standing (upright) and centrally on a flat square slab of
thickness = 26 mm and its base side = 52 mm.
SQ
30
54
O
26
30 o
52
30
SQ
o
Fig 1.28
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the square slab.
2. Indicate the center of the top face with centre lines.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw the rhombus of the square prism and lift it upto its
required height.
4. Join all the visible edges (no hidden lines) of the two solids by using thick lines.
5. Complete the isometric projection of the two solids with dimensioning, direction
of viewing and their common axis using convention lines.
Example: 1.22 Draw an Isometric Projection of 32 mm cube resting centrally on the top face of
an equilateral triangular prism having 50 mm base side and height = 30 mm. One
rectangular face of the prism is away from the observer and kept parallel to the
V.P.
32
HELPING FIGURE
32
50
30
50
30°
30°
Fig 1.29
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the box that encloses an equilateral triangular
prism having one of its rectangular face at the back.
2. Indicate the centre of the top face with convention lines.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw the rhombus of the square of cube and lift it upto its
height equal to the side of cube.
of viewing and their common axis using conventional lines.
Example: 1.23 Draw an Isometric Projection of a square pyramid resting vertically and centrally
on the top pentagon face of a pentagonal prism, having one rectangular face
parallel to V.P. while closer to the observer. Side of the square base = 30 mm,
height of pyramid = 50 mm, side of the pentagon = 34 mm and height of the prism
= 52 mm.
50
34 30
52
HELPING FIGURE
34
30 o
30
F
o
Fig 1.30
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the box that encloses pentagonal prism having
one of its rectangular face, in front, parallel to V.P.
2. Indicate the centre of the top face with conventional lines.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw the rhombus of the square base of the pyramid. Draw
the axis of the pyramid from the centre to apex.
Example:1.24 Draw an Isometric Projection of an equilateral triangular pyramid resting

vertically and centrally with one base edge, at the back, parallel to V.P. on the
top face of a hexagonal prism having two of its rectangular faces parallel to V.P.
Side of the triangle = 34 mm, height of pyramid = 50 mm, side of the hexogen = 30
mm and height of the prism = 60 mm.
HELPING FIGURE
50
30
34
O
O
30
60
30 o
30
F
o
Fig 1.31
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the box that encloses hexagonal prism having
two faces parallel to V.P.
2. Indicate the centre of the top hexagon face with conventional lines.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw the equilateral triangle base of the pyramid. Raise the
axis of the pyramid from the center to apex.
Example: 1.25 Draw an Isometric Projection of a vertical regular pentagonal pyramid resting
centrally, having one base edge away from the observer parallel to V.P., on top of
a vertical cylinder. Side of the pentagon = 32 mm, height of pyramid = 50 mm,
diameter of cylinder = 76 mm and height of cylinder = 40 mm.
HELPING FIGURE
32
50
O
40
Ø7
6
30 o
F
30
o
Fig 1.32
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the box that encloses a cylinder. Use four centre
method to form the top elliptical face of the cylinder.
2. Indicate the centre of the top face with conventional lines.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw a pentagonal base of the pyramid. Draw the axis of the
pyramid from the centre to apex.
Example: 1.26 Draw an Isometric Projection of a right circular cone resting vertically and
centrally on the top of pentagonal slab having one of its rectangular face
perpendicular to the observer. Side of pentagon = 46 mm, thickness of slab = 30
mm, diameter of cone = 40 mm and height of cone = 60 mm.
HELPING FIGURE
60
O
46
O
Ø
30
40
46
30 o
30
F
o
Fig 1.33
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the box that encloses a pentagonal prism having
one rectangular face perpendicular to V.P.
2. Indicate the centre of the top pentagonal face with conventional lines.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw a rhombus for the circular base of cone. Using four
centre method draw an ellipse inside. Draw the axis of the cone from the centre
of base to apex.
Exmple : 1.27 Draw an Isometric Projection of hemisphere resting centrally on its curved
surface, on the top horizontal rectangular face of an equilateral triangular prism,
keeping two triangular faces parallel to the V.P. Side of equilateral triangle = 50
mm, length of the prism = 70 mm and diameter of the hemisphere = 60 mm.
Ø6
HELPING FIGURE 0
50
01
ISO 30
50
70
30 o
30
o
F
Fig 1.34
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the horizontal box that encloses an equilateral

triangular prism with a rectangular face on top.
2. Indicate the centre of the top rectangular face with conventional lines.
3. From the centre 'O' draw the axis equal to isometric radius of the hemishphere to
01. Around the centre 'O' 1 draw rhombus. Use four center method to form the top
elliplical face. Draw an arc to complete the curved surface.
of viewing and their axes as applicable, using conventional lines.
Example: 1.28 Draw an Isometric Projection of a sphere resting centrally on a rectangular face
of a horizontal hexagonal prism having its hexagonal ends perpendicular to V.P..
Side of hexagon = 30 mm, length of the prism = 80 mm and diameter of sphere = 60
mm.
ISO 30
HELPING FIGURE
30
TRUE 30
O1
30
80
30°
30°
Fig 1.35
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of the horizontal box that encloses a hexagonal

prism having rectangular face on top.
3. Form the centre 'O' draw the axis equal to isometric radius of sphere to point 'O1'.
From the centre 'O1' draw a full circle equal to true radius of sphere.
of viewing and their axes, as applicable, using conventional lines.
Example: 1.29 Draw an Isometric Projection of a right circular cone resting vertically and
centrally on the top horizontal rectangle of a pentagonal prism having its axis
parallel to H.P. and V.P. both. Side of pentagon = 34 mm, length of the prism = 80
mm, diameter of the cone = 44 mm and height of cone = 60 mm.
HELPING FIGURE
60
34
4
Ø4
34
80
°
30°
F
30
Fig 1.36
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of horizontal box that encloses a pentagonal prism

having one rectangular face on top.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw a rhombus of the circular base of cone. Using four
centre method draw an ellipse inside. Draw the axis of cone from the centre of
apex.
of viewing and their axes as applicable, using conventional lines.
Example: 1.30 Draw an Isometric Projection of a vertical regular hexagonal pyramid resting
vertically and centrally having two of its base edges perpendicular to V.P.. On the
top rectangular face of a horizontal square prism with its square ends
perpendicular to V.P.. Side of the square = 50 mm, length of the prism =100 mm,
side of the hexagon = 30 mm and height of the pyramid = 60 mm
60
HELPING FIGURE
O
30
30
SQ 50
0
10
30°
30°
Fig 1.37
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Steps:
1. Draw an isometric projection of square prism in horizontal position.
3. Around the centre 'O' draw hexagonal base of the pyramid. Draw the axis of the
pyramid from the centre to the apex.
of viewing and their axes, as applicable, using conventional lines.
MORE TO DO
42
Ø
62
50
25
25
80 45
Ø
1. BELOW: HEMISPHERE 2. BELOW: HEXAGONAL SLAB
ABOVE: CYLINDER ABOVE: PENTAGONAL PRISM
COMMON AXIS: VERTICAL COMMON AXIS: VERTICAL
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25
70
0
Ø8
40
0 20 25
Ø8
20
3. BELOW: CIRCULAR SLAB 4. BELOW: CIRCULAR SLAB
ABOVE: HEXAGONAL PRISM ABOVE: PENAGONAL PRISM
COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL AXIS: VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
Ø 50
70
90 40
Ø
70
50
30
70
70
5. BELOW: CIRCULAR SLAB 6. BELOW: CUBE
ABOVE: EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR PRISM ABOVE: CONE
AXIS: VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL COMMON AXIS: VERTICAL
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25
66 56
60
92
Ø
82
54
7. BELOW: CIRCULAR SLAB 8. BELOW: EQUILATERAL HORIZONTAL

TRIANGULAR PRISM
ABOVE: HEXAGONAL PRISM ABOVE: SQUARE PYRAMID
AXIS: VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL AXIS: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
54
Ø
88
Ø
R
66
44
40
70
42
9. BELOW: EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR SLAB 10. BELOW: HEXAGONAL SLAB.
ABOVE: CYLINDER ABOVE: HEMISPHERE
COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL
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42
Ø
50
62
84
Ø
32
44
2
30 10
11. BELOW: CIRCULAR SLAB 12. BELOW: HORIZONTAL HEXAGONAL PRISM
ABOVE: PENTAGONAL AND PYRAMID ABOVE: CYLINDER
COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL AXIS: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
R
25
66
40
32
86 0
Ø8
13. BELOW: EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR SLAB 14. BELOW: HEMISPHERE
ABOVE: HEXAGONAL PYRAMID ABOVE: SPHERE
COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL
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72
60
Ø
66
30
78
Ø
30
78
32
15. BELOW: CIRCULAR SLAB 16. BELOW: HORIZONTAL HEXAGONAL PRISM
ABOVE: HEXAGONAL PYRAMID ABOVE: RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE
COMMON AXIS : VERTICAL AXIS: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
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CHAPTER
2 MACHINE DRAWING
A. DRAWING OF MACHINE PARTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In our day to day life, we come across many objects where bolts and nuts are used to join two
pieces together. For example we use wooden furnitures like desks, stools, tables etc. in school,
showing bolts, nuts and screws. Such machine parts which are used to connect two pieces
together are called as fasteners. There are two types of fasteners, viz, temporary fasteners and
permanent fasteners. Threaded fasteners like bolt and nut are temporary fasteners. The process
of joining different machine parts of machine or engineering products is called as fastening.
Permanent fastening such as welding, riveting etc. join two parts together permanently and they
cannot be separated without breaking the fastening, but in the case of temporary fastening, the
parts are joined together temporarily and can be separated easily without breaking the
fastening.
2.2 SCREW THREAD
HELICAL SCREW THREAD

Fig 2.1 a
Recall that we have studied helix in class XI. A continuous helical groove cut along the outer
circumference of a cylindrical surface is called a screw thread. A screw thread is an operating
element of temporary fastening. Screw thread occurs on practically all engineering products.
FIG.2.1 shows a screw thread/helical groove on a cylindrical rod.
40 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
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MACHINE DRAWING
SCREW THREAD
Fig 2.1 b :
Screw threads are widely used for temporary fastening as well as for transmission of power from
one machine parts to another
2.3 TERMS USED IN THREADS / SCREW THREADS

The various terms in connection with screw threads are given below. Refer Fig.2.2
Outside dia. Depth

Root or core dia.
Slope
Crest Lead
Root Flank
Pitch Angle
Nominal Dia.
Axis
(A) EXTERNAL (B) INTERNAL (C) EXTERNAL

RIGHT HAND THREAD LEFT HAND THREAD LEFT HAND THREAD
Fig.2.2
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MACHINE DRAWING
(i) EXTERNAL THREAD
It is a continuous helical groove or ridge cut along the external surface of the
cylinder, e.g. threads on bolts studs, screws etc. FIG 2.2(a) shows an external
thread.
(ii) INTERNAL THREAD
It is a thread on the internal surface of a hollow cylinder. FIG 2.2(b) shows the
internal threads, e.g. threads of a nut.
(iii) SCREW PAIR
The bolt and nut together called as screw pair. One or more such pairs are used to
join two parts.
(iv) PARALLEL AND TAPER THREAD
A thread formed on the surface of a cylinder is called as parallel or straight thread.

Refer Fig 2.3(a)
(A) PARALLEL THREAD
(B) TAPER THREAD

Fig 2.3
A thread formed on the surface of a cone called as taper thread. Refer FIG 2.3(b)
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MACHINE DRAWING
(v) RIGHT HAND AND LEFT HAND THREADS
Consider any nut and bolt. Hold the bolt firmly in left hand and rotate the nut
clockwise by the right hand, the nut will screw on the bolt of the threads are right
handed. It is abbreviated as RH thread. A left hand screws thread when assembled
with a stationary mating bolt, screws off the bolt for clockwise rotation. It is
abbreviated as LH thread.
Observe that mostly the bolts and nuts that we use in daily life have RH thread.
Also we can observe that all the jewellery mating pieces have LH thread.
(vi) PITCH, P
It is "the distance between the corresponding points on the adjacent threads,

measured parallel to the axis". Refer FIG2.2 (a)
(vii) LEAD,L
It is "the distance moved by a nut or bolt in the axial direction in one complete
rotation".
(viii) SINGLE START AND MULTI START THREADS
When only one helix, forming the thread runs on a cylinder, it is called as single
start thread. If more then one helices run on a cylinder, it is called as multi start
threads.
i.e. L=P in the case of single start
L=2P in the case of double start
L=3P for triple start and so on.
(ix) CREST
It is the edge of the thread surface farthest from the axis, in case of external
thread and nearest to the axis, in case of internal thread
(x) ROOT
It is the edge of the thread surface nearest to the axis in case of external thread
and farthest from the axis, in case of internal thread.
(xi) FLANK
The surface connecting crest and root is called as flank.
(xii) THREAD ANGLE
It is "the angle between the flanks measured in an axial plane".
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MACHINE DRAWING
(xiii) MAJOR DIAMETER OR OUTSIDE DIAMETER
It is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder just touching the crest of

external threads or roots of internal threads. It is the largest diameter of a screw
thread.
(xiv) MINOR DIAMETER OR ROOT DIAMETER OR CORE DIAMETER
It is the diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinder just touching the roots of

external threads or crest of internal threads.
(xv) NOMINAL DIAMETER
It is the diameter of the cylinder from which external threads are cut out. The
screw/bolt is specified by this diameter.
(xvi) FORM / PROFILE OF SCREW THREAD
P P
SECTION
PROFILE OF SCREW THREAD

Fig 2.4
The section of a thread cut by a plane containing the axis is known as the form of
the screw thread. It is also called the profile of the thread. Refer FIG 2.4
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2.4 STANDARD PROFILE / FORM OF SCREW THREADS

There are two basic screw thread profiles. viz.
(a) Triangular or 'V' thread
(b) Square thread.
(a) TRIANGULAR OR 'V' THREAD

When the thread has a triangular or V-cross section, it is called as V-threads. All types of V-
threads have inclined flanks making an angle between them. In the practical use of the
threads, a clearance must be provided between the external and internal threads. V
threads are used "to tighten two parts together" as in bolts and nuts, studs and nuts,
screws etc.
For interchangeability between the screws and nuts of the same nominal diameter and
form, various countries have standardized V-thread profiles. A few such standard thread
forms are given in our syllabus namely
(i) B.S.W. thread
(ii) Metric thread
(b) SQUARE THREAD
When the thread has square cross section it is called as square thread. Flanks of square
threads are vertical and parallel to each other. "square threads are used for power
transmission" on feed mechanism of machine tools, screw jacks etc, when less friction
means saving of power as they offer less frictional resistance. In our syllabus we are going
to study about the standard profile/ form of a few square threads viz.
(i) Square thread
(ii) Knuckle thread
2.4.1 PROFILE OF B.S.W. THREAD
British standard whitworth (B.S.W.) thread is the most widely used form in British
practice. Let us now learn to draw the standard profile of B.S.W. thread.
Example 1: Draw to scale 1:1, standard profile of B.S.W. thread, taking pitch = 40 mm. Give
standard dimensions.
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Solution
P 0.5 P
D
6
D = 0.96 P
d = 0.64 P
55°
D
6
P D d D/6
40 38.4 25.6 6.5
BRITISH STANDARD WHITWORTH THREAD (B.S.W. THREAD)

Fig 2.5
Steps Involved
(i) Draw vertical centre lines separated by the distance of P/2, (P/2=20 mm).
(ii) Draw two horizontal lines separated by a distance of major diameter D=0.96P.
(iii) One sixth of 'D' is cut off parallel to the axis of the screw at top and bottom, to draw
the horizontals for minor diameter, d= 0.64P.
(iv) Draw the basic or fundamental triangles within the D lines, such that the angle
between the flanks is 55°.
(v) Draw arcs at crest and roots, to make it round by any suitable method. The method
is shown clearly in FIG 2.5, or radius of the arc can be taken as r= 0.137P.
(vi) Complete the profile and hatching is done as shown in FIG 2.5, to represent the
external thread.
(vii) Standard dimensions are to be done as shown in the above figure.
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2.4.2 METRIC THREAD
The Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) has recommended the adoption of ISO (INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION) profile with the metric screw thread system. In metric
thread, the external and internal thread vary in shape. It can also be called as unified thread. In
general, this ISO-metric thread will be specified using the basic designation. The basic
designation consist of the letter M followed by the nominal size (major diameter in mm) and
followed by the pitch in mm.
For example
M20 x 1.5 means the major diameter of the metric thread is 20mm and the pitch is 1.5mm. Let us
now draw the standard profiles of metric screw thread
Example 2: Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of metric screw thread (external) taking
enlarged pitch as 50mm. Give standard dimensions.
P 0.5 P
D
8
D = 0.866 P
6 d = 0.61 P
60º
D
EXTERNAL THREAD
P 0.86P 0.61P D/8 D/6

50 43 30.5 6.3 8.3
METRIC SCREW THREAD PROFILE

Fig 2.6
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MACHINE DRAWING
Solution:
(i) Draw vertical centre lines P/2 apart i.e. 50/2=25mm apart.
(ii) Draw horizontals to indicate D, D=0.866, apart.
(iii) Cut off one eighth of D at the top and one sixth of D at the bottom or draw
horizontals to indicate d=0.61P with the 'D'.
(iv) Draw the slanting lines representing the sides of the thread. Here the angle
between the flanks is 60°.
(v) Make the crest flat and roots round. Roots are made round by any suitable method.
(vi) Hatching is done as shown in fig.2.6. This lower hatched profile shows the basic
form of the bolt.
(vii) Dimensioning is done as shown is FIG 2.6
Example 3 : Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of metric screw thread (internal) taking
enlarged pitch as 50mm. Give standard dimensions.

D
8d = 0.54 P
D = 0.866 P
60º
D
4
P 0.5 P
INTERNAL THREAD
P D=0.86P d=0.54P D/8 D/4

50 43 27 6.3 12.5
METRIC SCREW THREAD PROFILE

Fig 2.7
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Steps involved are similar to the previous example. Here the upper hatched profile shows the
basic form of nut.
2.4.3 SQUARE THREAD
Mechanisms of machine tools, valves, spindles, vice screws etc. are generally provided with
square threads. A "square thread (SQ) is specified by nominal diameter and pitch". For example a
square thread of nominal diameter = 40 mm and pitch = 4mm is designated as SQ 40x4
Let us now learn to draw the standard profile of a square thread, taking enlarged pitch as 60mm.
Steps Involved
(i) Draw two horizontals, P/2 apart i.e. 60/2= 30mm apart.
(ii) Draw a number of perpendiculars, 30mm apart so as to have a row of squares.
(iii) Hatching and dimensioning is done as shown in fig 2.8
P 0.5P
0.5P
90º
P 0.5P ANGLE
60 30 90°
PROFILE OF SQUARE SCREW THREAD

Fig 2.8
2.4.4 KNUCKLE THREAD
Knuckle thread is a modified form of square thread. Knuckle thread is a special purpose thread. It
is used in railway carriage coupling screws and on the neck of glass bottles.
Let us now draw the standard profile of Knuckle thread.
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 5 : Draw to scale, 1:1, the standard profile of a Knuckle thread, taking enlarged pitch
as 40mm
Solution : Refer Fig.2.10
P 0.5P
R=0.25P
0.5P
P 0.5P 0.25P
40 20 10
PROFILE OF A KNUCKLE SCREW THREAD

Fig 2.10
Steps Involved
(i) Draw a thin centre line.
(ii) On either side of the centre line draw a row of tangential semi circles as shown
clearly in fig 2.10 Care should be taken in free flowing of semi circles into one
another.
(iii) Hatching and dimensioning is done as shown in fig 2.10
Exercises
1. Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of BSW thread, taking enlarged pitch as
30mm. Give standard dimensions.
2. Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of metric thread (external) taking enlarged
pitch as 60mm. Give standard dimensions.
3. Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of metric thread (internal) taking enlarged
pitch as 60mm. Give standard dimensions.
4. Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of square thread, taking enlarged pitch as
5. Draw to scale 1:1, the standard profile of knuckle thread, taking enlarged pitch as
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2.5 BOLTS
In day to day life, we can observe many machine parts joined by bolt and nut. Now, let us study
about the bolts.
A bolt consists of a cylindrical body with one end threaded and the other end converted into a
head. It is passed through clearance holes (diameter slightly more than nominal diameter of bolt)
in two or more aligned parts. A nut is screwed on the threaded end of the bolt to tighten the parts
together. Different types of bolts are used for different purposes. The shape of the head also
depends upon the purpose for which the bolt is used. The length of a bolt is its total length,
"excluding the height or thickness of bolt head". Bolt has external thread. An external thread is
represented by "discontinuous, minor diameter circle".
THREADED LENGTH
T LENGTH OF THE BOLT
THICKNESS OF SQUARE BOLT

THE BOLT HEAD Fig 2.11a
We are going to study about the following types of bolts
(i) Hexagonal headed bolt
(ii) Square headed bolt
(iii) Tee headed bolt
(iv) Hook bolt
2.5.1 HEXAGONAL HEADED BOLT
It is the most commonly used form of the bolt. The head of a

hexagonal head bolt is a hexagonal prism with a conical
chamfer rounded off at an angle of 30° on the outer end face.
All dimensions of a hexagonal head bolt and hexagonal nut are
same except the height or thickness of the hexagonal head. The
approximate height/thickness of the bolt head is 0.8d (d is the
diameter of the bolt). A little portion (about 3 mm) of the
threaded end should remain outside the nut.
Let us now learn to draw the views of a hexagonal headed bolt.
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EXAMPLE 6: Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and side view of a hexagonal headed bolt of
diameter 30mm, keeping the axis parallel to H.P and V.P. The length of the bolt is
120mm.
Solution: Refer Fig. 2.12a

0.8d SHANK LENGTH 1.5d+3
2d+6
60°
d
R=
Ø 30
60°
60°
0.8d
30° FRONT VIEW
LEFT HAND SIDE VIEW
d 0.8d 1.5d+3 2d+6
30 24 48 66
HEXAGONAL BOLT
Fig 2.12a
Steps Involved
(i) "Start with the view where circles are seen". Here the side view shows the circles
representing the shank. So, start with the side view.
(ii) Draw a circle of given diameter, d= 30mm
(iii) Draw another circle of diameter 0.8d (24mm), which is shown as

broken/discontinuous circle. (Broken part is shown in III quadrant) 'This inner
broken circle indicates that the thread on the bolt is an external thread'.
(iv) Draw another circle of diameter 1.5d+3 mm

(48 mm) indicate the chamfering circle.
(v) Circumscribe hexagon around the chamfering

circle as in Fig. 2.12b using 30°-60° degree
set square and minidrafter. 30º 30º
(vi) After completing the side view, the front view

will be drawn by taking projections. Project
the shank diameter (d= 30 mm) from the side
view. Draw a rectangle of size 30x120 mm for
the shank (120 mm is the length of the shank) Fig 2.12 b
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(vii) The end of the bolt is rounded and is done with the radius equal to the diameter of
the bolt. (R = d = 30mm)
(viii) Indicate the threaded portion (by projecting the 0.8d = 24mm circle with "thin
continuous lines") at the end of the shank for the length of 2d+6 mm =66mm
(ix) Draw the head of the bolt in the front view, by projecting the hexagon from the
side view. Size A/C (across corners) will be projected to get the width of the head.
Height of the head is taken as 0.8d= 24mm.
(x) The three faces of the hexagonal head with chamfering arcs is drawn by any of the
appropriate method.
(xi) The centers of chamfering arcs for the three faces may be located as shown in the
Fig 2.12a
Keep in your mind that, on elevation showing "three faces" of the hexagonal head,
show the upper corners of the head chamfered. On elevations showing "two faces"
of the hexagonal head, show the upper corners square.
2.5.2 SQUARE HEADED BOLT
It is also the common form of the bolt and is

generally used where the head of the bolt is to be
accommodated in a recess. The recess itself is in the
form of square in which the head rests having a little
clearance. "The square recess prevents the head
from rotating" when the nut is screwed on or off.
When the square head of the bolt projects outside
the parts to be joined, it is provided with a square
nut. The dimensions of the square head are as those
of the square nut "except the height or thickness" Fig 2.13
Let us now learn how to draw the views of a square

headed bolt.
Example 7 : Draw to scale 1:1 the Front view and Plan of a square head bolt when it axis is
perpendicular to H.P. Take the diameter of the bolt as 24mm, and length as 110
mm.
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Steps Involved Ød
(i) Since the circles are seen in the top

view, start with the top view. Draw a
d
R=
circle of diameter, d= 24 mm.
SHANK LENGTH
2d+6
(ii) Within the'd' circle, draw an another
0.8d
discontinuous/broken circle of
diameter = 0.8d say 19.2 mm to the
bolt.
(iii) Draw the chamfering circle of
2d
diameter =1.5d+3 mm, say 39 mm.
R=
(iv) Circumscribe square around the
chamfering circle.
0.8d
(v) Project the Front view from the top
view. Construct a rectangle of size
Ød x length of the bolt, 24x110mm. FRONT VIEW
The end of the bolt is rounded and is
done with the radius equal to the
1.5d+3
diameter of the bolt. (R = d = 24 mm)

Indicate the threaded portion at the
end of the shank for the length of 2d+6
mm = 54 mm.
TOP VIEW
(vi) Bolt head is drawn by projecting the
front view. Construct a rectangle of
(1.5d+3)x0.8d say 39x19.2 mm. d 0.8d 1.5d+3 2d+6 2d
(vii) Chamfering arc is drawn with radius of 24 19.2 39 54 48

R = 2d = 48 mm.
SQUARE BOLT
(viii) All the standard dimensions are given
Fig. 2.14
as shown in the Fig. 2.14
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2.5.3 T-BOLT
(I) T-BOLT (II) T-SLOT
Fig 2.15
The head of this bolt is just like the English alphabet 'T' Fig 2.15(i). It is "used in machine
tool tables". Corresponding T-slots are cut into the table [see Fig 2.15 (ii)] to
accommodate the T-head of the bolt. A square neck is usually provided with the head.
Example 8 : Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and side view of a T-Headed bolt of diameter
20mm. Keep the axis parallel to V.P and H.P.
0.7d 0.7d 2d+6

0.8 d
1.8 d
Ød
R =
d
SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
d 0.7d 0.85d 1.8d

20 14 17 36
T-HEADED BOLT
Fig. 2.16
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MACHINE DRAWING
Steps Involved
(i) Start with the side view where circles are seen. Draw outer and inner circle of
diameter, d= 25 mm and 0.8d= 20 mm respectively, with inner circle discontinuous
or broken.
(ii) Then the front view is drawn with the shank and bolt head as shown clearly in the
Fig. 2.16
Observe that the square cross section is shown by drawing thin cross lines
(iii) Then complete the side view by projecting the T-head.
(iv) Dimensioning is done as shown in the Fig. 2.16
2.5.4 HOOK BOLT/J-BOLT
0.8d
d
R =0.9d
(a) J-BOLT IN POSITION (b) PICTORIAL VIEW OF A J BOLT
HOOK BOLT / J-BOLT

Fig 2.17
Fig 2.17(b) shows the pictorial view of a hook bolt. It is segment of a circular plate form of
the bolt of which the head projects only in the side of the shank. The shank of the bolt
passes through a hole in one part only. The other part to be joined comes under the head of
the bolt. A hook bolt is usually provided with a square neck to prevent its rotation while
tightening.
Example 9 : Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and plan of hook bolt with diameter 20 mm,
keeping the axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
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MACHINE DRAWING
Steps Involved Ød
(i) Start with the view having
circles. Here start with the
R=d
top view. Draw centre lines
and draw outer and inner
circle of diameter d= 20mm
2d+6
and 0.8d= 16mm respectively.
To indicate the external
thread of the bolt, 0.8d circle d 20
is drawn broken.
0.7d 14
(ii) Complete the shank portion of
0.8d 16
0.7d
the front view as shown
clearly in the Fig. 2.18 0.9d 18
(iii) Head portion of the front view
is complete and the square
Radius = 0.9d
cross section is shown as thin
FRONT VIEW
cross lines.
(iv) Complete the hook portion of
the top view by projecting the
front view.
(v) Dimensioning is done as
TOP VIEW
shown in the Fig 2.18
Exercises HOOK BOLT / J-BOLT
Fig 2.18
NOTE: Assume missing dimensions proportionately
1. Draw to scale 1:1, the Front view, Top view and side view of a hexagonal head bolt of
diameter 24mm, keeping the axis parallel to H.P and V.P. The two opposite sides of the
hexagonal head is parallel to V.P. The length of the bolt is 120 mm.
2 Draw to scale 1:1, the Front elevation and Side view of a hexagonal headed bolt of
diameter 20mm, keeping the axis parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.
3 Draw to scale 1:1, the Front elevation and Plan of a hexagonal head bolt of M3O size,
4 Draw to scale 1:1, the Front view and Side view of a hexagonal headed bolt of diameter
24mm, keeping the axis parallel to V.P and H.P. Two opposite sides of the hexagonal head is
perpendicular to V.P. Take the following dimensions.
Length of the bolt = 120mm
Threaded length of the bolt = 80mm
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5 Draw to scale full size, the Front view, Top view and Side view of a square head bolt of
diameter 24mm, keeping its axis horizontal.
6 Draw to scale 1:1, the Elevation and Plan of a square head bolt of diameter 30mm, when
its axis is perpendicular to H.P. Give standard dimensions.
7 Draw to scale 1:1, the Front view and Side view of a T-head bolt of diameter 20mm. keep
the axis of the bolt parallel to V.P and H.P.
8 Draw to scale 1:1, the Front elevation and Plan of a tee head bolt of diameter 24mm,
keeping the axis perpendicular to H.P.
9 Draw to scale full size, the Elevation and Plan of a hook bolt with diameter = 20mm,
10 Draw to scale 1:1, the Front view, Side view of a hook bolt with diameter 25mm, when its
axis parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.
2.6 NUTS
A nut is a machine element having a threaded hole that engages with the threaded end of the bolt.
There are different types of nuts in use. In our syllabus, we are going to study about hexagonal nut
and square nut.
2.6.1 HEXAGONAL NUT
Refer Fig 2.19
The most commonly used type of nut is the

hexagonal nut. It is a hexagonal prism
provided with a threaded hole. Upper
corners of a nut are "chamfered" or
"rounded- off". Chamfering is done to
remove sharp corners to ensure the safety
of the user. The angle of chamfer is usually
"30° with the base of the nut". The
chamfering gives arcs on the vertical faces
of the nut and circle on the top surface of
the nut. The chamfering circle on the top
surface touches the mid points of all the
Fig 2.19
side of the nut which can be seen in the
top view.
Let us now learn to draw the views of a hexagonal nut.
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 10 : Draw to scale 1:1, the front view, top view and side view of a hexagonal nut of size
M30, keeping the axis perpendicular to H.P. Give standard dimensions.
Solution Refer Fig 2.20
30°
60° d 30
d
R=
d
0.8d 24
1.5d+3 48
60°
FRONT VIEW LEFT HAND SIDE VIEW
Ød NOTE : The size of chamfer

circle can be taken 1.5d
1.5d+3
or 1.5d+3 in square / hex.

head bolt and nut.
0.8d
TOP VIEW
HEXAGONAL NUT
Fig 2.20
Steps Involved
(i) Start with the top view, where circles are

seen. Draw a circle of diameter d = 30mm.
Describe this circle as discontinuous circle to
indicate the internal thread of a nut.
(ii) Draw an another circle of diameter 0.8d = 30º 30º

24mm
(iii) Draw the third circle which is of chamfering

circle of diameter 1.5d+3 = 48mm.
(iv) Circumscribe a hexagon around the

chamfering circle using the 30°- 60° degree HEXAGONAL NUT
set square and mini drafter as shown in fig
Fig 2.21
2.21.
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MACHINE DRAWING
(v) Project the top view to get front view. Front view has three faces if nut is placed
across corner (A/C) and front view has two faces if the nut is placed across flats
(A/F). This is the common position for the nut.
(vi) Chamfering arcs in the front view may be done by any suitable method. One of the
methods is clearly shown in figure 2.20.
The alternate method is given below for your reference.
• On the front view, describe arc ABC [fig.2.22] of radius 1.2d = 3mm. It cuts
the verticals in A and C. Here d = 25mm.
• Bisect the chord between D and A and between C and E.
• On the bisectors we shall expect to find the center of the arcs which flow
through DKA and CE.
• Join DK and bisect at right angles, thus locating the center of arc DKA.
Note that arc CE will also have the same radius.
(vii) Side view is projected from front view and top view. Side view and front view have
same height but different width.
(viii) Give the standard dimensions as shown in fig 2.20.
SIZE ACROSS CORNERS
K 30°
D A B C E
.2d
d
ØR=1
d
d 25
1.2d 30
1.5d+3 40.5
HEXAGONAL NUT
Fig 2.22
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2.6.2 SQUARE NUTS
SQUARE NUTS
Fig 2.23
A square nut is also one of the main forms of nuts. It is a square prism provided with a
threaded hole. The upper corners of a square nut are chamfered in the same way as of
hexagonal nut. Now, let us learn to draw the view of a square nut.
Example 11: Draw to scale 1:1, the Front elevation and Plan of a square nut of diameter 25mm,
keeping its axis vertical and two of the opposite edges of the square face parallel
to V.P.
Steps Involved
(i) Start with the top view. With same point as center, draw three circles of diameter d
= 25 mm, 0.8d = 20 mm, 1.5d =37.5 mm respectively.
Indicate the internal thread of the nut by drawing Ød circle discontinuous.
(ii) Circumscribe square around the chamfering circle of diameter 1.5d (37.5 mm)
(iii) Project the top view to get the front view. Front view is a rectangle of size
(1.5dxd) 37.5x25 mm.
(v) Chamfering arc in the front view is drawn with the radius R = 2d = 50 mm.
NOTE: that if one face the square nut is seen in the front view, make the corners squared.
(at 90° degree)
(v) Dimensioning is done as shown in Fig. 2.24
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MACHINE DRAWING
d
R=2
FRONT VIEW
Ød d
0.8
1.5 d
d 25
0.8d 20
1.5d 37.5
SQUARE NUT ACROSS FLAT

TOP VIEW
Fig 2.24
Example 12 : Draw to scale full size the Front View and Top View of a square nut of diameter
25mm, keeping its axis vertical with the diagonal on the square face parallel to V.P.
30°
60°
60°
d
FRONT VIEW
0.8d
Ød
d 0.8d 1.5d
1.
5
d
25 20 37.5
TOP VIEW
SQUARE NUT ACROSS CORNER
Fig 2.25
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MACHINE DRAWING
Steps Involved :
(i) Start with the top view. Describe three circles of diameter d = 25mm, 0.8d =
20mm, 1.5d = 37.5mm respectively. (Ød circle is broken to represent the internal
thread of the nut.)
(ii) Circumscribe square around the chamfering circle as shown in Fig 2.25
(iii) Project the Top View to draw the Front View
(iv) Complete the Front View as shown in Fig. 2.25.
NOTE: that when two faces of square nut are seen in front view, the corners are
chamfered.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The hexagonal nut takes preference over the other nuts. A spanner is used to turn
the nut on or off the bolt. The jaws of the spanner come across the opposite flats of
the nut. The angle through which the spanner will have to be turned to get another
hold is only 60 in case of a hexagonal nut but 90° for a square nut. Though the angle
is 45 in case of the octagonal nut, it is rarely used due to its complicated process of
construction. So, it is more convenient to screw on a hexagonal nut than a square
nut in a limited space for turning the spanner.
Exercises :
NOTE : Assume missing dimensions proportionately
1. Draw to scale 1:1, the front elevation and plan of a hexagonal nut keeping axis
vertical, when two of the opposite sides of the hexagon are parallel to V.P. Give
standard dimensions.
2. Draw to scale 1:1, the Plan and Front View of a hexagonal nut, taking nominal
diameter of the bolt = 30mm, keeping the axis perpendicular to H.P and two
opposite sides of the hexagon perpendicular to V.P. Give standard dimensions.
3. Draw to scale 1:1, the Front View and Plan of square nut, taking nominal diameter
= 30mm, keeping the axis perpendicular to H.P and two opposite sides of the
square parallel to V.P. Give standard dimensions.
4. Draw to scale 1:1, the Front View and Top View of a square nut, taking nominal
diameter =30mm, keeping the axis perpendicular to H.P and two opposite sides of
the square perpendicular to V.P. Give standard dimensions.
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5. Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and plan of a square nut, taking d = 30mm,
keeping the axis perpendicular to H.P and the diagonal of the square face parallel
to V.P. Give standard dimensions.
2.7 WASHER
You must have seen the circular plate called washer fitted in your mini drafter. Even, in jewellery
item like ear tops/studs, washer may be used to tighten the screw. There are two main kinds of
washer used in machinery, namely
(i) Plain washer.
(ii) Spring washer.
We are going to study only about the plain washer in our syllabus.
2.7.1 PLAIN WASHER
A plain washer see fig. 2.26 is a circular plate

having a hole in its centre. It is placed below the
nut to provide "a flat smooth bearing surface".
The use of a washer is recommended where the
surface of the machine part is rough for a nut to
seat. Washer also prevents the nut from cutting
into the metal thus allowing the nut to be WASHER
screwed more tightly. Fig 2.26
Example 13: Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and top view of a washer, taking the nominal
diameter of the bolt on which the washer is used = 25mm. Keep the circular face of
the washer parallel to V.P
1
D+
D 2D+3 D/8
25 53 3
D
8
2D+3mm
PLAIN WASHER
Fig 2.27
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MACHINE DRAWING
Steps Involved
(i) Start with the Front View, which comprises two circles with diameter D+1 = 26mm,
2D+3 = 53mm.
(ii) Project the front view to get the Top View which is a rectangle of size,[(2D+3) x
D/8], 53x3 mm. Complete the Top View as shown in the Fig 2.27
2.8 COMBINATION OF BOLT, NUT AND WASHER FOR ASSEMBLING TWO

PARTS TOGETHER
In common machineries used at home, we might have observed the assembly of bolt, nut and
washer to connect two parts together. See Fig 2.28
Bolt
Nut
Washer
NUT, BOLT AND WASHER

Fig 2.28
In the earlier topics, we learnt how to draw the views of bolt, nut and washer separately. Here,
we expect to understand the views of the assembly of bolt, nut and washer.
Example 14: Draw to scale 1:1, the Front View, Top View and side view of a hexagonal headed
bolt of diameter 25mm with hexagonal nut and washer, keeping the axis parallel to
V.P and H.P
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MACHINE DRAWING
BOLT UPTO 2d+6

30° WASHER
NUT
Ø2d
Ø2d+3
d
R=
Ød
0.8d d
W
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
TOP VIEW
COMBINATION OF HEXAGONAL HEADED BOLT WITH HEXAGONAL NUT & WASHER

Fig 2.29
Steps Involed:
(i) Since the axis is parallel to both V.P and H.P, the side view reveals more
information about the shape of the object. So start with side view, where circles
are seen.
(ii) Draw two circles of diameter d = 25mm and 0.8d = 20mm, in dotted lines to
indicate the invisible feature from left side.
(iii) Draw the chamfering circle of diameter, 1.5d + 3mm =40.5mm
(iv) Circumscribe hexagon around the chamfering circle, using set-square and
minidrafter.
(v) Then draw a circle of diameter 2d + 3mm = 53mm for washer.
(vi) Project the side view to front view and top-view.
(vii) Both the views are completed as shown in the Fig 2.29
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 15: Draw to scale 1:1, the Front View and Side View of an assembly of hexagonal bolt of
diameter 24mm bolt length = 90mm and a hexagonal nut, keeping the axis parallel
to H.P and V.P
The steps involved are similar to the previous example.

0.8d 2d+6
Ød Ø1.5d+3
Ø0.8d
Ød
1.2 d
L
RIGHT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
d 0.8d 1.2d 1.5d+3 2d+6 L

24 19.2 28.8 39 54 90
COMBINATION OF HEXAGONAL HEADED BOLT WITH HEXAGONAL NUT

Fig 2.30
Example 16: Draw to scale 1:1, the Front View and Side View of an assembly of a square bolt of
diameter 25 mm and a square nut, keeping the axis parallel to V.P and H.P. Take
length of the bolt as 100 mm.
The figure is self explanatory.

1.5 d 0.8 d d
R=
2d
Ød
0.8 d
d 0.8d 1.5d 2d 2d+6 L
25 20 37.5 50 56 90
SQUARE BOLT AND SQUARE NUT IN POSITION

Fig 2.31
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MACHINE DRAWING
Exercises:
1. Draw to scale 1:1, the front view, top view and side view of an assembly of
hexagonal headed bolt of 30mm diameter with hexagonal nut and washer, keeping
the axis parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.
2. Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and side view of an assembly of a hexagonal bolt
of diameter 30mm and a hexagonal nut, keeping the axis parallel to V.P and H.P.
3. Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and side view of a square headed bolt of size M24,
fitted with a square nut, keeping their common axis parallel to V.P and H.P.
4. Draw to scale 1:1, the front view and side view of the assembly of square headed
bolt with a hexagonal nut and a washer, with the diameter of bolt as 30mm,
keeping their axis parallel to V.P and H.P and two of the opposite sides of the
square head of the bolt and of the hexagonal nut, parallel to V.P.
2.9 RIVETS AND RIVETED JOINTS.

We are familiar with riveted joints with our kitchen wares likes pressure cooker and frying pan. In
pressure cooker, the handle is joined to the body by means of rivets. We can even notice the rivets
fitted, in shoes belts etc.
Rivets are one of the permanent fasteners and is used widely in steel structures. Rivets are used in
bridges, boilers and other engineering works. A rivet is a simple round rod having head at its one
end (see fig 2.32)
(i) (ii)
RIVETS
Fig 2.32
and the other end is made in the form of head when it is assembled to fasten the parts.
Rivet heads are of many shapes. The most common and easiest form of rivet is "snap head rivet"
(see Fig 2.32 (i)). It is also known as "cup head" or "spherical-head" rivet.
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MACHINE DRAWING
Riveted joints are of two types namely
(i) Lap joint
(ii) Butt joint
Lap joints may be single, double and multiple riveted. In class XII, we are going to study the views
of "single" riveted lap joint.
2.9.1 ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS OF SINGLE RIVETED LAP JOINT
In single riveted lap joint, the plates to be joined together overlap each other and "a single
row of rivets" passes through both the plates.
PITCH
SINGLE RIVETED LAP JOINT.

Fig, 2.33
Let us now learn how to draw the views of single riveted lap joint.
Example 17: Draw to scale 1:1, the top view and sectional front view of single riveted lap joint,
when the thickness of the plates to be joined = 16mm.

FRONT VIEW IN SECTION AT AA
R=0.8d
0.7d
100
t
d t 25
t
m=1.5d m=1.5d d=6√t 24
m=1.5d 36
P=3d 72
P=3d
A A
SINGLE RIVETED LAP JOINT

TOP VIEW Fig, 2.34
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MACHINE DRAWING
Steps Involved:
Before starting the view, the standard dimensions are to be calculated as follows.
Let't' be the thickness of the plates to be be joined. Here t =16mm
The empirical formula for calculating the diameter'd' of the rivet to be used is given as
d = 6√t mm
So, d = √16
= 6x4 mm
d = 24 mm is the diameter of the rivet to be used in this case.
The margin 'm' is "the distance from the centre of the rivet to the nearest edge of the
plate", and is taken as m = 1.5d
= 1.5x24
= 36 mm
The pitch 'p' is the distance between the centres of the adjacent rivets, and is taken as
P = 3d
= 3x24
= 72mm
The angle 10 degree is made by the fullering tool (a special punch or chisel) to make the
joint leak proof. (The process of fullering is beyond the scope of this book.)
Then the top view and the sectional front view are to be done as shown clearly in fig 2.34.
The edges of the plates in the top view are shown in wavy lines to represent that "a part of
plates" are shown.
Exercises
NOTE: Assume the missing dimensions proportionately
1. Draw to scale full size, the full sectional front view of a single riveted lap joint,
taking thickness of the plates as 09mm. Give standard dimensions.
2. Draw to scale 1:1, the front view in section and plan of a single riveted lap joint,
taking the thickness of the plates as 25mm. Give standard dimensions.
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MACHINE DRAWING
2.10 INTRODUCTION
FREE HAND SKETCHES OF MACHINE PARTS
In freehand sketches of machine parts, the students must do the drawing without the use
of scale, instrument etc., Appropriate measurement is taken and correspondingly a table
for each figure must be made showing calculated values. The figure must show the
dimensions in terms of diameter 'd'.
2.11 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF THREADS

In actual projection, the edges of threads would be represented by helical curves. It takes a lot of
time to draw helical curves. So, for convenience sake threads are generally shown by
conventional methods recommended by B.I.S
2.11.1 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF EXTERNAL V-THREADS
The Bureau of Indian standards has recommended a very simple method of representing V-
threads. Fig 2.35 shows the simplified representation of external V-threads. According to
this convention, two continuous thick lines and two continuous thin lines are drawn to
represent crest and roots of the thread respectively. The limit of useful length of the
thread is indicated by a thick line perpendicular to the axis.
CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF EXTERNAL V-THREADS

Fig 2.35
The other way of representing external V-thread is as follows.
(i) Draw a rectangle (see fig 2.36) representing a cylinder with diameter equal to the
nominal diameter of the bolt.
(ii) Draw a line AB perpendicular to the bolt.
(iii) Make a point B' such that BB' = 0.5xpitch. BB is called as slope = 0.5P for a single
start thread. B' is located on the lower line for a right hand thread (RH thread)
A P
B B'
SLOPE = 0.5 P
RIGHT HAND V-THREAD
Fig 2.36
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MACHINE DRAWING
(iv) Fig 2.36 is the representation of RH thread. In the case of RH thread, for a
clockwise rotation, the thread is screwed on.
(v) Draw two thin lines parallel to the axis representing the roots of the thread.
(vi) On the thick line, mark the divisions equal to pitch. On the thin line, mark the
divisions = (p/2) such that they form the shape of 'V'
(vii) Join root to root points with thick lines and crest to crest points with thin lines
(viii) The side view has two circles representing the crest and root of the thread. Crest
circle is thick and continuous, whereas root circle is drawn thin and incomplete to
represent the external thread.
Similarly the LH-external V-thread can be represented as follows. Note that the
slope point is located on the top line and inclination of the line is opposite of
RH thread. see fig 2.37
Slope = 0.5P
B B'
A
LEFT HAND V-THREAD
Fig 2.37
2.11.2 CONVENTIONAL REPRESETATION OF INTERNAL V-THREADS
Fig 2.38 shows the representation of internal V-threads. It shows the sectional view of a
threaded hole in the front view. Thick line indicates the crest and thin line indicates the
root. Section (hatching) lines are extended up to thick lines. The side view shows a thick
circle representing the crest and roots by thin incomplete circle
CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF INTERNAL V-THREADS

Fig 2.38
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MACHINE DRAWING
2.11.3 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF EXTERNAL SQUARE THREADS
Fig 2.39(i) shows the conventional representation of external RH square threads. The
figure is self explanatory. Fig 2.39(ii) shows the LH square threads.
P
Slope = 0.5 P
RIGHT HAND SQUARE THREAD
Fig 2.39(i)
P
LEFT HAND SQUARE THREAD

Fig 2.39(ii)
2.11.4 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF INTERNAL SQUARE THREADS
Fig 2.40(i) shows the representation of RH internal square threads and fig 2.40(ii) shown
LH internal square thread.
RIGHT HAND THREAD LEFT HAND THREAD

(INTERNAL) (INTERNAL)
Fig 2.40 (i) Fig 2.40 (ii)
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MACHINE DRAWING
Exercises
Note: Take p = 5mm and other dimensions suitably
1. Sketch freehand the conventional representation of internal and external 'V'
threads.
2. Sketch freehand the single start conventional LH external square threads.
3. Sketch freehand the single start conventional RH external square threads.
4. Sketch freehand the conventional representation of internal and external square
threads.
2.12 STUDS
A stud is a cylindrical piece of metal having
threads at both ends and is plain cylinder or
square cross section/ square neck or plain
cylinder or with collar in the central portion. STUD
Fig 2.41
For connecting two parts, one end (metal end) of
the stud is screwed into a threaded hole in one part and the other end (nut end) is passed through
a clearance hole in the other part, so that the plain portion of the stud remains within this hole. A
nut is screwed on the open end of the stud. The portion of the stud where nut is screwed on is
called nut end and the other end of the stud is called metal end or stud end.
Stud is a headless bolt and is used where sufficient space for bolt head is not available. The
following fig 2.42 shows the view of a plain stud, stud with square neck and stud with collar.
NUT END
2d+6
2d+6
2d+6
Ød
Ød
d
0.4 d
1.5 d
d to 1.5d
d to 1.5d
Ød METAL END
(i) PLAIN STUD (ii) STUD WITH (iii) STUD WITH

SQUARE NECK COLLAR
Fig 2.42
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 18: Sketch freehand the Front view and

Top view of a Plain stud of diameter =
NUT END SIDE

20mm, keeping its axis vertical.
2d+6
Solution: Fefer Fig 2.43
Steps Involved:
(i) Calculate the values of standard d 20

dimensions. 0.85d 17
ANY
Ød
(ii) Draw free hand two circles of 1.5d 30
diameters d =20mm and 0.85d = 17
2d+6 46
mm as top view.
END SIDE
d to 1.5 d
METAL
(iii) Draw a rectangle for the front view
with approximate measurements.
(iv) The metal end is chamfered and the FRONT VIEW

nut end is either chamfered or 0.85 d
rounded.
(v) Dimension the views in term of 'd'.
TOP VIEW
PLAIN STUD
Fig 2.43
Example 19: Sketch free hand the Front view and Side view of a collar stud with diameter 20
mm, when its axis is parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.
Solution
0.4d
2d+6
R=
Ø 1.5 d
d
Ød

d 1.5d 2d+6 0.4d
20 30 46 08
COLLAR STUD
Fig 2.44
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MACHINE DRAWING
Exercises:
1. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a Plain stud of diameter = 25mm,
keeping its axis perpendicular to H.P. Give standard dimensions.
2. Sketch freehand the Front elevation and Side view of a Plain stud of diameter d =
25mm, with its axis parallel to V.P and H.P.Give standard dimensions.
3. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a stud with a square neck, keeping
the axis perpendicular to H.P. Give standard dimensions.
4. Sketch freehand the Front elevation and Side view of a stud with a square neck,
keeping the axis parallel to V.P.Give standard dimensions.
5. Sketch freehand, the Front view and Plan of a stud with collar, keeping the axis
vertical. Give standard dimensions.
2.13 MACHINE SCREWS

A screw is a bolt which is threaded throughout its length. Generally it is
screwed into a threaded hole/tapped hole. Screws or machine screws are
available with different shapes of heads. The commonly used types of machine
SCREW
screws are shown in fig 2.46 Fig 2.45
0.2d Ø 1.5d
R-0.9d Ø 1.8d
0.2d 0.25d
0.4d
0.25d 0.13d
0.2d
0.8d
R=d
0.8d
0.25d
45°
0.12d
0.85d
0.85d 0.85d 0.85d
L
45°
Ød 0.6d
Ød Ød Ød
FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
Ød = 10
TOP VIEW
ROUND CUP HEAD CHEESE HEAD COUNTERSUNK HEAD GRUB SCREW
MACHINE SCREWS Fig 2.46
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MACHINE DRAWING
d L
0.5d
0.85d
Ø 1.5 d
0.8d
Ød
0.12d
FRONT VIEW LEFT SIDE VIEW
SOCKET HEAD SCREW
Fig 2.46
Example 20: Sketch freehand the front view and top view of a cheese head screw of size M2O,
keeping its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.

1.5d
0.2d
0.8d
0.25d
0.85d
d 20
0.85d 17
Ød
FRONT VIEW 0.2d 04
0.25d 05
0.8d 16
1.5d 30
TOP VIEW
Fig 2.47
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 21: Sketch freehand the front view and top view of a 90° flat counter sunk machine
screw of size M2O, keeping its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.

1.8d
0.2d
0.25d
°
45
d 20
0.85d
0.2d 4
0.25d 5
Ød
FRONT VIEW d/8 2.5
0.85d 17
1.8d 36
TOP VIEW
90° FLAT CSK SCREW
Fig 2.48
Example 22: Sketch freehand the front view and top view of a socket head machine screw of
size M10, keeping its axis perpendicular to H.P. Give standard dimensions.
0.12d
0.85d
d 10
0.5d
0.8d 8
0.85d 8.5
1.5d 15
0.85d
0.12d 1.2
0.5d 5
0.8d
Ød
FRONT VIEW
SOCKET HEAD
MACHINE SCREW
Fig 2.49
TOP VIEW
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MACHINE DRAWING
Exercises
1. Sketch freehand the Front view and Side view of a round head screw of size M10,
keeping its axis horizontal. Give standard dimensions.
2. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of cheese head machine screw of size
M10, keeping its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
3. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a 90 degree flat counter sunk
machine screw of size M10, keeping its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
4. Sketch freehand the Front view and Side view of a hexagonal socket head machine
screw of size M2O, keeping its axis parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard
dimensions.
5. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a grub screw of size M10, keeping
its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
6. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a grub screw of size M2O, keeping
its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
2.14 RIVET HEADS

We already know that, a rivet is a small cylindrical piece of metal having a head, body and a tail.
While adjoining two parts, the tail is made into the form of head. The commonly used types of
rivet heads are shown in fig 2.50
TYPES OF RIVETS
Fig 2.50
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MACHINE DRAWING
Fig 2.51 shows views of some of the types of rivets given in our syllabus.
Ø1.6d
0.25d
R=0.8d Ød
Ø1.5d Ø2d
0.7d
0.7d
0.5
d
60°
Ød Ød Ød Ød
FRONT VIEW
FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW TOP VIEW TOP VIEW

SNAP HEAD PAN HEAD 60° CSK HEAD TOP VIEW
FLAT HEAD
RIVET HEADS
Fig 2.51
Example 23: Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a snap head rivet of diameter
20mm, keeping its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
R=0.8d
0.7d
d 20
0.7d 14
Ød 0.8d 16
FRONT VIEW 1.6d 32
Ø1.6d
SNAP HEAD RIVET

TOP VIEW Fig 2.52
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 24: Sketch freehand the front view and top view of a pan head rivet of diameter

Ø1.6d
Ød
0.7d
d 20
0.7d 14
Ød
FRONT VIEW
1.6d 32
TOP VIEW
PAN HEAD RIVET

Fig 2.53
EXERCISES
Note: Assume missing dimensions proportionately
1. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a snap head rivet of diameter
2. Sketch freehand the Front elevation and Plan of a pan head rivet of diameter
3. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a 60° counter sunk flat head rivet
of diameter 20mm, keeping its axis vertical. Give standard dimensions.
4. Sketch freehand the Front view and Top view of a flat head rivet of diameter
2.15 KEYS B
HU
Key is piece of metal which is used to fasten two parts together,
specially to join two circular parts together. For example, Y
KE
pulleys, flywheels etc. are joined to the shaft by means of a key.
AT
See fig 2.54. Key is also used to prevent the relative movement Y SE
E AY
between the shaft and the parts mounted on it. Whenever K E YW
K
required, it can be removed easily. So key is one of the T
A F
temporary fasteners. The groove cut on the shaft to SH
accommodate a key is called key seat and the corresponding KEY IN POSITION
groove in the matting piece is called key way. Fig 2.54
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MACHINE DRAWING
2.15.1 TYPES OF SUNK KEYS
A sunk key is designated by its width x thickness x

length. (w x T x L) see fig 2.55
T
Sunk keys means, half of the thickness (0.5T)
(measured at the side not on centre line) k within the W
key seat and the other half thickness (0.5T) is within L
the keyway (see fig 2.57). There are different types
of sunk keys viz.
RECTANGULAR
(i) rectangular taper key SUNK KEY
Fig 2.55
(ii) woodruff key
(iii) double head feather key
Let us now learn how to draw the views of these sunk keys.
2.15.1.1 RECTANGULAR TAPER KEY
Rectangular sunk taper key is of rectangular cross section, with the thickness not uniform
throughout the length of the key. See fig 2.56
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
T
L
W L
TAPER 1 IN 100 TOP VIEW
W
(i) RECTANGULAR TAPER KEY
VIEWS OF A RECTANGULAR TAPER KEY

Fig 2.56
Drawing proportions for a rectangular taper key are as follows.
Let 'D' be the diameter of the shaft, then width of the key, W=D/4
Thickness of the key, T=D/6
Length=1.5D to 2D, Taper = 1 in 100
The taper key prevent relative rotational as well as axial movement between the two
mating piece. Generally, the upper surface of the key is tapered and hence the keyway is
also correspondingly tapered. The tapered end is hammered to remove the key from the
joint.
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 24: Sketch free hand a rectangular taper key, in position, on a shaft of diameter
40mm, keeping the axis of the shaft parallel to V.P and H.P, showing upper half
sectional front elevation. Give standard dimensions.
Solution Refer Fig 2.57
1.5D
TAPER 1 IN 100
0.5T
W
0.5T
L
ØD
2D
PARALLEL
TO AXIS
D D D 2D
W= T= 1.5D
4 6
40 10 6.7 60 80
RECTANGULAR TAPER KEY IN POSITION

Fig 2.57
2.15.1.2 WOODRUFF KEY
Woodruff key is a special sunk key. It looks like a segment of a circular disc. The key seat is
semi circular in shape but the keyway is rectangular. The keyway is smaller in size than the
key seat. The advantage of woodruff key is that it can be easily adjusted in the recess. It is
largely used in machine tools and automobile work.
WOODRUFF KEY
WOODRUFF KEY WITH KEY SLOT IN SHAFT

Fig 2.58
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 26: Sketch freehand the Front view, Top view and Side view of a woodruff key, suitable
for a shaft of diameter 40mm. Give standard dimensions.
0.25t
t 5t t
0.2
R=2t
R=2t SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
WOODRUFF KEY
TOP VIEW
D
D t= R = 2t 0.25t
6
40 6.7 13.4 10
WOODRUFF KEY
Fig 2.59
Example 27: Sketch freehand a woodruff-key in position, on a shaft of diameter 60mm, keeping
the axis of the shaft parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.

0.25t
R=2t d 60
0.5t
t 10
0.25t 2.5
0.5t 5
Ød
2t 20
FRONT VIEW SECTIONAL SIDE VIEW
WOODRUFF KEY WITH SHAFT

Fig 2.60
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MACHINE DRAWING
2.15.1.3 DOUBLE HEADED FEATHER KEY WITH GIB HEAD
Feather key is a kind of sunk parallel key.

In parallel key, the thickness remains
same throughout the length of the key. Fig
2.61 shows a feather key with gib head. A
double head feather key with gib head on
both ends grips the hub between its
heads. DOUBLE HEADED
GIB HEADED FEATHER KEY
Fig 2.61
Example 28: Sketch freehand the front view, side view and plan of a double-head gib key for a
shaft of diameter 60mm. Give standard dimensions.
1.5
t
45°
L d 60
FEATHER KEY
1.75t
t
W 15
t 10
45°
1.5t
1.5t 15
1.75t
t
1.75t 17.5
L
RIGHT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW

W
TOP VIEW
DOUBLE HEADED GIB HEADED FEATHER KEY

Fig 2.62
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MACHINE DRAWING
Example 29: Sketch freehand a double head gib key, in position on a shaft of diameter 60mm,
keeping the axis of the shaft parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.
1.5t HUB d 60
w 15
0.75t
45° W
KEY t 10
1.75t
0.5t 05
1.5t 15
Ød 1.75t 17.5
SHAFT
DOUBLE HEADED GIB HEADED FEATHER KEY IN POSITION

Fig 2.63
Exercises:
Note: Assume missing dimensions proportionately
1. Sketch freehand the Front view, Side view and Plan of a rectangular taper key for a
shaft of diameter 40mm. Give standard dimensions.
2. Sketch freehand the Front view, Side view and Plan of a woodruff key for a shaft of
60mm. diameter. Give standard dimensions.
3. Sketch freehand the Front view, Top view and Side view of a double head gib key
for a shaft of 40 mm. diameter. Give standard dimensions.
4. Sketch freehand a rectangular taper key in position, on a shaft of 60 mm diameter,

5. Sketch freehand a woodruff key in position, on a shaft of diameter, 48 mm, keeping

the axis of the shaft parallel to V.P and H.P. Give standard dimensions.
6. Sketch freehand a double head gib key in position, for a shaft of 40 mm diameter,
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CHAPTER
3 BEARINGS
All of you have seen a bicycle and most of you may know how to ride it. With the help of paddles
you may have driven it. It needs very little effort to run a bicycle. Do you know why a bicycle runs
so smoothly and easily? The reason is that friction is greatly reduced by using bearings in the
moving parts and you must have oiled/ greased these bearings from time to time.
In the industry also the bearings are used to help in smooth running of the shafts. As we all know
that the friction is a necessary evil. The friction generates heat and opposes the free movement
of the moving parts. We can not eliminate the friction together but we can reduce it to a large
extent by using some suitable lubricant.
The meaning of bearing as given in the Dictionary is a part of a machine which support another
part that turns round a wheel' or it can be defined as the support and guide for a rotating
,oscillating or sliding shaft, pivot or wheel' .
Bearings are used as a mechanical component to a certain part and this is done by utilizing the
small frictional force of the bearings, which makes them rotate easily, all the while with the force
and load acting against them.
CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS
There are two types of bearings according to the type of motion:
1. Plain bearings and 2. Anti-Friction bearings or Rolling Bearings
We will learn that plain bearings are such that they primarily support sliding, radial and
thrust loads and linear motions also.
Plain bearings may further be classified as:
1. Plain Journal Bearings: These support radial loads at right angles to the shaft axis.
2. Spherical Bearings: These are used where the loads are not aligned and are radial.
3. Thrust Bearings: These bearings support axial and radial loads.
4. Linear Bearings: These bearings only help in linear motion.
5. Pivot Bearings or Foot Step Bearings: These bearings are used where the thrust is only
axial.
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BEARINGS
ANTI-FRICTION OR ROLLER BEARINGS

These bearings can be:
1. Needle Bearings.
2. Ball Bearings and
3. Roller Bearings.
The bearings mentioned above can be rearranged according to the loading conditions as:
1. Journal Bearings: In this bearing the bearing pressure is perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft.
2. Thrust Bearing or Collar Bearing: In this bearing the pressure is parallel to the axis of the
shaft.
3. Pivot Bearing: In this bearing the bearing pressure is parallel to the axis of the shaft and
the end of the shaft, rests on the bearing surface.
4. Linear Bearings
5. Spherical Bearings.
In this chapter, we shall learn more about the Journal Bearings, which forms the sleeve around the
shaft and supports a bearing at right angles to the axis of the bearing. The portion of the shaft in
the sleeve is called the journal. The journal bearings are used to support only the perpendicular
or radial load. i.e., the load acting perpendicular to the shaft axis.
JOURNAL
SHAFT
BEARING
JOURNAL BEARING
Fig: 3.1
The examples of Journal Bearings are:
1. Open Bearing.
2. Bushed Bearing.
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BEARINGS
3. Plummer Block or Pedestal Bearing.
4. Pivot Bearing or Foot Step Bearing.
In our syllabus the Assembly and Dis-assembly of the following Bearings are prescribed, so let us
learn more about these in detail:
BUSHED BEARING
It is a journal bearing in which a bush made of some soft material such as: brass, bronze or gun
metal is used. This bearing is useful for higher loads at medium speed. These brasses can be
changed with the new brasses when worn out. These brasses (bushes) are tightly fitted into a
bored hole in the body of the bearing. The inside of the bush is bored as a fit for the shaft. These
brasses (bushes) are prevented from rotating or sliding by the use of a grub-screw or a dowel-pin
inserted half inside the bush and half in the body of the bearing. The other method is the use of a
snug. In this bearing the base plate or sole is recessed up to 3 mm leaving a standing material all
around, known as padding which helps in the stability of the sole on the resting surface and also
reduces the machining area. A counter bore sunk hole is drilled at the top of the body to hold the
lubricant which facilitates to reduce the friction between the shaft and bush. Oval drilled holes
are provided in the sole plate to facilitate any misalignment or lateral adjustments of bolts while
fitting the bearing in position on base / floor. This bearing is generally placed only at or near the
ends of the shaft, because in this the shaft can be inserted end wise only. (See fig: 3.2)
90o
OIL HOLE FOR LUBRICATION
3 CAST IRON
5 80 BODY
OIL HOLE
60
R5 10
BUSH
R2
40
5
R5 HOLE FOR
FOUNDATION BOLT
40R
90 (2 OFF) 20X12
50
R5
3 60
20
10
10
A 15 30
BUSHED BEARING
Fig: 3.2
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BEARINGS
Now let us solve some questions:
Question: The isometric view of a Bushed Bearing is shown below (fig: 3.3) Draw the
following views to scale 1:1:-
a. Sectional front view, showing right half in section.
b. Side view as viewed from left.
c. Top view.
Print title and scale used. Give 8 important dimensions.
80
OIL HOLE Ø4, C'SUNK 3, 45o
40
6
60
40
R
22
Ø 40
50
20
20
3
10
4
18
20 (2 O
X1
6 H FF)
OL
10 ES A
BUSHED BEARING
Fig: 3.3
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BEARINGS
Answer of Fig. 3.3

OIL HOLE Ø4,
R 40 CSK 3, 45o
Ø 52
Ø 40
20
50
22
10 10 10 10
3
184 80
FRONT VIEW RIGHT HALF IN SEC. LH SIDE VIEW
10
20
60
16
A
SCALE 1:1
TOP VIEW
BUSHED BEARING
Fig: 3.4
Question: The isometric view of a Bushed Bearing is shown below (Fig. 3.5). Draw the
following views to scale 1:1:-
a. Sectional front view, showing right half in section.
b. Top view,
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BEARINGS
OIL HOLE Ø8
CSK-3, 90o 90o
90 3
70 BUSH
R 30 BODY 8
R5 45 OIL HOLE
Ø 40
R 10
35
20
BOLT HOLE (2 OFF)

20X12
15
R5
R40
20
5
0 65
55
10
15
A
PICTORIAL VIEW OF A BUSH BEARING
(RIGHT HALF IN SECTION)
Fig: 3.5
Answer of fig. 3.5
90o Ø 40
R 40
Ø 60
R 10
55
15
20
15 15
200
FRONT VIEW RIGHT HALF IN SECTION
35
10
70
06
BOLT HOLES Ø8
A
(2 OFF) 20x12
10
65 100
A TOP VIEW
SCALE 1:1
BUSHED BEARING
Fig: 3.6
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BEARINGS
Question: The figure given below shows the assembled front view and the side view of a
Bushed Bearing. Disassemble (fig:3.7) the body and the bush and draw the
following views to a scale 1:1, keeping the same position of both the body and the
bush, with respect to H.P. and V.P.
a. Front view of the body, showing right half in section and its top view.
b. Front view of the bush, showing left half in section and its top view. Print titles of
both and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give 8 important dimensions.
Note : Take: R4 Radius For All Fillets And Rounds
OIL HOLE 70
Ø10
Ø60
BODY
Ø40
BUSH Ø30
Ø5
BOLT HOLES
25
25
Ø 20
15
10 10
4
120 60
180
BUSHED BEARING
Fig: 3.7
Ø10
Ø40 Ø60
Ø5
Ø40 Ø30
25
16
120 10 FRONT VIEW SECTIONED AT BB

4
180
FRONT VIEW (SECTION AT AA) Ø5
70
25
B
20
60
70
A
B
TOP VIEW
TOP VIEW A
SCALE 1:1
BUSHED BEARING
Fig: 3.8
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BEARINGS
OPEN BEARING
This bearing consists of a 'U' shaped cast iron body with the similar shaped collared brass, bronze
or gun metal bush. The sole is recessed for better stability on the surface. This bearing is used for
linear and zigzag shafts. The holes for the bolts in the sole plate are elongated towards the width.
This bearing is useful for shafts rotating at slow speeds. Now, let us understand the different parts
shown in the (fig : 3.9)
R6 HOLES FOR BOLT

BUSH (2 OFF) 24x15
80
50
54
6
30
15
68
15
6
15 28
BODY
R8
4
4
14 20
0
24
8
9
42
R5
A
8
OPEN BEARING
Fig 3.9
Question: The figure given below (fig:3.10) shows the details of an 'Open bearing'. Assemble
these parts correctly and then draw its following views to scale1 :1 :
a. Front view, right half in section.
b. Top view.
c. Side view as viewed from left.
Write heading and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give '6' important dimensions.
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BEARINGS
78
R6 42 BODY (C.I.) 1 - OFF
2 HOLES
15
FOR BOLTS 24
1
24X16
R2
16
70
R5 R6
15
4
8 136 8 8 8
192 48
Ø60 60
BUSH (GM) 1 - OFF 5 R2

R1 1
6 6
DETAILS OF OPEN BEARING

Fig: 3.10
Answer of fig. (3.10)
78 R6
15
5
R1
R6 R5
55
15
136 CRS
192
25
60
20
42 A
60
6
A
TOP VIEW SCALE 1:1
OPEN BEARING
Fig: 3.11
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BEARINGS
Question: The figure given below (fig 3.12) shows the assembly of an 'Open Bearing'.
Disassemble the parts and draw the following views to scale 1:1 :
(a) BODY
(i) Front view, left half in section.
(ii) Top view, without section.
(b) BUSH
(i) Front view, left half in section.
(ii) Side view, viewing from left.
Print titles of both and the scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give '6' important
dimensions.
78
25
R
R-
-1
5
R-20
75
R5 R5
15
150
200
2 HOLES (25X20)
6
60
A
6
A
TOP VIEW
OPEN BUSH BEARING

fig 3.12
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BEARINGS
Answer of fig 3.12
78 R5
R20 R15
20
BODY
40
R 25 6 60 6
25 R5 R5
SECTIONAL LEFT SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
15
150 CRS BUSH

200
FRONT VIEW LEFT HALF IN SECTION
SECTION AT AA
60
20
A 25 SCALE 1:1
TOP VIEW
A OPEN BEARING
fig 3.13
PLUMMER BLOCK OR PEDESTAL BEARING

The Plummer Block is also known as Pedestal Bearing. This bearing is widely used in textile,
marine and some other industries. This bearing is useful for long shafts requiring Intermediate
supports; these bearings are preferred in place of ordinary bush bearings. It was named after its
inventor 'PLUMMER'. This bearing can be placed any where along the shaft length. It is used for
shafts rotating at high speed and needing frequent replacement of brasses (also known as steps)
due to the wear and tear of the brasses, which are made up of brass, phosphor- bronze or gun
metal having raised collars at two ends for the prevention of the brasses from sliding along the
axis, with the shaft. The shaft is made of mild steel. These brasses are made into two halves just
to facilitate the easy assembly and disassembly of brasses and shaft. A snug at the bottom, fitting
inside a corresponding hole in the body, prevents their rotation. The body is made up of cast iron
with rectangular sole plate having elongated holes for the adjustment. In two long holes square
mild steel bolts with hexagonal nuts and check nuts are used to tighten the cap and brasses. The
cap is made up of cast iron. The cap while resting on the upper brass fits inside the body with its
body cap at its sides "but does not sit on it". These brasses are made into two halves and are
prevented from rotating by the use of a snug in the middle of the brasses. A counter sunk hole is
provided in the top cap and brass to hold lubricant which is necessary for reducing the friction
between the shaft and the brasses, which are collared to avoid axial movement. Please examine
the given figure for understanding these details.
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BEARINGS
DETAILS OF PLUMMER BLOCK OR PEDESTAL BEARING.

OIL HOLE LOCK NUT
WASHER NUT
CAP
BODY OR
CASTING
BRASSES OR
MILD STEEL STEPS
SQ. BOLT
SNUG SOLE OR
BOLT HOLE BASE PLATE
PLUMMER BLOCK
Ø 6X18 Fig 3.14
OIL HOLE
Ø 18 (2 BOLT HOLES)
66 Ø 3 OIL HOLE
0
15 CRS UPPER BRASS (G.M.)
22 20
0
10 10
66 R 25 SHAFT (M.S)
R 50
R 75 33 3 10 R 40
CAP 72
R32
2 HOLES Ø 18
0
Ø5
RS
0 C 72
22
LOWER BRASS (G.M.) 1 0 2 HOLES 16X24

50 66
Ø
10 BASE BLOCK
65
66 64
Ø 80 32 NOTE : SNUG 6X12
10 Ø R 0
10
30 5
12
SQ
20
5
12
30
132
LOCK NUT Ø16

SQ HEADED
BOLT
HEXAGONAL NUT SQ
27
12
WASHER (C.I.)
EXPLODED VIEW OF
A PLUMMER BLOCK
Fig 3.15
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BEARINGS
NOTE : As per our syllabus, we are going to only draw the front view of the Plummer Block.
Question: The figure given below (fig : 3.16) shows the details of a Plummer Block. Assemble
the parts correctly and then draw to scale 1:1, the front view, right half in section.
Print title and scale used. Give '8' important dimensions.
OIL HOLE CAP

R40 R25
18 10
M18
3
18
Ø20
90
Ø8 SQUARE HEADED BOLT
R30 AND HEXAGONAL NUT (2-OFF)
60
100
SQ 28 BASE OR BODY
13
60
18
BRASSES (2-OFF)
25
R5 R R5
70
50
5
20
15
SNUG 6x4
5
250 Ø6x4
Ø8
60
Ø15
Ø6
Ø20
SQ 30
5
Ø40 20
Ø50
100 R30
Ø60
PLUMMER BLOCK
Fig 3.16
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BEARINGS
Answer of fig. 3.16
Ø15, 2 HOLES
20
Ø20
M18
30
3
Ø6 x 4
Ø8
20
R
100
250
30
R
R 40
R5
20
3 10 18 50 20
FRONT VIEW (RIGHT HALF IN SECTION)

PLUMMER BLOCK (ASSEMBLY)
FIG: 3.17
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BEARINGS
Question: The figure given below (fig:3.18) shows a Pictorial view of a Plummer Block. Draw
the sectional front view showing left half in section. Print title, scale used and give
'8' important dimensions. R72
CAP 63
4
14 RS
5C Ø6x20 deep
10 OIL HOLE BLOCK
Ø3
10
36
130
R58
16
M16 R38
3
20
Ø50
Ø63
22
3
6
12
19 5
SQ 28 10
Ø6 SN
63
.10 UG
88
130
LO
NUTS AND BOLTS NG
22
(2 OFF)
14
BRASSES
30
SQ 5
10
63 130
A
PLUMMER BLOCK
FIG: 3.18
Answer of (Fig: 3.18)
105 CRS
OIL HOLE Ø6, 20
DEEP, THEN Ø3
R 58
20
Ø16
6
130
Ø19
38
3
Ø5
R
0
3
Ø6
3
88
63
2 HOLES 22x16
2
SNUG Ø6
10 LONG
22
SQ28
12
14
SQ30
105 105
260
LEFT HALF SEC. FRONT VIEW
SCALE 1:1
PLUMMER BLOCK
Fig. 3.19
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BEARINGS
FOOTSTEP BEARING OR PIVOT BEARING

This bearing is used for supporting the lower end of the vertical shaft. This bearing is made up of a
cast iron body with a rectangular or square recessed sole to reduce machining area. Generally,
the sole is provided with four oval or elongated holes for the adjustment of the bearing. A Gun
Metal hollow bush having a collar at its top end is placed and is prevented from rotation by the use
of a grub screw or a snug just below the neck of the collar. This collar serves two purposes, one it
prevents the hollow round bush to go further down in the body of the bearing and secondly it
provides a round vessel at the neck of the round bush to hold lubricant. The bearing body and the
hollow bush are recessed so as to form fitting strips. A concave or convex hardened steel disc is
placed below this round hollow bush to support the shaft. This disc is also prevented from rotation
by the use of a snug or a pin which is half inserted in the body of the bearing and half in the disc but
away from the centre. The only draw back of this bearing is that there is no proper lubrication,
thus unequal wear and tear is there on the bottom round disc. Examine the details as shown
below.
LUBRICANT OIL
POUREDHERE SHAFT
BUSH WITH BRASS
COLLAR
SNUG BODY OR (C.I.) BLOCK
CONVEX OR CONCAVE DISC

PIN OR SNUG
EMBOSSED HOLE
SOLE
SCALE 1:1
DETAILS OF A FOOTSTEP BEARING

FIG: 3.20
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BEARINGS
MILD STEEL SHAFT
MILD STEEL CONVEX OR

CONCAVE DISC OR PAD
COLLARED BUSH OF
BRASS OR GUN METAL
CAST IRON BODY
4 HOLES FOR
FOUNDATION BOLTS
RECESSED SOLE
SNUG OR PIN
EXPLODED VIEW OF A FOOT STEP OR PIVOT BEARING.

FIG. 3.21
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BEARINGS
NOTE: As per our syllabus guide lines, we are supposed to draw the front view of the assembly of
Foot Step Bearing'.
Question: The figure given below (fig: 3.22) shows the parts of a Foot Step Bearing. Assemble
these parts correctly and then draw the Front View, left half in section to a scale
full size. Print title and scale used. Give '8'important dimensions.
Ø84
BUSH Ø 44
Ø56
10 15 5
Ø78
Ø64
5
PAD Ø 44
45
Ø60
15
8
15
78
12
Ø5
12
Ø64
PIN 8
10
15
R5
Ø 44
SHAFT
40
BASE
85
8 15
4
5
15
15 Ø5
14 Ø30
30
Ø94
62
Ø15
Ø64 15 Ø68
20
Ø5
62
4 70 70 15
100 100
FOOT STEP BEARING

FIG. 3.22
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BEARINGS
Answer of (Fig: 3.22) FRONT VIEW

15 5
Ø44
10
15
40
15
15
15
70 70
200
FRONT VIEW (LEFT HALF IN SEC.) SCALE 1:1
FOOTSTEP BEARING
Fig 3.23
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BEARINGS
Question: The figure given below (fig:3.24) shows the parts of a Foot Step Bearing. Assemble
the parts correctly and then draw the Front View, showing right half in section,
using the scale 1:1;
Print title and scale used. Give '8' important dimensions.
SHAFT Ø60
3 BUSH
Ø85
10
15
15 10
20
45
10
Ø92
95
BASE Ø5 SNUG
Ø5 30 Ø87
3
15
45
15
20
12
180 20
4
Ø92
FRONT VIEW
Ø106
Ø60
4 HOLES Ø15x20
24 35
90
Ø85
PIN
Ø5
15
Ø92
5
Ø97
Ø5
90
Ø5
Ø120 20
1 61
35
15
15 15 Ø3 PAD
125 125 Ø60
TOP VIEW
NOTE : TAKE R-4 RADIUS
FOR ALL FILLETS AND
ROUNDS
DETAILS OF A FOOT STEP BEARING

Fig 3.24
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BEARINGS
15
SCALE 1:1
15 45 3 12
10 10

Ø 85
FOOT STEP BEARING
20
Ø 87
Ø 92
Ø 97
12
Ø 120
Ø 106
Ø 60
250
180
ANSWER OF
(FIG : 3.24)
20
20 95
Fig 3.25
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CHAPTER
4 ROD JOINTS
All of you have seen a tractor and its trolley/ trailer. The trolley can be easily joined or removed
from the tractor as per the need. Have you ever noticed that how this trolley is joined or detached
from the tractor? This work is made so simple by a joint between the tractor and the trolley using
a pin or a cotter. A fork end is there at the back of the tractor and an eye end is there in front of the
trolley and a round rod is inserted in between these two to make the joint. In industry also
different cotter joints are used some of these we shall learn in the following paragraphs. First of
all we shall learn about the cotter.
Fig 4.1
COTTER:
A cotter is a flat rectangular cross section wedge-shaped piece or bar of mild steel block which is
uniform in thickness but tapering in width on one side in general. It is used to connect rigidly two
rods, whose axes are collinear and which transmit motion in the axial direction (tensile or
compressive forces) without rotation. The cotter is inserted perpendicular to the axes of the
shafts which are subjected to tensile forces. Cotter provides rigid joint support.
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ROD JOINTS
DIMENSIONS OF A COTTER:
Let 'D' be the diameter of connecting rods.
Average dimension of the cotter (d) = 1.3D
Thickness of cotter (t) =0.3D
Length of cotter (l) = 3.5D to 4D. t

TAPER 1:30 ON THIS SIDE
L
3 d

D
8
t
SHAFT TOP VIEW
COTTER
Fig 4.2
These types of joints are simple in design and need very less application of tools. These are used
to connect the end of a rod of a shaft. The end of the bar has a hole in it and it is called a lug. The
shaft carries a hole. This shaft is locked in place by a smaller pin that passes through the side of
the lug and partly or completely through the shaft itself. This locking pin is named as a cotter,
which sometimes is also applied to the whole joint. The cotter joint is a temporary fastening,
which allows the assembly and disassembly of a unit without damaging the fastened elements of
connecting components. In this type of joint the parts are held together by frictional force.
The obvious example is of a bicycle where both pedal bars separately locked by a cotter pin, on
their common driving shaft having the sprocket to the wheel.
Steel is the most common material used for this application.
Examples: Typical applications of the cotter joint are fastening of piston rods and cross heads
in steam engines, yokes in rods, tool fixtures and for services of similar kinds etc.
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ROD JOINTS
USE OF COTTER JOINT

The joint is useful in the following conditions:
(i) To connect a rod directly with a machine, so as to transmit a force to the machine
through the rod or vice- versa.
(ii) When it is desired to increase the length of the rod.
(iii) To connect two rods rigidly in the direction of their length.
USE OF TAPER IN COTTER JOINT:

The taper in the cotter is provided to take the advantage of wedging action (friction locking). The
taper also keeps the joint alive even after some wear in the joint has taken place as the gap
generated due to the wear automatically filled up by the self travel of the cotter. This travel is
assisted due to the taper given in the cotter. Taper helps in insertion into the position and
withdrawal and lateral adjustment of connected parts. The taper should not be too large causing
self removal of the cotter under the external load, but if the large taper is essential, in a case
when frequent disassembly is required, locking devices such as set screw/lock pin etc. become
necessary to secure the cotter in position against the slackening or removal of the cotter from its
position. Generally, the taper of 1: 30 is given and is decided on the basis of the angle of friction
between cotter and rods material. The taper angle should not be greater than the angle of
friction. The thickness of the cotter is generally kept equal to one fourth and one fifth of its width
in the centre. The width of the slot is made 3 to 5 mm bigger than the cotter. When the cotter fits
into the slot, the central portion of the cotter comes in contact with spigot and pushes it into the
socket. These forces on the contacting surfaces prestress the joint and provide the required force
for friction locking of the bearing surfaces. Finally, the edges of the cotter and the edges of the
slot are rounded.
In our syllabus the assembly and disassembly of cotter joints for circular and square rod are there.
We shall learn that there are three cotter joints for connecting the circular rods:
a. Sleeve and Cotter joint
b. Socket and Spigot joint and
c. Knuckle joint (only sectional front view is in our syllabus).
Also in our syllabus there is only one cotter joint for joining square or rectangular rods and
it is called:
d. Gib and cotter joint.
Now, let us learn more about the Sleeve and Cotter Joint
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ROD JOINTS
SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT:

Sleeve and cotter joint is used to connect two round rods or sometimes to connect two
pipes/tubes. The rods are forged and increased in diameter to some length just to compensate for
the loss of material, for making rectangular hole, accommodate the rectangular tapered cotter in
each rod. The ends of both the rods are chamfered to avoid burring and easy insertion in the
hollow steel sleeve (socket/cylinder/muff). Both the rods are of the same dimensions. A hollow
sleeve is passed over both the rods and has two rectangular holes for the insertion of cotter at
right angle to the axes of the rods. The cotters are automatically adjusted due to the extra margin
given for the clearance in the rod and the sleeve. The relative position of slots is such that the
driving in of the cotters tends to force the rods towards each other in socket or hollow sleeve.
When sleeve and rods are subjected to axial tensile force then the cotter is subjected to shearing
force, these joints are useful for light transmission of axial loads.
COTTER
ROD B
SLEEVE
ROD A
SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT

Fig 4.3
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ROD JOINTS
Dimensions of a Sleeve and Cotter Joint in terms of diameter of the rods (d)
CLEARANCE X,Y AND Z=3mm
TAPER 1:30
.3d
3.3d 3.3d 3mm H
Ø3.5d
Ø2.4d
X Ø1.2d
d 1.3d d
Z
1.2d
2.4d
Y
TAPER ON Ød
THIS SIDE
H
FRONT VIEW
LEFT SIDE VIEW
Fig 4.4
Question: Figure given below (fig : 4.5) shows the parts of a Sleeve and Cotter Joint.
Assemble the parts correctly and then draw the following views to a scale 1 : 1
(a) Front view, upper half in section.
(b) Side view, viewing from the left.
Print title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give '8' important dimensions.
110 110
4
Ø25
Ø 25
110
42 42 Ø35 8
SHAFT-A SHAFT-B
Ø70
32
5
Ø35
37
35 35 8 COTTER (2-OFF)
100 100 NOTE : FIG. NOT TO SCALE.
USE DIMENSIONS GIVEN
SLEEVE WITH COTTER SLOTS FOR DRAWING SOLUTIONS.
SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINTS
Fig 4.5
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ROD JOINTS
Solution of fig : 4.5

110 110
100 100
35 37 A
Ø70
Ø25
Ø35
110
8 A
5
42 32
FRONT VIEW UPPER HALF IN SECTION (SECTION AT AA) LEFT SIDE VIEW
NOTE : ALL FILLETS SCALE 1:1
AND ROUNDS : R4
Fig: 4.6
Question: The figure given below (fig: 4.7) shows the assembly of a Sleeve and Cotter Joint
Disassemble the following parts and draw the following views to a full size scale.
(a) F.E. of the sleeve and S.E. viewing from left.
(b) F.E. of Rod A and Rod B and S.E. viewing from left.
(c) F.E. of cotter in vertical position and the plan.
Print titles and scale used. Draw the projection of symbol. Give 8 important dimensions.
3 3 A
32 32
R
Ø30
50
Ø 24
Ø24
3 3
50
10 10 Ø66
R
4 8
30 28 TAPER 1:30 28 30 A
90 90
FRONT VIEW FULL IN SECTION LEFT SIDE VIEW
SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT ASSEMBLY
Fig 4.7
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ROD JOINTS
Answer of fig 4.7

FRONT VIEW L.SIDE VIEW
ROD-A ROD-B 32
100 100
37 37 Ø24 Ø30
Ø 24
Ø30
FRONT VIEW
A 8
100
A
66
Ø
Ø3
Ø66
Ø30
0 C
28
30 30 8 COTTER
B
8
90 90
SLEEVE WITH COTTER HOLES TOP VIEW
Fig 4.8
Question: Figure given below (fig: 4.9) shows the exploded drawing of a Sleeve and Cotter
Joint. Assemble the parts correctly and then draw the following views to scale 1:1
(a) Front view full in section.
(b) Side view, viewing from the left.
Print title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give '8' important dimensions.
TW
40 O
10 SHAF
35 0 TS
WI
COTTER
Ø24 T HS
3
LO 8 32
2 C
8
Ø30 TS
FO
RC
30 OT
10 TE
3 0 RS
32
50
6
40
Ø6
3 A
B
3 Ø30
8
28
50
30
0
Ø3
Ø24
90
'B' IS A SLEEVE WITH SLOTS FOR COTTER
EACH SLOT INCLUDES CLEARANCE=3mm.
C-COTTER
90
F
Fig 4.9
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ROD JOINTS
Answer of fig. 4.9
FRONT VIEW A
32 3 3 32
Ø30
R
50
Ø 24
Ø24
3 3
50
10 4 10 Ø66
R 8
TAPER 1:30
40 28 28 40 A
90 90
FRONT VIEW FULL IN SECTION LEFT SIDE VIEW
SCALE 1:1
SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT FULL IN SECTION

Fig 4.10
SOCKET AND SPIGOT JOINT

ROD-A
Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint is SOCKET
connecting two rods in such a way COTTER
that it can transfer axial COLLAR-A
compression or tensile load. In
this case one end of the first rod is COLLAR-B
enlarged in diameter to some
length, just to compensate the SPIGOT
loss of material due to rectangular
hole made in it to accommodate a ROD-B
cotter. A collar is provided at the
end of the enlarged end of the
spigot. The one end of the second
rod is formed into a socket or box
having an appropriate inner
diameter to fit the spigot along SOCKET AND SPIGOT JOINT
with a collar, for a very simple Fig 4.11
construction socket can be considered as a hollow pipe having one side solid and the other hollow,
while the spigot is a solid rod, the solid spigot is nearly of the size of the internal radii of the
socket, where it can fit. Once they are fit, consider that a rectangular cavity of tapering
construction through both the parts, i.e., spigot and socket. This cavity or slot is kept slightly out
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ROD JOINTS
of alignment so that driving in of the cotter tends to pull the slots in a line, thus making the joint
perfectly tight and rigid. A clearance of 2 to 3 mm is made in these joints for the proper
functioning of the cotter.
RR
CLEARANCE X,Y AND Z=3mm

TAPER PARALLEL
SECTION AT GG
3.3d-6mm
G
3
1 2 0.3d
3 mm gap
3.5d TO 4d
Ø1.75d
Ø1.5d
Ø2.5d
1.3d
Ø1.2d
Ød
Ød
Z Y
X
d 0.4d
TAPER 1:30 G
TOP VIEW

Fig 4.12
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ROD JOINTS
Question: The details of a socket and spigot joint are shown in fig 4.13. Assemble these parts
correctly and then draw its following views to scale full size.
(a) Front view upper half in section.
(b) Side view, as viewed from right.
Print heading and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give six important dimensions
SPIGOT (1-OFF)
SOCKET (1-OFF)
3
3
18 34 18 31 21
Ø24
Ø36
Ø42
Ø29
Ø24
Ø29
73
12 70
12
24
FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW

8
31 TAPER 1:30
84
COTTER (1-OFF)
FRONT VIEW
DETAILS OF A SOCKET AND SPIGOT COTTER JOINT

Fig 4.13
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ROD JOINTS
Answer of fig. 4.13
A
7 85
73
24
12 21
Ø 36
Ø 24
Ø 42
Ø 24
Ø 29
A 3 31 3 18 3
Ø 60
TAPER 1:30
RIGHT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW UPPER HALF IN SECTION
SCALE 1:1

Fig 4.14
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ROD JOINTS
Exercise: The three views of a Sleeve and Cotter Joint are given. Disassemble the parts as
given below and draw the following views :
(a) SPIGOT
(i) Front view. (ii) Side view from right
(b) SOCKET
(i) Front view (ii) Right side view.
Print headings and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give 8 important dimensions
A
10
18
TAPER 1:30
10
3
18 34
Ø 60
Ø 25
Ø 25
Ø 40
30
35
3
12 3 3
25 12
10
A
FRONT VIEW
RIGHT SIDE VIEW
90
TOP VIEW

Fig 4.15
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ROD JOINTS
Exercise: The pictorial views of a Socket and Spigot Joint are given .Disassemble the parts as
given below and draw the following views. Refer Fig. 4.16
(a) SPIGOT
(i) Front view lower half in section (ii) Side view from left
(b) SOCKET
(i) Front view upper half in section (ii) Left side view.
(c) COTTER
(i) Front View (ii) Top View
Print headings of the above and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give 8 important
dimensions.
25 18
6 SOCKET END
ROD-2
94 88
TAKE ALL FILLETS AND
R24
ROUNDS, R3
Ø 24
R15
12 3
3
82
R28
SPIGOT END
R22
140
R12
CLEARANCE
30
Ø24
TAPER ON THIS SIDE ONLY
ROD-1 5 COTTER
COLLAR
19
VERTICAL SIDE A
SPIGOT AND SOCKET JOINT

FIG : 4.16
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ROD JOINTS
KNUCKLE JOINT OR PIN JOINT

A knuckle joint is generally used to connect rods not positioned in a straight line and subjected to
axial tensile load. This joint is not rigid. Sometimes, if it is required to be used to support
compressive loading, a guide may be provided to constrain the motion of two fastened
components (rods). In this joint the end of one rod is forged to form an eye while the other is made
in the form of a fork having double eyes and this is called as eye end and fork end respectively. Eye
end is inserted in fork end and a cylindrical pin is inserted through common holes in them. The
cylindrical pin is kept in position by a round collar through which a transverse taper pin is
inserted. The rods are quite free to rotate about the cylindrical pin. The end of the rods is made
rectangular to some distance for firm grip and then these are made into a hexagonal or octagonal
in shape (for an easy adjustment with the help of a spanner or a wrench), before it is forged into
eye and fork shapes. This type of joint is widely used in practice to connect rods, which, for
various reasons, cannot be fitted with a rigid joint. It is commonly used when a reciprocating
motion is to be converted into a rotary motion or vice-versa. This joint is used for connecting D-
slide valve, and eccentric rod of a steam engine, air brake of locomotives and many kinds of levers
and rod connections, tie bars of trusses, links of suspension chains and many other links. The
knuckle joint is also used for fastening more than two rods intersecting at a single points.
COLLAR
FORK END PIN
TAPER 1 IN 30
40
14 Ø
TAPER PIN
COLLAR
EYE END
FORK END
Ø50
CIRCULAR
PIN Ø25
R15
20
KNUCKLE - JOINT 105

30
ASSEMBLY EYE END

Ø5
1235
20
0
36
30
30
KUNCKLE PIN
30
90
80
Ø40
14
KNUCKLE JOINT OR PIN JOINT PARTS

Fig: 4.17
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ROD JOINTS
Dimensions of a Knuckle Joint or Pin Joint in terms of the diameter(d) of the rods to be
connected. COLLAR
d14
Ød
TAPER PIN
R=1.2d+0.75d FORK END
EYE END .4d R=0.75d
OCTAGONAL
0.75d
0.7d
Ø1.2d
Ø1.2d
Ø1.2d
Ød
Ød
0.4d 0.7d
1.5d
R=0.6d
1.5d
R=1.2d
Ø1.5d
1.2d PIN
4d 5d
Ø2d
0.75d
TAPER PIN DIA =0.25d

R = 0.75d
Ø1.5d
R=d+0.75d SCALE 1:1
KNUCKLE JOINT
Fig: 4.18
COLLAR TAPER PIN

PIN FORK END
EYE END
ROUND ROD-B
ROUND ROD-A
SECTIONAL ASSEMBLY OF A KNUCKLE JOINT

Fig: 4.19
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ROD JOINTS
Question: fig 4.19(a) shows the parts of a KUNCKLE JOINT. Assemble the parts correctly and
then draw the front view, showing upper half in section using the scale 1:1
Ø 40
Ø24
12
Ø40
Ø24
COLLAR
82
14
TAPER PIN 44 LONG
Ø 24
PIN
Ø6 x Ø4
EYE END
35
KNUCKLE JOINT
90
FRONT VIEW
18 30 18
Ø24
Fig: 4.19(a)
30
35
Ø60
15
30
R
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
120
R 33
SQ 30 SQ 30
FORK END
35
Ø24
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ROD JOINTS
Answer of fig 4.19 (a)
35
SCALE 1:1
SQ30
90
18
18
14
KNUCKLE JOINT
12
Fig: 4.20
Ø40
Ø24
15
5
R
120
R 33
SQ30
35
Ø24
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ROD JOINTS
Question: The figure 4.21 shows the parts of a Knuckle joint. Assemble these parts correctly
and then draw the Front view, bottom half in section, to a scale full size.
Print title and scale used. Give six important dimensions.

Ø 20 Ø 20
36
FORK END ROD
60
R 25
SQ25
14
SQ25
R
R14
Ø20
KNUCKLE PIN
36
KNUCKLE-JOINT
15 Ø3
Ø40
10
Fig: 4.21
COLLAR (Ø30)
15 26
TAPER PIN
10
Ø20
Ø30
35
76
Ø20
10
Ø4
Ø40
R14
SQ25
70
EYE END ROD
OCTAGONAL END
36
Ø20 Ø20
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ROD JOINTS
Answer of fig 4.21
SQ 25
Ø 20
SCALE 1:1
35
FRONT VIEW (LOWER HALF IN SECTION)

5
R30
R2
10
13
KNUCKLE JOINT
R Ø3
35
Fig: 4.22
Ø 40
Ø 20
Ø 35
Ø30
10 Ø4
76
70
35
Ø 20
SQ 25
HELPING VIEW
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ROD JOINTS
Exercises: The three views of a Knuckle Joint are given in (fig.4.23). Disassemble and draw
the parts as given below.
(a) FORK END
(i) Front view upper half in section
(b) EYE END
(i) Front view lower half in section
(c) CIRCULAR PIN
(i) FRONT VIEW
Print headings of the above views and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give six
important dimensions
Ø 38
Ø 25
R15 18 12 8
44 44
Ø25
Ø25
28
28
15
12 18
R12
R 30
Ø 32
Ø 38
FRONT VIEW FULL IN SECTION
130 100
Ø6
2
R1
Ø3
TOP VIEW
SCALE 1:1
ASSEMBLY OF KNUCKLE JOINT

Fig 4.23
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ROD JOINTS
GIB AND COTTER JOINT

This joint is used to join two rods of square or rectangular in cross section. The end of one rod is
forged in the from of a fork or strap. The height of the other rod is increased for compensating the
loss of material in making the slot for cotter. The Gib is made up of mild steel and has the same
thickness as that of the cotter. the Gib has projections at the top and bottom ends which act like
hooks. While connecting two rods the Gib is inserted first and pushed towards the end of the fork
and then the cotter is hammered over. The tapering sides of the Gib and the cotter mate with
each other, while their outer sides are parallel to each and perpendicular to the common axis of
the rods. Hence, when a Gib is used with a cotter, the opposite faces of the slots in the rods are
parallel to each other. The Gib acts like a counter part of the socket/strap. The Gib increases the
tearing area of the cotter and prevents slackening of the joint besides holding the jaws of the
strap or fork from opening wide when the cotter is inserted. The use of Gib and Cotter enables the
parallel holes to be used. When Gib is used the taper is provided in the Gib. This joint is useful to
fasten connecting rod of a steam engine or marine engine.
TAPER ON COTTER
THIS SIDE
GIB RECTANGULAR
SLOT
COTTER
EYE END FORK END
FORK
GIB
Fig. 4.24
FORK END
ROD END
SECTIONAL VIEW OF GIB AND COTTER JOINT

Fig. 4.25
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ROD JOINTS
Dimensions of a Gib and Cotter Joint in terms of the side (s) of the rods to be connected.
A B C D
H
GIB A=C=D=0.75S
EYE END COTTER B=1.3S
L=0.55B
Y = 3mm M=0.45B
L M
L=3.5S
SQ S
SQ S
2S
Z
X
CLEARANCE X,Y AND Z = 3mm
TAPER 1:20
B/4 FORK END
0.36B
FRONT VIEW FULL IN SECTION H

LEFT SIDE VIEW
SQ S
0.3S
TOP VIEW
GIB AND COTTER JOINT FOR SQUARE RODS

Fig. 4.26
Question: The figure 4.27 shows the exploded pictorial View of a Gib and Cotter Joint.
Assemble these parts correctly and then draw the following views to scale 1:1.
(a) Front View, full in section
(b) Right side view
(c) Top view.
Print title and scale used. Give six important dimensions.

30 10
C
B
35 10
A
53
10
50
76
10
20 12
20
SQ30
53
SQ30
R5
27
10
11 35
2 TAPER ON THIS SIDE
50
10
F
R5 30 DETAILS OF GIB AND COTTER JOINT
Fig : 4.27
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ROD JOINTS
Answer: of fig (4.27)

RIGHT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW FULL IN SECTION
A 112
10 Taper
10
20 30
53
10
3
SQ 30
20 12
76
10
53 B
X A. 3
C 30 X
A
TOP VIEW
10
30
SCALE 1:1
ASSEMBLY OF A GIB AND COTTER JOINT

Fig. 4.28
Question: The figure 4.29 shows the detail drawings of different parts of a Gib and Cotter
Joint for joining two square rods. Assemble all the parts correctly and draw the
following views to scale 1:1
(b) Side view, viewing from the left hand side.
(c) Print title, scale used and draw the projection symbol. Give '6' important
dimensions.
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ROD JOINTS
EYE END
SQ 40
32 55 38
FRONT VIEW
12 26
SQ 40
10
26
96
66
SQ. ROD TOP VIEW

150
162
R10
13
42 55 35
SQ40
GIB
40
COTTER
FRONT VIEW
13
FORK END
10
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW TOP VIEW OF
OF GIB COTTER
SQ40
FORK TOP VIEW
DETAILS OF A GIB AND COTTER JOINT

FIG: 4.29
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ROD JOINTS
Answer of fig 4.29
A
A
LEFT SIDE VIEW

10
40
66
SCALE 1:1
SQ40
R10
ASSEMBLY OF A GIB AND COTTER

HALF SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
FIG: 4.30
3
26
32
TAPER 1:30
26
12
15
SQ40
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ROD JOINTS
Exercise: The two views of a Gib and Cotter Joint are given. Disassemble the parts as give
below: Fig : 4.31
(a) FORK END
(i) Front view upper half in section and top view without section.
(b) EYE END
(i) Front lower half in section and top view.
(c) GIB
(i) Front view and top view
(d) COTTER
(i) Front and top view.
Print headings of the above views and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give six
important dimensions.
FRONT VIEW UPPER HALF IN SECTION
28
14 3
12
SQ 40
SQ 40
100
3 22 22 41
12
TAPER 1:30
152
TOP VIEW
12
GIB AND COTTER JOINT

Fig 4.31
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ROD JOINTS
Exercises
Q.1. What is cotter?
Q.2. What are dimensions of a cotter in terms of the diameter of the shafts to be joined?
Q.3. Why clearance is necessary in a cotter joint?
Q.4. What do you understand by the self locking of the cotter?
Q.5. Why a Gib is used along with a cotter in a Gib and cotter joint?
Q.6. Where knuckle joint is used?
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CHAPTER
5 TIE-ROD AND PIPE JOINTS
Machines use various parts which are joined in several ways for the machine to function as whole.
We have learnt about some devices like fasteners (temporary & permanent) and some simple
joints to join two rods in the previous chapters. Let us now learn some more miscellaneous joints
which are commonly used, viz.
(a) TIE-ROD JOINT/TURNBUCKLE
(b) FLANGED PIPE JOINT
5.1 TIE-ROD JOINT

In our day to day life, we may come across rods/machine parts which are subjected to push and
pull and this joints need to be tightened or loosened as in the case of wires of electric poles,
cables, a sailboat's standing, rigging wires or even in boxing rings.
(b) In electric poles.
(a) In cables/ guy wires (c) In boxing rings

USE OF TURNBUCKLE
Fig.5.1
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TIE-ROD AND PIPE JOINTS
In such cases, an adjustable joint known as 'turnbuckle' is used. It serves as a joining device
between the ropes and the posts or rods.
COMMERCIAL TYPE TURNBUCKLE.

Fig 5.2
5.1.1 FEATURES:
The 'turnbuckle' consists of an elongated metal tube (body) which is cylindrical in shape
and has tapered ends. Its central portion has a slot to aid tightening and loosening of rods
by tomy bar. Each tapered end of the body has threaded holes with opposite internal
screw threads, i.e. Right hand (RH) threads at one end and left-hand (LH) threads at the
other, as shown in Fig 5.3 (a)
Central Slot RH Internal

Screw Threads
LH Internal
Screw Threads Tapered End
(a) Body
LH
RH
(b) Left - hand Threaded Rod (c) Right - hand Threaded Rod
DETAILS OF A TURNBUCKLE
Fig 5.3
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(We have discussed about the conventional representation of screw threads (RH & LH) in the
previous chapter, refer section 3).
Even the two rods / ring bolts have threads of opposite hand, which are screwed in and out of the
body simultaneously to adjust the pull/ push (tension) or length, without twisting the wires or
attached cables.
ROD END (RH)
ROD END (LH)
SOCKET / BODY
ASSEMBLY OF A TURNBUCKLE (PICTORIAL VIEW)

Fig 5.4
5.1.2 Orthographic views
Now, let us understand their orthographic views, with the help of an example and move on
to assembly of different parts of the `Turnbuckle' and then drawing of the required
sectional views.
Example 1 The fig 5.5 shows details of the parts of a Turnbuckle. Assemble these parts
correctly and then draw its following views to scale 1:1, inserting 50mm
threaded portion of each rod inside the body of Turnbuckle.
(b) Top view.
(c) Side view as viewed from left.
Write heading and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give important
dimensions.
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150
20 10 10 20 32
Ø50
14
Ø 25
Ø 25
22
M12
14
SEC. FRONT VIEW
SEC. SIDE VIEW
M 12X2 LH M 12X2 RH
80 80
FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW
Fig 5.5
Solutions: The above fig 5.5 shows orthographic views of different parts of a `Turnbuckle".
Let us assemble them correctly to obtain/ draw the required views.
The internal diameter of threaded holes of the body and diameter of the rods are
same, so the LH (Left-hand) Threaded rod will be fitted from the left- side of the
body and similarly the RH Threaded rod from the right side.
Point to remember :
(1) Only 50mm of the threaded portion of the rods will be inside the turnbuckle, the
remaining 30mm portion will be shown outside the body as can be seen in the
Fig. 5.6 below.
150
20 10 10 20 A
Ø 50
M 12
M 12x2 LH M 12x2 RH
14
Ø 25
22
30 50 50 30
32
UPPER HALF SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW LEFT SIDE VIEW
TOP VIEW
SCALE 1:1
TURNBUCKLE
ASSEMBLY OF A TURNBUCKLE (ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS)

Fig 5.6
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(2) It can also be noticed that the width of the edges of the slots can be obtained
from the side view.
(3) In the sectional front view, the rods need not be locally sectioned as no intricate
inner details are present, as in the previous chapter.
Let us consider another example, and draw the orthographic views of the assembled
parts.
Example 2: The fig 5.7 shows the details of the parts of a Turnbuckle. Assemble these parts
correctly, and then draw its following views to scale 1:1, inserting 60mm
threaded portion of each rod inside the body of the Turnbuckle.
(a) Front view, lower half in section.
(b) Side- view as viewed from the right.
Print title and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give six important
dimensions.
80 80
2x45°
Ø30
Ø30
2x45°
ROD-A LH THREADS ROD-B RH THREADS

Ø30 RH TH
Ø30 LH TH
Ø60
Ø40
35
25 15 15 25
180
TURNBUCKLE
Fig 5.7
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Solution: In the fig 5.7 given, orthographic views of the parts of a Turnbuckle" are shown.
Let us assemble them correctly and obtain the orthographic views as shown
below in fig 5.8
180
25 15 15 25
Ø 30 LH THREADS Ø 30 RH THREADS
Ø60
Ø 30
Ø 40
X
35
60 60
X
80 80
RH SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW (LOWER HALF IN SECTION)
SCALE 1:1
ASSEMBLED ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS OF A TURNBUCKLE.

Fig 5.8
Exercise 5.1
1. Figure 5.9 and 5.10 shows the disassembled views of the parts of a Turnbuckle.
Assemble the parts correctly, and then draw the following views to scale 1:1,
keeping the same position with respect to HP and VP:
(a) Half sectional elevation, upper half in section.
(b) Plan.
30 15 120 15 30
Ø20 A
25
FRONT VIEW UPPER HALF IN SECTION LEFT SIDE

VIEW
Ø 40
Ø60
45
TOP VIEW
(a) TURNBUCKLE
Fig 5.9
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125
RH SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW Ø 20 LH

(b) ROD-A
Ø 20 RH
125
FRONT VIEW LH SIDE VIEW
(c) ROD-B
ORTHOGRAPIC VIEWS OF DETAILS OF A TURNBUCKLE

Fig.5.10
Print the title and scale used. Give six important dimensions.
5.2 PIPE-JOINTS
Those long hollow cylinders or 'pipes' are a regular feature, be it the pipes that bring water from
treatment plants to your home or the drainage pipes or even the roadside long gas pipe-line.
(a) A GAS PIPELINE
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(b) Discharge from a factory (c) Drinking from a water pipe

USES OF PIPES
Fig 5.11
Since ages, we know pipes have been extensively used as carriers of fluids like water, oil, steam
gas, waste, for water supply systems, oil refineries, chemical plants, sewage piping system etc.
And these pipes may be made of different materials like cast-iron, steel, wrought iron, plastic or
concrete as per the requirement; but they "can't be made of a desired length" for a particular use,
due to constraints of manufacturing, transportation, storing and handling difficulties. So pipes of
standard length are taken and joined together, depending upon the material and purpose for
which it is used.
The most common among them is the 'Cast Iron Flange Joint' which we will discuss in detail.
5.2.1 CAST-IRON FLANGE PIPE JOINT
As the name suggests, this type of joint is used for cast-iron (C.I.) pipes, which are usually
of large diameter not less then 50 mm and used mostly for low-pressure applications, such
as underground sewer pipes, water and gas lines and drainage in buildings. We can also see
this type of joint in the water outlet pipes installed in several schools as a fire safety
measure.
(a) Gas Production Plant (b) Water Pipe

SOME APPLICATIONS OF FLANGE JOINT
Fig. 5.12
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5.2.1.1 FEATURES:
In this type of joint, both the hollow cylindrical pipes have a projected circular ring/
flared rim on their ends, which is known as 'flange', as shown in fig 5.13. It serves to hold
the pipe in place, give it strength and also attach to another flange. The flanges are made
thicker than the pipe-walls for strength. Greater strength may be required when pressure
is high; so the thickness of the pipe-walls is increased for short lengths in steps, as
indicated in the fig 5.13. We also know pipes carry liquids and gases and they need to be
THICK FLANGE WALLS
INCREASED THICKNESS OF
WALLS IN STEPS
RUBBER GASKET
PACKING MATERIAL
4 HOLES
(TO ACCOMODATE
4 BOLTS & NUTS)
LEFT
FLANGE
(C.I.)
RIGHT
FLANGE (C.I.)
(c) RIGHT FLANGED PIPE
(b) GASKET
SQ. HEADED BOLT (4-OFF)
(d) BOLT
(e) NUT
(a) LEFT FLANGED PIPE HEX, NUT (4 OFF)
DETAILS OF A FLANGE PIPE JOINT (HALF SECTIONAL PICTORIAL VIEW)

Fig. 5.13
tight and leak-proof. In order to do so, a mechanism similar to the one, we use in pressure
cookers is utilized i.e., here also we have a similar thin circular packing ring/gasket of soft
material, such as Indian rubber, canvas etc. coated with red lead. This is placed in
between the faces of the two flanges. For perfect alignment, these faces are machined at
right angle to the axes of the pipes. Then these flanges with the gasket in between are
connected together by means of nuts and bolts which are fitted through the holes in the
flanges. (The bolts and nuts may be square-headed or hexagonal-headed in shape.)
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Thus, it can be seen that flange joints help in easy and fast disassembly to withstand
higher pressures.
RIGHT FLANGE (C.I.)

LEFT FLANGE (C.I.)
4 HEX. NUTS
FASTENED WITH
4 SQ. BOLTS
GASKET (RUBBER)
ASSEMBLY OF CAST - IRON FLANGED JOINT

(HALF IN SECTION - PICTORIAL VIEW)
Fig. 5.14
5.2.1.2 ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
Let us now understand the orthographic views of different parts of the Flanged Pipe Joint
and learn to assemble them correctly. And then draw the sectional view & other
orthographic views of the assembly.
Example 1: Figure 5.15 shows the details of the parts of a Flanged Pipe Joint. Assemble these
parts correctly and then draw to scale 1:1, its following views:
(b) Side view, as viewed from left.
Write heading and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give six important
dimensions
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4 HOLES Ø 12 ON 106
P.C.D. AT EQUAL ANGLES
20 12 12 20
(1) FLANGE C.I.- 1 0FF (2) FLANGE C.I.- 1 0FF

R3 R3
Ø 62
Ø 132
Ø 106
Ø 106
Ø 132
Ø 62
Ø 90
Ø 62
Ø 74
Ø 74
Ø 80
Ø 80
3 R 20
20
M 10
10
42 8
(5) HEX. NUT (3) GASKET (4) SQ HEADED BOLT
M.S. - 4 OFF INDIAN RUBBER - 1 OFF M.S.– 4 OFF
DETAILS OF A FLANGED PIPE JOINT

Fig 5.15
Solution: In the figure 5.15, the front view of all the parts of the Flanged Pipe Joint are
shown. Let us assemble these parts as learnt in the previous section.
1. As discussed earlier, the gasket is placed between the two flanges. (It can be
seen, the inner diameters of all the three parts i.e. the two flanges and the
gasket are same (Ø62) and all will be in a line.)
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42 20
4 HOLES Ø 12
M 10 10 12 3 12 8 A
ON PCD = 106
(THREADED Ø 74
LENGTH = 20)
Ø 132 Ø 90
R20
R3
Ø 80
Ø 62
TOP HALF SEC. FRONT VIEW LH SIDE VIEW
SCALE 1:1
ASSEMBLY OF A FLANGED PIPE JOINT

Fig 5.16
2. Then, the four square (SQ) headed bolts are fitted in the holes as shown in the
flanges centrally; the distance between the axes of holes being Ø106 (PCD). (It
can be seen, the holes are of Ø12 and the bolts & nuts have diameter 10mm, so a
gap (clearance) of 1mm is present around and is shown in the top and bottom of
the shank of the bolt, placed in the holes, in the front view.) Refer Fig 5.16.
3. Since, sectional front view (upper half in section) is asked, so both the flanged
pipes are sectioned in opposite directions, as they are different machine parts.
The gasket, being a thin section, may be shown entirely black as per SP-46 :
(2003) BIS specifications (10.2.3). Notice the cross-section of the pipe (to
represent a hollow cylindrical section.)
4. In the side view, which is a complete view, all the bolts and nuts (bolt head in
hidden lines) are shown on the ring of diameter 106, i.e. PCD (pitch circle
diameter).
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Let us consider another example, to understand the assembled views correctly.
Example 2 Fig 5.17 shows the details of a Flanged Pipe Joint. Assemble these parts
correctly, and then draw the following views to a scale full size:
(a) Front view, showing bottom half in section
(b) Side view as seen, from the right.
Print title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give important
dimensions.
FLANGED PIPE JOINT

25 15
4 HOLES Ø 10 4 HOLES Ø 10
R3 R5 R5 R3
Ø 140
Ø 110
Ø 140
Ø 110
Ø 58
Ø 68
Ø 78
Ø 78
Ø 68
Ø 58
Ø 58
Ø 80
3
R12
M8 22
6
52 15 25
BOLTS (4 OFF) NUTS (4 OFF)

Fig. 5.17
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Solution: In the above given fig 5.17, the orthographic (front) views of different parts are
given. Let us assemble them properly and then draw the required views, as
shown in the fig 5.18 25 15 15 25 3
6 8
Ø 110
Ø 58 R5 R3
Ø 140
Ø 78
X
Ø 68
M8
R12
6 22
52
X
RH SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW (BOTTOM HALF IN SECTION)
AT X-X
ASSEMBLY OF A FLANGED PIPE JOINT
Fig 5.18
Exercise 5.2 Figure 5.19 shows the details of parts of the Flanged Pipe Joint. Assemble these
parts correctly and then draw the following views to full-size scale:
(a) Upper half sectional front view
(b) Left-hand side view.
Print title and the scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give six important
dimensions.
Ø 20, 4 HOLES
35 20
3 12 60
M 16X2
30
HEX. HEADED BOLT (4-OFF)

Ø 170 PCD
Ø 144
Ø 100
Ø 126
Ø 120
Ø 100
Ø 210
15
HEX. NUT (4-OFF)
GASKET (1-OFF) NOTE : FILLETS AND ROUNDS R-3
FLANGES (2-OFF)
Fig 5.19
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WHAT HAVE WE LEARNT

1. Turnbuckle/Tie-rod Joint is an adjustable temporary joint, which connects the ends of
two rods axially when they are subjected to push/pull (tensile) forces.
2. It consists of:
(a) Body: A hollow cylinder with tapered ends having threaded holes & a central
slot.
(b) Left-hand (LH) threaded rod: The rod end as left-hand threads.
(c) RH-threaded rod: This rod end has opposite hand threads (i.e. right-hand screw
threads)
3. The threaded rod ends are screwed in or out of the body to tighten or loosen the joint or
adjust the length.
4. Turnbuckle is used in the guy ropes, wires of electric poles, rigging wires of ship, wrestling
rings etc.
5. 'Pipes' are used to transfer liquids or gas from one place to another, and are made of
various materials like cast iron, steel, copper, concrete, plastic etc.
6. Pipes are connected to each other in different ways; known as 'Pipe Joints' to increase the
length or to connect two different fittings.
7. Several type of pipe joints are available, which depend upon the material and type of
service.
8. 'Flange Pipe Joint' is used to connect large diameter pipes, especially cast-iron pipes.
9. It consists of:
(a) Flanged pipes: The pipes have integral flared rim at the ends (flange) and may
have thicker walls in steps for strength.
(b) Gasket: A circular thin ring of soft material, placed between the flanges to keep
the joint leak-proof.
(c) Nuts & bolts: Used to fasten the two flanges. May be hexagonal or square
headed.
10. The two cast iron pipes with integral flanges are connected together by means of bolts and
nuts, and the gasket/packing material in between the flanges, to keep it tight & leak-
proof.
11 Flange Pipe Joint can be seen in underground water system, gas lines, drainage systems
etc.
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CHAPTER
6 SHAFT COUPLINGS
Shafts as we have learnt in the previous chapters, mechanical/machine parts that are commonly
used to transmit power from one end of the machine/unit to another. But what, if these ends are
distance apart. Moreover the shafts are made of limited lengths for ease of transport arts, so in
such a case, we would connect the shafts to form a long transmission shaft, as we have done in
case of joints in the earler chapter.
Similarly Even in case of power transmission between different machine to unit, as seen, between
a motor and a generator or pump, the shafts need to be joined together a to transmit rotary
motion between shafts of same unit, as well as of different machines / unit. And to do so, we have
devices known as "couplings" which are used to "join two shafts".
(a) In an automobile (b) under a locomotive
(Connecting shafts of Different machines) (Connecting shafts of the same unit)
SHAFT COUPLINGS
Fig. 6.1
Several types of couplings are available depending upon the type of transmission and relative
position of the shaft. In this book, we will be discussing only the widely used type i.e. Flange
Coupling.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
6.1 FLANGE COUPLINGS

This is a standard form of coupling and is extensively used. It can be seen in large power machines
and is used for heavy loads.
It is classified into two types depending upon its shape:
a. Unprotected Flange Coupling
b. Protected Flange Coupling.
(a) Unprotected (b) Protected

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLANGE COUPLINGS
Fig 6.2
Let us study these type of Flange Couplings in detail.
6.1.1 UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING
As the name suggests, this type of coupling also has flanges (projected rim ) and resembles the
Flange Pipe Joint learnt in the previous chapter. Let us know more about its parts and see, why it
is called as 'unprotected'.
THE UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING CONNECTS

THE SHAFTS FROM A PUMP TO THAT OF A ENGINE
Fig 6.3
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
6.1.1.1 Features:
The Unprotected Flange Coupling has two similar cast iron flanges, ( left & right ) with the
shape similar to the flanges in the 'flanged pipe joint'. But these flanges have keyways in
the hubs, so that the ends of the shafts to be connected can be keyed to the flanges with
separate rectangular sunk type keys. Even the shafts also have keyways, which are
assembled at right angles, so that the key of one shaft does not slide into the other. These
keys are usually driven from inside faces of the flanges for easy fitting.
4 holes to accomodate
4 Bolts & Nuts
SHAFT (M.S.)
KEY WAY 4 HOLES

(Hub of
Flange) KEY WAY (Shaft)
KEY WAY (Shaft)

RIGHT
FLANGE (C.I.)
KEY WAY
(Flange)
LEFT - FLANGE (C.I)

HEX. BOLT & NUT
SHAFT (M.S.) 4-OFF
KEY (M.S.) (2-OFF)
(Rectangular Sunk-Taper)
DETAILS OF AN UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING

(HALF SEC. PICTORIAL VIEW)
Fig 6.4
Here also, the faces of the flanges are kept at right angles to the axis for proper alignment.
Now, to get the perfect alignment of shafts, one of the flanges may have a projected
circular extension on the outside and thus the other flange will, have a corresponding slot
/ recess. This gives the flanges a perfect fit and this kind of arrangement being similar to
the spigot and socket joint, is termed as 'spigot and socket centring'. There may also be
some clearance (gap) between this kind of fit, to adjust the shaft.
The faces of the two flanges are then held together with the help of bolts and nuts (4 or
more ). These may be square headed or hexagonal headed. The bolts should be an exact
fit, so that the power can be transmitted properly from one shaft and flange to another.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
It can also be noticed, as shown in Fig. 6.5 that the bolt and nuts lie outside, (exposed) and
during rotation of shafts, as well as flanges, they are not visible to the workers, and thus
might hurt them or their clothes, may get entangled. Hence this flange coupling get the
name as Unprotected Flanges Coupling.
LEFT FLANGE RIGHT FLANGE

(C.I.) (C.I.)
(Assembled)
HEX. BOLT AND NUT TAPER KEY
(4 OFF) SHAFT 2 (at right angles to
the other key)
TAPER KEY
(inside the keyway)
SHAFT 1
ASSEMBLY OF AN UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING

(HALF IN SECTIONAL PICTORIAL VIEW)
Fig 6.5
To avoid such mishaps, the shape of the flange is slightly modified, which will be discussed
further in the next type of flange coupling.
6.1.1.2 Orthographic Views
With the help of an example, let us learn to assemble the different parts of the
'Unprotected Flange Coupling' and draw the required orthographic views, including the
sectional view.
Example 1: Fig 6.6 shows the details of an 'Unprotected Flange Coupling'. Assemble the details
and draw the following views of the assembly using scale full size.
a. Front view, top half in section.
b. Left side view.
Print title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give important dimensions
Solution: In fig 6.6, the orthographic views of different parts are shown. Let us assemble
them as learnt and then draw the orthographic views.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
(i) It can be seen flange is given as (2-OFF), i.e. two flanges of same dimensions.
Similarly, the shafts, keys and even bolts and nuts have same dimensions.
6 2
TAPER 1:100
Ø25
KEY (6x4) (2-OFF)
SHAFT (2-OFF)
12 A
Ø100
28
Ø40
Ø50
A
Ø25
Ø6, 4 HOLES ON 75 PCD
FLANGE (2 OFF)
HALF SEC. FRONT VIEW LH SIDE VIEW
34
M6
6 4
HEX. HEADED BOLT AND NUT (4 OFF)

Fig 6.6
(ii) Also note, the two flanges are arranged in a socket and spigot arrangement with a
recess / extension of 2 mm.
(iii) Even the keys are rotated at right angles to each other. One is placed on top of the
shaft and the other near the axis, centrally. Also notice, the width of the keys
drawn in the front view vary as shown in fig 6.7.
(i) The keys may not be more than 3 mm beyond the bosses of the flanges and the
keyways need not extend more than 15 mm beyond the ends of the keys.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
40 40 A
12 12
6 4
TAPER 1:100 6
4
SHAFT 'A' SHAFT 'B'
Ø100
Ø50
Ø75
Ø25
Ø6 4 NUTS
ON 75 PCD
FLANGE 'A' FLANGE 'B' LH SIDE VIEW
SEC. FRONT VIEW

SCALE 1:1
ASSEMBLED VIEW OF AN UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING.

Fig 6.7
Let us consider another example and draw the assembled views properly.
Example 2 : Fig 6.8 shows the parts of an Unprotected Flange Coupling ( having socket and
spigot arrangement). Assemble these parts correctly and then draw the following
views to a scale full size:
a. Front view, upper half in section
b. Side view, as seen from right.
Print title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Gives important
dimensions.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
HEX. BOLTS (4-OFF) FLANGE - A FLANGE - B HEX. NUTS (4-OFF)

40 8
25
Ø8
Ø8
SHAFT - A KEYWAY 7.5X5
5
Ø110
Ø50
Ø30
Ø80
Ø30
Ø40
3
SHAFT-B
45 5
7.5
KEYS (2-OFF) 15 15 NOTE :

40 40 R-3 is to be used for
All Fillets and Rounds
DETAILS OF AN UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING.

Fig 6.8
Solution: Similar to the previous example, we will assemble the various parts correctly and
then obtain the required orthographic views, including the sectional view as
shown in the below fig 6.9.
40 40
A
Ø110 15 15
5
45
Ø 30
A
7.5
Ø 80
40
SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW (upper half in section)
Scale 1:1
ASSEMBLED VIEWS OF AN UNPROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING

Fig 6.9.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
Exercise 6.1
Fig 6.10 shows details of an unprotected Flange Coupling. This figure shows one view, each
of the part no. 1, 2 and 3 and two views of part no.4. Draw to a scale 1:1, the following
orthographic views.
a. Elevation, upper half in section
b. Right hand side view, without section.
Show the dimensions properly. Print title and scale used and draw the projection symbol.
95
Ø 20
HEX. HEADED BOLT AND NUT

5 M20X2.5 (4 OFF)
Ø 240
Ø 310
Ø 180
Ø 90
Ø 170
Ø 90
3
SHAFT (2 OFF)
W
T
35 35 L
KEY W=25
120 120 T=15
L=130
FLANGE (2 OFF) (2 OFF)

Fig 6.10
6.1.2 Protected Flange Coupling
We know, the pervious type of flange coupling (Unprotected) has a shortcoming which is
overcome in this type of Flange Coupling. To do so, we need to shield/cover the protruding
nuts or bolt heads. And this can be done by slightly altering the shape of the flanges. So the
flanges have a flared and flattened rim i.e. a projected outer ring (shroud) as shown in the
figure. This overhangs over the bolt heads and nuts and thus minimizes accidents and
ensures safety, Hence it is named as a 'Protected Flange Coupling'.
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
PROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING IN A DIESEL ENGINE

Fig 6.11
This type of coupling may be sometimes used as belt pulley.
6.1.2.1 Features
The 'protected' type Flange Coupling contains the same parts and is assembled in the same
way as an 'Unprotected type Flange Coupling'. The only difference lies in the shape of the
flange with its projected ring (shroud) as shown in fig.6.12.
HEX. BOLT & NUT (M.S.) 4-OFF
SPIGOT SHROUD
KEY (M.S.) 2-OFF
KEY WAY 4 HOLES Shaft-2 (M.S.)
KEY WAY
BOSS
KEY WAY (Shaft)
RIGHT
FLANGE (C.I.)
SOCKET
LEFT - FLANGE
C.I
SHAFT-1 (M.S.)
EXPLODED VIEW OF DETAILS OF A PROTECTED

FLANGE COUPLING (HALF IN SECTION)
Fig 6.12
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
LEFT
FLANGE RIGHT
FLANGE
SOCKET SHROUD
SPIGOT
BOLT SHAFT-2
AND NUT
TAPER KEY
SHAFT-1
ASSEMBLED PICTORIAL VIEW OF A PROTECTED PLANGE

COUPLING (HALF IN SECTION)
Fig.6.13
6.1.2.2 Orthographic Views
Let us learn to assemble different parts of a 'Protected Flange Coupling' and draw the
respective orthographic views, with the help of an example:
Example 3: fig 6.14 shows details of the parts of a 'protected typed flange coupling'. Assemble
the parts correctly and then draw the following views to scale full size:
a. Half sectional front view (upper half in section).
b. Side view, as seen from left.
c. Print title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give dimensions.
79 79
38 38
21 21
KEY-12X8 (2-OFF)
5
7
15
42
KEYWAY
M15
12X8
Ø 75
Ø 138
Ø 189
Ø 138
Ø 189
Ø 48
Ø 93
Ø 93
Ø 48
20
Ø 75
HEX. BOLT AND NUT (4-OFF)
4 3
FLANGE - A FLANGE - B
DETAILS OF A PROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING

Fig 6.14
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
Solution: Details of the Protected Flange Coupling are shown in Fig 6.14. Let us assemble
them properly and draw the required orthographic views.
1. Here also, it can be seen that the flanges have 'spigot and socket arrangement'.
2. The parts are assembled in the similar manner as we had done for the questions
based on 'Unprotected Flange Coupling'.
3. The only variation which can be seen here is that bolt and nut are not visible in the
lower half which is without section in the front view.
4. The side view also has an extra circular ring for the 'shrouded flanges.
38 38
21 21
5
15
4
12
8
189 DIA.
138 PCD
93 DIA.
48 DIA.
12
75DIA.
158
FRONT VIEW (UPPER HALF IN SECTION) LH SIDE VIEW
Scale 1:1
ASSEMBLY OF A PROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING

Fig 6.15
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
Let us take another example, and draw the required assembled views.
Example 4: Figure 6.16 shows details of the parts of a Protected Flange Coupling. Assemble
these parts correctly and draw the following views to scale full- size:
a. Elevation. Top - half in section
b. End view, as seen from right.
Print title, scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give main dimension.
FLANGE - A FLANGE - B
8
22 22 KEY WAY (16X6)

6
6
Ø 212
Ø 112
Ø 160
Ø 92
Ø 92
Ø 56
4 HOLES (Ø16)
40 40
80 80
M16 KEY WAY (16X6)

TAPER 1:100 100
Ø56
12
90
16 44 14
16
62
HEX HEADED BOLT AND NUT KEY (2-OFF) SHAFT (2-OFF)

(4-OFF)

Fig 6.16
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
Solution: Let us assemble the different parts and draw required views in the similar manner
as done in the previous example.
A slight variation is seen in the spigot and socket arrangement. It can be seen that a
gap Clearance of 3 mm is present between them as shown in fig 6.17)
80 80
A 40 40
22 22
8
6
M16
16
PCD Ø 160
12
Ø 212
Ø 112
Ø 56
A
Ø 92
RH SIDE VIEW SEC. FRONT VIEW
Scale 1:1
ASSEMBLY OF A PROTECTED FLANGE COUPLING

Fig 6.17
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
Exercise 6.2
1. FIG 6.18 shows the details of the parts of a 'Protected Flange Coupling'. Assemble
them correctly and draw the following views to scale 1:1.
a. Half - sectional Front view, lower half in section
b. Left hand side view
SHAFT-B (1-OFF)
KEY 15X10 (2-OFF)

NUTS (4- OFF)

FLANGE B (1-OFF)
Ø 56
7
80
Ø 16
40
22
10
Fig 6.18
Ø 158
Ø 214
Ø 92
5
22
40
80
5
FLANGE-A (1- OFF)
Ø 112
M 16
BOLTS (4-OFF)
20
SHAFT-A (1-OFF)
60
Ø 56
Print the title and scale used. Draw the projection symbol. Give important dimensions
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SHAFT COUPLINGS
WHAT WE HAVE LEARNT

1. Coupling are devices used to join two shafts end to end. This may be done to increase the
length of the shaft or to connect shafts of different machines.
2. Flange Coupling is a type of shaft coupling which is widely used.
3. 'Flange Coupling' uses two 'Flanges' (one for each shaft), fixed with keys (sunk taper) and
joined with bolts and nuts (square or hexagonal).
4. There are two type of Flange Coupling
a. Protected
b. Unprotected.
5. 'Protected Flange Coupling' is Provided with an extended protruding ring in the flange to
cover the heads of bolts & nuts, to avoid any injury from them while rotating.
6. A step of 2-3 mm on one flange and groove in the other (Spigot and socket arrangement) is
also provided for good alignment.
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CHAPTER
7 PULLEYS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In every machine or toy, we use power to operate and perform its function. This power is obtained
mostly by the motor, run on electricity or battery. To transfer the power from the motor to the
operational part of the machine, we use a combination of pulleys and belt (flexible connector).
Pulleys are used in very small sizes to be fitted in wrist watches and tape recorders, as well as
quite big in size as in ships.
The pulley used, with the motor shaft is called driver and with machine shaft is called driven. The
size of driver and driven pulleys define the ratio of speed transferred as reduced or increased. If
both the driver and driven pulley are of same diameter then the speed of the shaft / spindle will
be same, if driver is of small diameter with respect to driven then the speed will be reduced at
operating shaft and vice versa.
TYPES OF PULLEYS
Fig 7.1
RIM
KEY WAY HUB
WEB
PARTS OF A PULLEY
Fig 7.2
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PULLEYS
Outer cylindrical surface of the pulley used to hold

the belt is called RIM, while the inner cylindrical
part to be mounted on the shaft is called HUB. The
RIM and the HUB are joined together with solid
web or spokes or splines depending upon the size
of the pulley. In the pulleys of diameter up to 200
mm a solid web is provided. The pulley is attached
to the shaft either by the key or by a set screw of
the suitable size and type. FLAT BELT DRIVE
The driver pulley and driven pulley are connected
with different type of endless belts i.e. Flat Belt,
Rope Belt, V-Belt etc. The material of the belt
must be strong in tension yet flexible and
relatively light in weight i.e. canvas, leather,
rubber and so on.
Pulley - drive is very easy to install and require

minimum maintenance. The power is transmitted V-BELT DRIVE
from one shaft to another by means of friction
between the belt and the rim. The losses in power
transmission are negligible in V-belt pulley rather
than flat-belt pulley. However power transmission
capacity reaches its limit when the belt starts to
slip.
Now we understand that pulleys allow us to
1. Lift loads up, down and sideways.
2. Rotate things at different speeds.
Pulleys are classified as follows :

ROPE DRIVE
Fig 7.3
Pulleys
No. of
Type of Belt
Groove
Flat-Belt V-Belt Rope Single Groove Double Groove Multiple Groove

Pulley Pulley Pulley Pulley Pulley Pulley
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PULLEYS
So pulley is a simple machine used in our day to day life to complete the work with less efforts. In
this class we will study Flat Belt and V-Belt pulleys, upto 200 mm diameter in detail.
7.2 FLAT BELT (SOLID C.I.) PULLEY

The rim of the flat belt pulley is not flat it is slightly
convex and this is known as the crowning. Actually the
rotating belt around the pulley has a tendency to rise to
the highest point of the rim. In case of a flat rim, there
are chances of the slipping off of belt along the side of
the pulley. But the crowning (convex curvature) tends to
keep the belt in the middle of the rim.
The pulley is rigidly held to the shaft by key. The keyway

is cut with half thickness in hub and half in shaft. The
hub is having thickness to bear the rotational torque of
pulley. The out side of the hub and the inside of the rim
are slightly tapered to facilitate the removal of the
pattern from the mould at the time of casting. SOLID WEB
CAST IRON PULLEY
Fig 7.3
2-CROWNING
RIM
2-DRAW
BOSS
52
Ø192
64
8
Ø 30
4
68
34
Ø56 F
Ø14 DRILL
CROWN
2
KEYWAY 8X3
2
4
4
R
DETAIL OF RIM
SOLID WEB (C.I.) PULLEY

Fig 7.4
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PULLEYS
Example 1 :
Draw the following Orthographic Views of the properly assembled Solid C.I. pulley, shaft and
Rectangular Taper Key. As shown in Fig 7.5
(a) Front View, upper half in section.
(b) Side View.
Write title and scale used. Draw projection symbol. Give '6' important dimensions.
CROWN-3
WALL : 6 THICK ONE HOLE Ø 10
TAPER 1:100
t
74 w 5
4
RECT. TAPER KEY
Ø144
Ø126
Ø118
Ø50
Ø58
2
Ø 20
SHAFT
3
DETAILS OF A SOLID CAST IRON PULLEY

Fig 7.5
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PULLEYS
Solution :
A
CROWN 3
Ø10
TAPER
1:100
6
2
4
Ø144
Ø126
Ø118
Ø20
A
Ø58
Ø50
9 9
50
HALF SEC. FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW (L)
SCALE 1:1
ALL DIMS. ARE IN MM
SOLID C.I. PULLEY

Fig 7.6
Exercise 1 :
The pictorial view of a Solid Web Cast Iron Pulley has been shown in Fig 7.4. Draw its following
Views :
1. Front View with upper half in section.
2. Side View looking from left side.
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PULLEYS
7.3 V- BELT PULLEY:

In the V- belt pulley, there is a wedge shaped groove ( V- groove
) provided on the rim of pulley to carry the belt of V- shaped
cross section. These are extensively used in our daily life as
well as in industries due to the high efficiency in power
transmission.
The endless belt of V- shape are specially made of rubber and

fibre to withstand high tensile force. In general, a groove of
40° is selected. But it must be adjusted in relation to the pulley
diameter. The pictorial view of a V- belt pulley with single V- BELT PULLEY
groove is shown in Fig 7.8. Detail of the V-groove along with the Fig 7.7
section are also shown in the figure for better understanding of
it.
8
28
8
R12
8
0 16 8
20 Ø 12 96
Ø Ø Ø
68
R6
KEY WAY 15X5
0
Ø6
30 o
30 o
SINGLE GROOVE V-BELT PULLEY

Fig 7.8
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PULLEYS
Example 3 :
Draw the Front View with upper half in section and Side View looking from left side for the
Assembly of pulley shown in Fig. 7.8 with shaft and key of proper size.
Solution :
A
28
30°
Ø 168
Ø 200
Ø 128
Ø 60
Ø 96
A

UPPER HALF IN SECTION FROM LEFT END
V - BELT PULLEY
Fig 7.9 SCALE 1:2
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PULLEYS
EXERCISE 4 : Fig 7.10 shows the orthographic views of a single groove V-belt pulley. Draw its
following views with shaft and key of proper size :
(i) Front View, upper half in section
(ii) Side View looking from left side.
Ø 25, 4 HOLES ON Ø 125 PITCH CIRCLE

A 20
18
25
4
Ø 250
Ø 50
Ø 30
60
KEYWAY 8x3 30°

A 30
SIDE VIEW SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
SINGLE GROOVE V - BELT PULLEY

Fig 7.10

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Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India

A text book on Engineering Graphics, Class XII.

FIRST EDITION 2010 CBSE, India

"This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by

PUBLISHED BY : The Secretary, Central Board of Secondary Education,

Engineering Graphics is the language of communication for all engineers,

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY TO

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Fundamental Duties - It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-

1.2 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1.2.1 ISOMETRIC SCALE

The isometric scale is used to measure

isometric scale are given below ; refer

(i) Draw a horizontal line PQ.

(ii) Draw the true lengths on a A

line PM inclined at 45° to

the horizontal line (say up 70

(iii) Draw another line PA at C

30° to the horizontal line. 20 SOM

1.2.2 POSITIONING OF SOLID

1.2.3 STEPS TO DRAW THE ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1.3 DRAWING OF ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Solution : Refer Fig. 1.4

Steps (i) Draw the hexagon with isometric length of 30 mm.

Solution : Refer Fig 1.4

Steps (i) and (ii) will be same as above in example 1.

(iv), (v) & (vi) will be same as above in example 1.

Example 3: Draw the isometric projection of a cube of side 50 mm.

Solution : Refer Fig. 1.5

(b) On its face on H.P. keeping its base perpendicular to V.P.

Solution : (a) Refer Fig. 1.6 (a)

(b) Refer fig 1.6(b)

Example 5: Draw the isometric projection of an equilateral triangular prism of 50 mm base

Solution : Refer Fig 1.7

Solution: Refer Fig. 1.8

Solution: Refer Fig. 1.9

Solution: Refer fig 1.10

Let us draw some examples.

Solution : Refer Fig. 1.11

(vi) Complete the isometric projection of pentagonal pyramid with direction of

Solution : Refer Fig. 1.11

Steps (i) to (iii) will be same as above.

(v) & (vi) will be same.

Solution : Refer Fig 1.12

Solution: Refer Fig. 1.13

Solution : Refer Fig. 1.14

Solution: Refer Fig. 1.15

HELPING FIGURE 30°

Solution: Refer Fig. 1.16

Fig 1.16 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1.3.3 FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID

Let us draw some examples.

Solution : Refer Fig 1.17

(viii) Complete the isometric projection of frustum of square pyramid with

Solution: Refer Fig 1.17

Steps (i) to (iii) will be same as above.

(v) to (viii) will be same as above.