The Effect of Curing Methods On Quality of Concrete Paving Block PDF

THE EFFECT OF CURING METHODS ON QUALITY OF CONCRETE PAVING
BLOCK
HERDA HAZIQAH BINTI SEKARIA
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
JUNE, 2012
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Dedicated to:
My mother
&
My siblings
Thanks for your pray, attention and spiritual support…

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest and most heartfelt
gratitude to my project supervisor Prof Ir Dr Hasanan bin Md Nor, who continuously
guided me on my study and generously share his time and knowledge.
It is a great pleasure to extend my gratitude to technical staff members at the

Structure and Materials Laboratory Department UTM for their collaboration and
assistance during casting works.
I would also like to express great appreciation to Mr. Azman Mohamed for
his guidance and providing of reading materials related to this study. Special thanks
to Ms Euniza Anak Jusli in helping me to run the instruments during the laboratory
tests.
Finally, thanks to my fellow friends and everyone who has contributed

directly or indirectly to this study. This study would have been impossible without
your guidance, advice and support.
Thank you.
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ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of curing methods on
concrete paving blocks. Four (4) curing conditions such as water curing, covering
with moist hessian, air curing and exposure to outdoor environment were studied. In
total, 50 concrete mixtures were cast and tested to determine wet density,
compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete paving block samples.
The concrete paving blocks were produced using a mixture of Portland cement with
water-cement ratio of 0.50, sand and crushed granite and cured for 3, 7, 14 and 28
days. The maximum size of 10 mm coarse aggregate was used to achieve good
compaction and acceptable surface texture. The hardened concrete test includes
compressive strength test, ultrasonic pulse velocity test and wet density test were
carried out in this study. Test results indicate that water curing provided much better
results at 28 days curing period followed by moist Hessian and then air cured
method. Nevertheless, water curing is not practical to apply for small-scale concrete
block paver manufacturing. It can be suggested that moist Hessian curing is adopted
as the best curing method. However, there are only a slight difference between moist
Hessian and air curing effects on concrete block‘s properties. In contrast, exposing to
outdoor environment conditions was the poorest curing method.
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ABSTRAK
Tujuan kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk mengkaji kesan kaedah-kaedah

pengawetan ke atas blok konkrit. Terdapat empat (4) syarat pengawetan yang dikaji
termasuklah kaedah rendaman air, pengawetan dengan menggunakan kain guni
lembap, pendedahan di dalam makmal dan pendedahan kepada persekitaran luar.
Secara keseluruhan, 50 campuran konkrit dihasilkan dan diuji untuk menentukan
ketumpatan basah konkrit, kekuatan mampatan dan halaju denyut blok konkrit. Blok-
blok konkrit dihasil mengggunakan campuran simen Portland dengan nisbah air-
simen 0.50 pasir dan granit hancur kemudian diawet untuk 3, 7, 14 dan 28 hari. Saiz
maksimum batu baur kasar 10 mm digunakan untuk memudahkan proses pemadatan
konkrit dan mendapatkan tekstur permukaan yang baik. Ujian yang dijalankan ke
atas sampel-sampel blok konkrit termasuklah ujian kekuatan mampatan, ujian halaju
denyutan ultrasonik dan ujian ketumpatan basah. Ujian yang dijalankan ke atas blok-
blok konkrit menunjukkan bahawa pengawetan dengan kaedah rendaman di dalam
air memberikan keputusan yang memberansangkan pada hari ke-28 diikuti dengan
kaedah pengawetan guni lembap dan seterusnya pendedahan di dalam makmal.
Walau bagaimanapun, kaedah pengawetan rendaman air adalah tidak praktikal
diguna pakai bagi pembuatan blok konkrit kecil-kecilan. Kajian ini mencadangkan
bahawa kaedah pengawetan guni lembap diguna pakai sebagai kaedah pengawetan
yang terbaik selepas kaedah rendaman air. Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat hanya
sedikit perbezaan antara kaedah guni lembap dengan pengawetan udara. Sebaliknya,
kaedah pendedahkan blok konkrit terhadap keadaan persekitaran luar adalah kaedah
pengawetan yang tidak seharusnya dipraktikkan.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATIONS iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Preamble 1
1.2 Problems Statement 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study 3
1.4 Scope of Study 3
1.5 Significance of Study 4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Materials for Concrete Paving Block 5
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2.2.1 Binders 6
2.2.2 Aggregates 6
2.2.3 Water 8
2.3 Design of Concrete Paving Block 8
2.3.1 Concrete Block Strength 9
2.3.2 Types of Concrete Paving Block 10
2.3.3 Dimension 11
2.4 Hydration Process 11
2.4.1 Stages of Hydration Process 12
2.4.2 Degree of Hydration 13
2.5 Proper Curing 13
2.6 Common Curing Methods 14
2.6.1 Water Retaining Techniques 15
2.6.2 Water Adding Techniques 16
2.7 Physical and Chemical Properties Related to Curing 17
2.7.1 Factors Influencing Rate of Moisture Loss 18
2.7.2 Drying Shrinkage 19
2.7.3 Reducing Drying Shrinkage 19
2.8 The Effect of Curing on Strength 20
2.9 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 22
2.10 Significance of Curing 23
2.11 Effectiveness of Various Curing Techniques 24
2.12 Advantages of Concrete Block Paving 25
3 METHODOLOGY 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Materials 27
3.3 Concrete Mix Design 28
3.4 Preparation of Concrete Block 28
3.5 Curing Methods 31
3.5.1 Water Curing (Method 1) 31
3.5.2 Covering with Moist Hessian (Method 2) 32
3.5.3 Air Curing (Method 3) 32
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3.5.4 Exposed to Outdoor Environment (Method 4) 32

3.6 Laboratory Tests for Concrete Block 33
3.6.1 Sieve Analysis Test 33
3.6.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV) 35
3.6.3 Compressive Strength Test 35
3.6.4 Wet Density Test 37
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39

4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Sieve Analysis 39
4.2.1 Sieve Analysis for Fine Aggregate 40
4.2.2 Sieve Analysis for Coarse Aggregate 42
4.3 Compressive Strength 44
4.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 47
4.5 Concrete Block Density 51
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 54

5.1 Introduction 54
5.2 Conclusion 54
5.3 Recommendation 57
REFERENCES 58
APPENDICES 62
APPENDIX A 62
APPENDIX B 63
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Typical chemical compositions of Portland cement 6
2.2 Recommended aggregate grading for making paving blocks 7
2.3 Grading limits for fine aggregates 8
2.4 Recommended grades of paver blocks for different traffic

categories 9
2.5 Criterion for concrete quality grading 22
3.1 Sieve sizes of aggregates 34
4.1 The sieve analysis of sand for concrete block mix 40
4.2 The sieve analysis of crushed granite for concrete block mix 42
4.3 The result of compressive strength test in 3 days 44
4.7 The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test in 3 days 48

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4.11 The result of density test in 3 days 51

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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Types of concrete paving block based on shape 10
2.2 Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of Portland

cement 12
2.3 Impervious curing paper is efficient for curing horizontal

surfaces 15
2.4 Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds 16
2.5 Ponding method of water curing 16
2.6 Fogging minimizes moisture loss 17
2.7 Burlap sprayed with water 17
2.8 Compressive strength of concrete dried in laboratory air

after preliminary moist curing 21
3.1 Mold (200 mm x 100 mm x 60 mm) 29
3.2 Preparation steps of concrete paving block samples 29
3.3 Mold removing 30
3.4 Finished casting 30
3.5 Method 1 32
3.6 Method 2 32
3.7 Method 3 33
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3.8 Method 4 33
3.9 ADR 2000 machine 36
3.10 Paving block failure 37
3.11 Balance 38
4.1 Sieve Analysis of fine aggregate 41
4.2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate 43
4.3 Effect of curing on the compressive strength of concrete

paving block 46
4.4 Effect of curing on the ultrasonic pulse velocity of

concrete paving block 50
4.5 Effect of curing on the density of concrete paving block 53

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACI - American Concrete Institute
BS - British Standard
CCAA - Cement, Concrete & Aggregates Australia
CIRIA - Construction Industry Research and Information

Association
CH - calcium hydroxide
CSH - calcium silicate hydrate
CSIR - Central Road Research Institute
C&CI - Cement & Concrete Institute
DOE - Department of the Environment
IS - Indian Standard
MS - Malaysian Standard
OPC - ordinary Portland cement
RH - relative humidity
RHPC - rapid-hardening Portland cement
SANS - South African National Standard
UPV - Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A flow chart of curing work 62
B concrete mix design calculation 63

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preamble
As similar to all concrete products, the quality of concrete paving blocks is

improved by curing process. Curing is generally known as a process of controlling
the rate of moisture loss from concrete during cement hydration. Neville A. M.
(1973) also described that the curing process of concrete is necessary to implement in
order to maintain a satisfactorily moisture content and a favorable temperature in
concrete during the cement hydration process. As the concrete is exposed to the
environment, moisture or heat exchange will take place until the equilibrium
condition is achieved (Wang et al. 1994). Curing can be carried out by keeping the
concrete completely saturated or as much saturated as possible till the water-filled
spaces are significantly reduced through a hydration process (Gowripalan et al.
1992).
In 1998, the American Concrete Institute adopted a standard specification on

curing of concrete (ACI 308.1, 1998). Most studies investigated the particular curing
conditions for the initial 28 days (Ling et al. 2010). A concrete paving block mixture
design is just a proportion of ingredients. If the concrete mixture is not cured
properly, it will not present the desired performance quality of concrete paving
blocks. In addition, excessive evaporation during curing can cause early and rapid
drying shrinkage, which can cause cracking problem. That is why the concrete
paving blocks should be kept at a favorable temperature for the time specified.
According to Christoforos Kolyvas (2007), curing is the most complicated to control
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operations as well as one of the most important aspects for the final in place quality.
Therefore, it required special attention and consideration.
1.2 Problem Statement
The curing process can be done in many ways whether by reducing the
moisture loss, maintaining the presence of moisture or through steam curing.
Different curing methods give different results. However, not all curing methods are
100% effective and efficient. Some of them will create so many disadvantages that
lead to the failure of getting the optimum and the best quality of concrete paving
blocks manufactured at site.
Small-scale concrete paving block manufacturers usually exposed their

concrete paving blocks to the outdoor environment without any protection from daily
weather. Some manufactures just spray water on their concrete paving block
products once in a while. Perhaps they do not realize curing by water spraying must
be done 3 to 5 times a day to ensure the concrete paving blocks are continuously in
moist condition for the whole day.
Theoretically, curing concrete block by submerging it in water at a specified

duration is one of the best curing methods in order to achieve higher compressive
strength, denser, less defects as well as excellent quality of concrete paving block
products. Nevertheless, water curing is not a practical curing method to be applied in
small-scale manufacturing of concrete paving block products. This is due to the large
curing space requirement and can be time consuming besides more costly to
implement.
To produce the best quality of concrete blocks, an advanced technology can

be considered as one of the useful elements to facilitate curing work. Unfortunately,
application of advanced equipments and machineries required very high amount of
expenses. As a result, small-scale concrete paving block manufacturers facing lot of
problems in choosing the most suitable method for curing concrete paving blocks
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with lower expenses. This study will focus on the effect of affordable curing methods
on the hardened properties of concrete paving block.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
This study was conducted to achieve several objectives which are to:
1) Determine the strength of concrete paving block from different curing
methods.
2) Evaluate the effect of curing methods to the wet density of concrete
paving block.
3) Compare the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete paving block from
different curing methods.
1.4 Scope of Study
This study will be conducted within Structure and Materials Laboratory,

FKA. It will focus on small scale manufacturing of concrete paving blocks for non-
traffic applications. The concrete paving blocks will be produced from a mixture of
Portland cement with the water-cement ratio of 0.50, sand and crushed granite.
Casting process will be done in one go to ensure the uniformity of concrete mixtures.
The maximum size of 10 mm coarse aggregates is selected. The concrete casting
process done in one go to ensure the uniformity of concrete mixtures. Approximately
50 units of concrete paving block will be produced and cured. These blocks then will
be used to conduct the entire test. The concrete paving block samples will be cured in
four (4) curing methods as follows:
1) Immersed in the water basin (control method)

2) Wet covering using hessian
3) Inside the laboratory under room temperature within 20 – 25 0C with
no water or wet materials are provided
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4) Outside the laboratory which is directly exposed to sunlight, wind and

rain
The curing periods of concrete paving block samples are restricted to 3 days,
7 days, 14 days and 28 days. As to analyze the curing effect on these concrete blocks,
several tests should be carried out. All tests will be conducted on hardened state
concrete. Compressive test, density test and the ultrasonic pulse velocity test (Pundit
Test) will be implemented to evaluate the effect of curing methods on concrete
paving block.
1.5 Significance of Study
Nowadays, concrete paving blocks have become a standard paving material

due to its structural advantages, longevity, versatility, fire-resistant quality,
durability, economy and minimal of maintenance. Due to the large increase in
concrete paving block requirement, it seems necessary to establish more advanced
study regarding the suitable curing method for concrete paving block. The easiest
and practical method will help to evolve great architectures. It will also contribute to
encourage the concrete paving block manufacturers to develop their products without
neglecting the quality aspect.
From the result of the study, the quality or strength of the concrete in
different types of curing method can be identified. Sufficiently cured concrete will
exhibit greater strength, denser and less voids formation. Concrete that has been
properly cured allows maximum hydration. Problems such as drying shrinkage
cracking, crazing and dusting can be prevented and these will save the amount of
money expenses for block pavement repaired and maintenance. From this study, the
most suitable curing method which is simple, practical and inexpensive curing
methods can be applied in order to improve the quality of concrete paving blocks
manufactured at the site can be established.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter will examine in more detail on important issues related to the
topic of study. The aim of the literature review is to provide better understanding of
the study. It will focus on the previous work done by other researchers. It helps to
describe the background research and supporting information in order to identify the
aspects of the study. This section will explain in detail on the materials and design of
concrete paving blocks, hydration process, proper and common curing methods,
curing influence on physical and chemical properties of concrete mixes and concrete
testing for hardened concrete.
2.2 Materials for Concrete Paving Block
The manufacturing of concrete blocks does not depend on the availability of

expensive petroleum derivatives such like bitumen. It is also environmentally
neutral. The blocks can be manufactured wherever suitable aggregates and cement
are available. Furthermore, the energy used in the manufacture of block paving is
less than the bituminous materials. L. J. Murdock and K. M. Brook (1979) considers
that the chemical action which results in the setting and hardening of concrete
depend on the presence of water where in the presence of water, the hydration
process can be continued.
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2.2.1 Binders
The main purpose of cement is to act as a binding agent for aggregates such
as sand. With a given amount of cement, as the water content is increased, the
strength of concrete will decrease. In producing paving blocks, ordinary Portland
cement (OPC), rapid-hardening Portland cement (RHPC) or a blend of milled
granulated blast-furnace slag with OPC are permitted. In practice, RHPC is most
frequently used. However, concrete paving blocks shall be made using one or more
of the binders conforming to the appropriate British Standards 6717 – Part 1 (1993).
The chemical compositions for the cement are presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Typical chemical compositions of Portland cement

Chemical compositions Percentage
Silica, SiO2 20.0 – 22.5
Alumina, Al2O3 4.8 – 6.0
Ferum Oxide, Fe2O3 2.4 – 2.5
Calcium Oxide, CaO Min 62.0
Magnesium Oxide, MgO Max 3.5
Sulphuric Anhydrite, SO3 2.1 – 2.4
Insoluble Residue, IR Max 2.5
Loss of Ignition, LOI Max 2.0
Density Max 0.4
Lime Saturated Factor, LSF Min 0.85
Source: Tenggara Cement Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd.
2.2.2 Aggregates
The natural aggregates to be used in making concrete paving blocks should

be complied with BS 6717 – 1: 1993. Artificial aggregates, such as slag can be used
as long as it complies with the same requirements as for natural aggregate. However,
the use of recycled material is also permitted.
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According to C&CI Midrand (2009), the recommended maximum size of

coarse aggregate to be used in producing of concrete paving blocks is 13.2 mm.
However, the maximum nominal size which is generally used is about 9.5 mm.
Smaller sizes of aggregate (4.75 mm) may be used to suit certain circumstances or
may be specifically selected to obtain a particular surface texture. The use of coarse
particles usually results in savings in the binder provided the mix is properly
proportioned. However, if coarse aggregate particle sizes are too big or if there is too
much coarse aggregate is used in the mix, it will become difficult to achieve good
compaction and acceptable surface texture.
Table 2.2: Recommended aggregate grading for making paving blocks

Sieve Size (mm) Cumulative percentage
passing
13.2 100
9.5 90 – 100
4.75 70 – 85
2.36 50 – 65
0.30 10 – 25
0.15 5 – 15
0.075 2 – 10
Fineness modulus 3.2 – 4.2
Source: Cement & Concrete Institute Midrand
Based on IS: 383 (1970), fine aggregate complying with the requirement of
any grading zone in Table 2.3 is suitable for concrete but the quality of concrete
produced will depend upon a number of factors including the proportions. This
standard recommends that fine aggregate conforming to grading zone IV should not
be used in reinforced concrete. Thus, this is not a problem to concrete paving block
manufacturing process. As the fine aggregates grading become progressively finer,
which is from grading zone I to IV, the ratio of fine aggregates to coarse aggregate
should be progressively reduced. However, the most suitable fine to coarse ratio to
be used for any particular mix will depend on the actual grading, particle shape, and
surface texture of both fine and coarse aggregates.
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Table 2.3: Grading limits for fine aggregates

IS Sieve Percentage Passing
Designation Grading Grading Grading Grading
Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone IV

10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 95 – 100
2.36 mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100
1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100
600 micron 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100
300 micron 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50
150 micron 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15
2.2.3 Water
Water is one of the important constituents in producing the concrete paving

blocks. The water quantity with particular water cement ratio is essential for the
production of concrete with the desired and consistent strength. The amount of water
to be used should be the minimum as necessary in order to give sufficient
workability and good compaction of concrete. The characteristic of mixing water for
concrete usually fit for drinking. This is to ensure that the water used is free from any
impurities such as suspended solid organic matter and dissolved salts which are
available in natural water. Generally, water for concrete is specified to be in potable
quality.
2.3 Design of Concrete Paving Block
According to Hasanan Md. Nor (1999), concrete blocks are usually available
in a variety of shapes but similar in size. Apart from that, the performance of
concrete block pavement also depends on the design, construction and maintenance.
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Research carried out by the CSIR Road Research shows that for strengths in excess
of 25 MPa, little structural advantage is gained by increasing strength (Shackel B.,
1979). It is important to know that although the required average strength is 25 MPa,
the minimum strength of individual blocks is actually 20 MPa. There are several
aspects of paving blocks that should be considered during the design stage. These
include the strength, shape, thickness and chamfer.
2.3.1 Concrete Block Strength
Generally, the average compressive wet strength of concrete paving block is

25 MPa which is greater than bricks strength. The reason of this is to ensure that the
blocks have sufficient resistance to non- traffic or traffic loading for both vehicular
and pedestrian (SANS 1058, 1985). Such examples of non-traffic application include
building premises, house yard, landscapes, gardens, parks, pedestrian and many
others. Table 2.4 shows the recommended grades of paver blocks to be used for
construction of pavements with different traffic categories (IS: 15658, 2006).
Table 2.4: Recommended grades of paver blocks for different traffic categories
Grade Specified Traffic Recommended
Designation Characteristics Category Minimum
of Paver Compressive Paver Block
Blocks Strength of Paver Thickness
Blocks At 28 (mm)
Days (N/mm2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
M-25 – M-30 25 – 30 Non-traffic 50
M-30 – M-35 30 – 35 Light 60
M-35 – M-45 35 – 45 Medium 60, 80
M-45 – M-55 45 – 55 Heavy to Very 80, 100, 120
Heavy
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2.3.2 Types of Concrete Paving Block
The shape of paving blocks has characters such as preventing the movements
between blocks, strength to cater loadings interlocking characteristic. Concrete
paving blocks can be divided into three types based on its shape.
Type A block paver

It developed the best resistance to both vertical and horizontal creep and generally
recommended for all industrial and heavy duty applications. This type of block
allows geometrical interlock between all vertical or side faces of adjacent blocks.
Type B block paver

A little bit different from Type A, it allows geometrical interlock between some faces
of adjacent blocks. This type of block has less faces as compare to type A blocks.
Type C block paver

It has an interlocking characteristic but not allow geometrical interlock between
adjacent blocks. The strength produce by this block depends on the uniformity of
dimension and the accuracy of block arrangement.
Type X block paver

The latest shape of paving blocks introduced. It has high flexibility, durability, great
strength and optimum interlocking characteristic on its structure.
Figure 2.1: Types of concrete paving block based on shape

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2.3.3 Dimension
BS 6717 (2001) stated that the overall length and width of a paving block
shall not exceed 250 mm whereas the length of a paving block divided by its
thickness shall not exceed 5. As for the width of a paving block, it shall be not less
than 50 mm at a distance of 50 mm from any edge.
Paving block thicknesses vary between 50 to 80 mm. The thicker the blocks
the better the pavement will resist vertical deformation and horizontal creep.
However, there is a cost implication and thickness selection should be based on
application. Generally, for domestic use, the thickness of 50 to 60 mm blocks is
adequate. For industrial use, an 80 mm paver is recommended. Chamfering of blocks
improves their service performance and appearance. Most concrete paving blocks are
chamfered.
2.4 Hydration Process
An optimum hydration process is required in order to gain the strength and

durability of concrete block pavement. Under certain conditions, hydration can
continue for years. The main feature for continued hydration is the presence of
water-filled capillaries.
Although there was a normally an adequate quantity for full hydration at the
time of mixing, it is necessary to ensure that the water is either retained or
replenished to enable the chemical action to continue. A significant loss of water due
to evaporation may cause the hydration process to stop with a consequent reduced
strength development. The general chemical formula for the cement hydration
process is:
OPC + H2O = C-S-H gel + Ca (OH)2

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2.4.1 Stages of Hydration Process
The hydration of Portland cement can be divided into four (4) stages as
shown in Figure 2.2 (Mindess & Young, 1981).
Figure 2.2: Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of Portland cement
Pre-induction stage (Stage I)
When contact with water, cement grains start to react. This early reaction
period finish only a few minutes. It corresponds to the first peak of heat production
measured with an isothermal calorimeter. This significant peak is due to the reaction
of calcium aluminates with gypsum and water forming ettringite.
Dormant stage (Stage II)
A period of several hours with little hydration follows. One of the

explanations of the dormant stage is the formation of a protective layer around the
cement grains that prevents further hydration.
Acceleration stage (Stage III)
The layer breaks open and the anhydrous cement continues to hydrate. The
principal components of Portland cement react with water and form amorphous
13
calcium silicate hydrate, CSH and crystalline calcium hydroxide, CH. The early
hydration products are mostly in the form of long fibers that grow into the pore space
and form bridges between the cement particles.
Post-acceleration stage (Stage IV)
In the last period, the hydration products form a dense layer around the
original particles that acts as a barrier for the diffusion of ions, slowing down the rate
of reaction. The rate of heat liberated slows down accordingly.
2.4.2 Degree of Hydration
The degree of hydration,α is defined as the amount of cement reacted divided

by the original amount of cement (van Breugel, 1997):
Reaction of cement with water involves the production of heat and chemical
and physical binding of water. According to Powers & Brownyard (1948), the
stoichiometric amount of water to obtain full hydration in a closed system
corresponds to w/c ratio of 0.42. With a lower w/c ratio, hydration stops due to lack
of water and a required amount of anhydrous cement remains in the hardened cement
paste. If water is allowed to penetrate into the hardening cement paste, the w/c ratio
needed to obtain full hydration is reduced to 0.36.
2.5 Proper Curing
The best curing method is important to achieve long lasting concrete block
pavement. High quality concrete blocks alone is not enough. Good materials, proper
curing and construction behavior and strict supervision will lead to a better concrete
pavement in Malaysia. Research on concrete block pavement is still at an early stage
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in our country. The proper curing of concrete will improve its qualities in several
ways.
Apart from being stronger and more durable to chemical attack, it is also
more resistant to traffic wear and more watertight. It is also less to be harmed by
chemical attack. It is usually required that moist curing should be carried on for a
certain number of days from the time of placing without any definite reference to the
time at which curing shall commence or to the efficiency required. As a result, curing
is often commenced too late and in many cases occasionally spraying with water at
infrequent intervals is all that the concrete receives (L. J. Murdock and K. M. Brook,
1979).
A study conducted by Md. Safiuddin et. al (2007) suggests that concrete

should be cured by water curing to achieve good hardened properties. This is because
water curing produces the highest level of compressive strength, dynamic modulus of
elasticity and ultrasonic pulse velocity and the lowest level of initial surface
absorption. This is due to the improved pore structure and lower porosity resulting
from greater degrees of cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction without any loss of
moisture from the concrete specimens.
2.6 Common Curing Methods
Based on CCAA (2006), methods of curing concrete fall broadly into the
following categories:
a) The “water retaining” techniques which minimize moisture loss from

the concrete by means of sealing materials such as plastic sheets or by
application of membrane-forming curing compounds to the freshly
placed concrete.
b) The “water adding” techniques which prevent moisture loss by
continuously wetting the exposed surface of the concrete through
15
water ponding, fogging, sprinkling, steaming or covering with

saturated material.
c) Those that keep the surface moist and, at the same time, raise the
temperature of the concrete, thereby increasing the rate of strength
gain.
2.6.1 Water Retaining Techniques
Spraying with water as soon as possible after placing the concrete and
covering with polythene or impervious curing paper (Figure 2.1) is perhaps the most
effective method for curing horizontal surfaces (L. J. Murdock and K. M. Brook,
1979). Unfortunately, these techniques are not suitable for high-production
operations such as paving and large floor placements.
Figure 2.3: Impervious curing paper is efficient for curing horizontal surfaces
Today, many contractors rely on curing compounds (Figure 2.4) to help

create the proper environment needed for cement hydration and the development of
durable concrete. Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds are the most widely
used materials for curing of concrete pavements. It retains the original moisture in
the concrete but do not provide additional moisture. Curing compounds are easy to
apply and maintenance free but the use of curing compounds will not prevent the
formation of early age thermal cracking.
16
Figure 2.4: Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds
2.6.2 Water Adding Techniques
Klieger Paul (1957) reported that for low w/c ratio concretes, it is more
advantageous to supply additional water during curing than in the case with higher
w/c ratio concretes. For concrete with w/c ratio 0.29, the strength of specimens made
with saturated aggregates and cured by ponding water (Figure 2.5) on top of the
specimen was 5.9 MPa till 6.9 MPa greater at 28 days than that of comparable
specimens made with dry aggregates and cured under damp burlap. He also noted
that although early strength is increased by elevated temperatures of mixing and
curing, later strengths are reduced by such temperatures. However, work by Pfieffer
D. W. (1981) has shown that later strengths may have only minor reductions if the
heat is not applied until after time of set.
Figure 2.5: Ponding method of water curing

17
Fog spraying (Figure 2.6) or sprinkling with nozzle or sprays provide

satisfactory curing when immersion is not feasible. Burlap (Figure 2.7), cotton maps
and other coverings of absorbent materials will hold water on the surface.
Figure 2.6: Fogging minimizes moisture loss
Figure 2.7: Burlap sprayed with water
2.7 Physical and Chemical Properties Related to Curing
It is important to understand the basic physical and chemical effects of curing

on concrete mixtures. A general understanding of these effects and how the curing
process influences them will be the basis upon which further advancements can be
18
made on the curing requirements. Since the properties of concrete develop as a result
of hydration, there are so many things that can be learned by studying the effects of
different curing conditions on the characteristics of cement paste. This sub-section
summarizes the physical and chemical characteristics of concrete mixture resulted
from the curing process.
2.7.1 Factors Influencing Rate of Moisture Loss
Moisture movement is a common occurrence in concrete. As soon as concrete

is exposed to its environment, moisture or heat exchange will take place until
equilibrium is established (Wang et al. 1994). The basic factors influencing the rate
of moisture loss from concrete are addressed below (Christoforos Kolyvas, 2007):
a) Ambient and concrete temperature

If the substance is hotter, then evaporate. As a result, moisture loss
will be faster. The amount of heat applied to a liquid determines how
many particles can evaporate.
b) Ambient relative humidity

If the air already has a high concentration of water, then the given
water will evaporate more slowly. Consequently moisture loss will be
slower.
c) Flow rate of air (wind)

If the air is moving over the concrete surface all the time, then the
concentration of water in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus
encouraging faster evaporation and faster moisture loss.
d) Surface Area
A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster due
to the fact that there are more surface molecules which are able to
escape.
19
e) Moisture diffusivity of cement paste

It is a material property which has been generally accepted to be
dependent upon the concentration of pore water content within the
cement paste. In this regard, diffusivity is not only a function of
humidity but also of porosity.
2.7.2 Drying Shrinkage
Cracks in concrete have many causes. They may affect appearance only or
may indicate significant structural distress or simply a lack of durability. Cracks are
categorized as either occurring in plastic concrete or occurring in hardened concrete.
A common cause of cracking in concrete is restrained drying shrinkage.

Drying shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture from the cement paste constituent,
which can shrink by as much as 1% per unit length. On wetting, concrete tends to
expand.
The magnitude of the tensile stresses is influenced by a combination of

factors including the amount of shrinkage, the degree of restraint, the modulus of
elasticity and the amount of creep. The amount of drying shrinkage is influenced
mainly by the amount and type of aggregate and the water content of the mix.
Pickett (1956) studies shows that the greater the amount of aggregate, the
smaller the amount of shrinkages. As for the higher the stiffness of the aggregate, the
more effective it is in reducing the shrinkage of the concrete.
2.7.3 Reducing Drying Shrinkage
Lack of curing will increase the tendency of cracking within a concrete

structure. The early termination of curing process will contribute to increase the
20
shrinkage problem at a time when the concrete has low strength. The insufficient of
hydration of the cement due to drying will result not only in the decreased of strength
but also reduced durability of the concrete. According to ACI 224 (1984), drying
shrinkage can be reduced by using the maximum practical amount of aggregate in the
mix. The lower use of water content is desirable.
2.8 The Effect of Curing on Strength
The effect of curing on strength development is limited to the near-surface of

concrete. So, its effect on strength will depend on the element size and type of
loading that will be applied. The effect on large elements loaded in compression will
be much less than on slender elements loaded in flexure.
It is unlikely that the structural capacity of most elements would be

significantly reduced by poor curing. Attempts to assess the effect of poor curing on
strength development on small specimens such as cubes or cylinders are likely to
give pessimistic results (Marsh and Ali, 1994).
The effect of reduced strength in the surface zone on the structural

performance can be calculated by making assumptions about the actual reduction in
strength and the depth of the effect. Using a strength reduction of 25% in the outer 25
mm predicts the following overall effects (CIRIA, 1997):
 flexural strength (sagging) 93%

 shear strength 98%
 bond stress no change
21
Figure 2.8: Compressive strength of concrete dried in laboratory air after
preliminary moist curing (Price, 1951).
Although the primary reason for keeping the concrete wet at early ages is the
prevention of cracking, it is also important to note that most of the engineering
properties of concrete are dependent on the moisture content and moisture
distribution in the specimen. The presence of humidity is needed for the continuing
hydration of the cement.
From Figure 2.8, the duration and magnitude of strength development are
longer and larger respectively in a wet-cured concrete than in a concrete that is
drying out gradually. The strength finally stops increasing after the concrete dries out
completely (Gilkey H. J., 1937).
However, an important exception of this rule, namely, that compressive

strength of a concrete specimen is higher when the specimen is dry or a surface layer
is drier than if the same specimen were in a fully or surface-saturated condition
(Delmar L. Bloem, 1968).
22
2.9 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)
The ultrasonic pulse velocity method has been used successfully to evaluate
the quality of concrete for more than 60 years. This method can be used for detecting
internal cracking and other defects as well as changes in concrete such as
deterioration due to aggressive chemical environment and freezing and thawing. By
using the pulse velocity method it is also possible to estimate the strength of concrete
test specimens and in-place concrete (Tarun R. Naik. et. al, 2004).
The pulse velocity method is a truly nondestructive method, as the technique

uses mechanical waves resulting in no damage to the concrete element being tested.
A test specimen can be tested again and again at the same location which is useful
for monitoring concrete undergoing internal structural changes over a long period of
time.
Popovics S. (1982) stated that another aspect of concrete that was

investigated with pulse velocity was internal segregation. Internal segregation means
that normal- or heavy-weight coarse aggregate particles in concrete tend to move
from the top to the bottom of the mold during placement and compaction. This is due
to the fact that their density is higher than that of the mortar portion of the concrete.
As a result, the bottom part of a concrete element contains more coarse aggregate
than the top or middle part.
Table 2.5: Criterion for concrete quality grading (IS 13311 – 1, 1992)
Sr. No Pulse velocity (Direct Method) Concrete Quality

Grading
1. Above 4.5 km/s Excellent
2. 3.5 km/s – 4.5 km/s Good
3. 3.0 km/s – 3.5 km/s Medium
4. Below 3/0 km/s Doubtful

23
2.10 Significance of Curing
Curing is essential in the production of high quality concrete. It is critical to

the production of high strength concrete. The potential strength and durability of
concrete will be fully developed only if it is properly cured for an adequate period
before it is being placed in service.
Neville A. M. (1973) described that curing is necessary in order to maintain a

satisfactorily moisture content and a favorable temperature in concrete during the
hydration period of the cementitious materials so that desired properties of the
concrete can be developed.
Ephraim Senbetta and Charles F. Scholer (1984) agreed that proper curing of
concrete is essential if the concrete is to achieve its full potential. It is also true that
the curing phase of concrete construction is often neglected or altogether ignored.
This is so because at present, it is virtually impossible to have any verifiable control
over how well concrete is being cured or in fact, effective in the manner they are
used.
Adequate curing will facilitate work but not necessarily ensure the maximum
development of the surface zone of fresh concrete into strong, impermeable, crack-
free and durable hardened concrete. The purpose of normal curing is to keep the
concrete blocks saturated or as near saturated as possible, for sufficient time for the
original water-filled space to become filled to the desired extent by cement hydration
products.
According to the research reviewed in CIRIA (1997), the depth of the surface
zone directly affected by curing can be up to 20 mm in temperate climatic conditions
and up to 50 mm in more extreme arid conditions. Properties of the concrete beyond
this zone are unlikely to be affected significantly by normal curing.
24
According to the British Standard for the structural use of concrete BS 8110
(1997), the intention of curing is to protect concrete against:
a) Premature drying out (plastic shrinkage)

b) Leaching out by rain and flowing water
c) Rapid cooling during the first few days after placing
d) High internal thermal gradients
e) Low temperature or frost
f) Vibration and impact which may disrupt the concrete
2.11 Effectiveness of Various Curing Techniques
The method of covering loosely with plastic sheeting can sometimes be

ineffective if it is not fixed properly as water still evaporates from the surface of the
concrete block and then condenses on the plastic sheeting. The covering should not
be placed directly on the unformed surface and have to delay until the concrete block
has stiffened sufficiently in order to prevent damage to the surface.
Studies conducted by Senbetta and Malchow (1987) tried to determine the

effects of various curing methods on durability-related properties. The research
concluded that that good curing practice improves durability related properties
compared with air curing. The best methods were sealed with wax, covering with
plastic sheets and storage in 100% RH chamber.
Kern et al. (1995) performed a study to evaluate the effectiveness of various

curing methods. The basic principle of these studies was that the degree of hydration
largely determines the durability of concrete and the degree of hydration can be
determined from the amount of chemically bound water. The authors defined curing
efficiency as the ability to keep the water in the concrete to guarantee a high degree
of hydration.
25
Water retaining methods, water adding methods and no curing procedures

were investigated. The results revealed that most of the curing methods showed a
reduced amount of chemically combined water in the outer 12 mm of the specimens
compared with the interior and there was wide variation in the efficiency of the
various curing compounds.
According to Hilsdorf (1995), concretes can be distinguished by their curing

sensitivity which is defined as the curing duration needed to reach some specified
level of durability or an applicable mechanical property such as strength. For
example, for concrete with low curing sensitivity, the long-term properties would not
be affected significantly by the duration of the curing period. Factors that determine
curing sensitivity include the properties of the cementitious materials, mixture
proportions and the environment to which the concrete is exposed when curing is
terminated.
A delay between finishing the concrete surface or striking formwork and

applying curing can reduce or eliminate the effectiveness of the curing. Intermittent
curing within the first two or three days may have the same effect. Under these
conditions, calcium hydroxide that is deposited in the surface capillaries by
evaporating pore water becomes carbonated. The resultant calcium carbonate then
partially blocks the capillaries making it difficult to get water back into the concrete.
Intermittent early curing may also result in surface cracks (ACI 308, 1992).
2.12 Advantages of Concrete Block Paving
There are many advantages of concrete block paving have been identified.
These have been reviewed by Shackel B. (1980) and include the following:-
1) Concrete pavers may be large-scale production in highly automated

factory conditions leading to low unit cost, consistent high strength
and good dimensional tolerances.
26
2) When properly constructed, concrete block pavements are very

durable and have a strong life which depends on the performance of
the sub-base and sub-grade rather than on the blocks themselves.
3) Compared to roads constructed of rigid concrete slabs, interlocking
block pavements can tolerate larger deflections.
4) Concrete block pavements use the strength of concrete without the
problems of joints between slabs.
5) Unlike pavements using either concrete slabs or bituminous surfacing,
a concrete block pavement may be opened to traffic immediately on
completion.
6) Interlocking pavements are usually laid by hand using relatively
unskilled labor and simple with inexpensive equipment.
7) If machine laying is desired for example on very large areas, this can
be achieved with machines which are much simpler and less
expensive than paving trains.
8) For localized defects such as settlement, only the affected area needs
to be repaired. The blocks can be lifted and reused, resulting in very
low maintenance costs.
9) Block pavements can be lifted by hand without the use of
jackhammers, thus greatly reducing the noise pollution.
10) Concrete block pavers have a very low life-cycle costs because of
their durability and the high salvage value.
11) Concrete block pavements have a high resistance to fuel and oil
spillage.
12) Block pavements make no use of bitumen or other expensive oil-
based products.
13) Through the use of different colored blocks, traffic marking such as
lane lines, pedestrian crossings or route guides can be permanently
built into the pavement, thus eliminating the need for frequent
remarking with paint or thermoplastic.
14) The elements are available in a wide range of colors and shapes and
offer the ability to be integrated harmoniously into the built
environment.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Before the laboratory experiments can be carried out, reading through the
theory had been made in advance. There is a lot of useful information gained from
the books, journal, proceedings, reports and observation on the concrete block
pavement structure. This early observation can be used as a reference and guide for
laboratory work later.
The tests performed for the hardened concrete blocks at the laboratory
includes ultrasonic pulse velocity test (UPV), compressive strength test and wet
density test. All tests will be carried out at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days curing periods. Three
samples are taken for every curing method. The materials being used, mix design and
preparation of the samples, curing methods and testing procedures are described in
the following section.
3.2 Materials
The materials used to produce the concrete mixture in this study consist of
natural coarse and fine aggregates, tap water supplied by Syarikat Air Johor for the
mixing as well as curing process and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) complying
with MS 522 – Part 1. The natural coarse aggregate used is crushed granite with a
maximum aggregate size of 10 mm. As for fine aggregate, the natural river sand
28
having a maximum particle size of 4 mm will be considered in designing the

concrete mix.
3.3 Concrete Mix Design
The concrete mix design was based on DOE method and complied with BS
6717: 2001. Wet mix concrete with characteristic strength of 25 MPa at 28 days was
specified. Both fine and coarse aggregate used were considered as crush aggregates.
A water-binder ratio of 0.50 with cement contents of 460 kg/m3 was designed. The
concrete mixture was set to be uniform in all aspects and cast in one go. The concrete
density of 2370 kg/m3 was determined from mix design calculation with fine to the
coarse aggregate ratio of 0.88. About 25% of wastage volume was applied on the
total volume of the concrete mixture to produce 50 units of paving block. This is to
ensure sufficient volume of the concrete mixture during casting. The total mixed
materials used to produce 50 units of block paving samples were approximately 142
kg excluding the 25% of wastage volume.
3.4 Preparation of Concrete Block
Concrete paving blocks were produced using rectangular shape of the

plywood mold with a dimension of 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm. One length of
mold can load 10 units of paving block samples. Thus, five molds were prepared to
place fifty units of concrete paving block samples. The grease was applied to the
mold surface to prevent the concrete stick to the mold as it hardens. The adhesive
will prevent such sticking to allow easy removal.
29
Figure 3.1: Mold (200 mm x 100 mm x 60 mm)
The flow chart in Figure 3.1 summarizes the preparation steps in producing
the concrete paving block samples.
Cement Sand Crushed Granite
Water
Mixing
Moulding
Vibrating and Compacting
Mould Removing
Curing
Figure 3.2: Preparation steps of concrete paving block samples
The concrete paving block samples were left to set overnight before removing
the molds and then followed by curing process.
30
Figure 3.3: Mold removing
The aggregates needs to be dried first before it will mix together with cement
and water. The materials required to construct concrete block is weight according to
the desired requirement. Carefully pour the concrete mix into the mold. Wipe away
any excess and spills. The concrete mixture should be poured into 3 layers of
approximately equal volume and compact using vibrator machine around 10 to 15
seconds duration. After the fresh concrete has been compacted, level the top of the
wet concrete and raise the mold slowly to prevent block cracking. Once complete,
transfer the concrete blocks to the non-interference space to reduce the risk of cracks.
Leave the concrete blocks in safe condition and let it set overnight before proceeds
with the curing process.
Figure 3.4: Finished casting

31
3.5 Curing Methods
The curing process and laboratory tests conducted in this study is useful in
determining the best quality of concrete block with practical and inexpensive curing
method where it then can be applied for small-scale manufacturing concrete paving
block industry.
When the cement and aggregates is added with water, it will harden. This
initial added water fully used for chemical reaction at the early stage. If water is not
enough during hydration process, the concrete block cannot gain its maximum
strength. Therefore, the purpose of curing is to control the rate and extent of moisture
loss from concrete during cement hydration. Not all curing methods are 100 %
effective. Different curing methods give different effects on the properties of
concrete paving block.
There are four curing methods considered in this study. Water curing (method
1), covering with moist hessians (method 2), air curing (method 3) and exposing to
the outdoor environment (method 4). The concrete paving block samples will be
cured under these four different curing conditions and tested at 3 days, 7 days, 14
days and 28 days of curing period.
3.5.1 Water Curing (Method 1)
In water curing, the concrete paving blocks is immersed in water. Normal tap
water is used in the water curing method. The volume of water inside the basin is
ensured to be adequate to submerge the concrete paving blocks for the curing
effectiveness. No overlapping is allowed by arranging some spacing between the
block surfaces. This method is adopted as a control method.
32
3.5.2 Covering with Moist Hessian (Method 2)
The concrete paving block samples are covered with moist hessians. At least,
three layers of wet hessians are used to prevent moisture movement from the
concrete paving block surface. The hessians are always kept moist to prevent it from
absorbing the moisture on the concrete paving block surface.
3.5.3 Air Curing (Method 3)
In case of air curing, the concrete paving block samples are exposed to dry
air. It is placed inside the laboratory which means no exposure to daily weather. The
concrete blocks are left in room temperature within 20 – 25 0C. No water or wet
materials are provided.
3.5.4 Exposed to Outdoor Environment (Method 4)
Put the concrete paving blocks outside the laboratory. The concrete paving
block samples are exposed to the surrounding environment without any protection
from daily weather such as sunlight, wind and rain.
Figure 3.5: Method 1 Figure 3.6: Method 2

33
Figure 3.7: Method 3 Figure 3.8: Method 4
3.6 Laboratory Tests for Concrete Block
3.6.1 Sieve Analysis Test
Sieve analysis is carried out on extracted materials to determine the fine and
coarse aggregate size distribution in the sample. The result of the sieve analysis is
plotted on a sieve analysis chart along with grading limits. The results are used to
determine compliance of particle size distribution with applicable specification
requirements. The sieve test will be conducted based on the BS 1377: Part 1 (1990).
To obtain the prefect sieve results, the sand and crushed granite have to be in
dry condition. Sieve analysis test is required to carry out before concrete mixing
process in order to determine the aggregate zone. The grading of aggregate defines
the proportions of particle of different size in the aggregate. The grading of fine
aggregate is required to be within the limits specified in BS 882 (1992). The
percentage of fine aggregate passing 600 µm sieve needed for the mix design
calculations will be determined from this sieve test.
Apparatus:
1. Sieves with various sizes
2. Mechanical sieve shaker
3. Oven
4. Balances or scales and weights appropriate for the sample mass
34
Procedures:
1. Prepare 3 samples which randomly collected from the same source.
2. The sample for testing shall be obtained in accordance with the
procedure described in BS 1377: Part 1 (1990). The prepared samples
o o
shall be oven dried at 105 C to 110 C. The prepared samples shall be
free from any contamination.
3. Prepare the sample for 500 g for fine aggregate and 3000 g for coarse
aggregate.
4. Nest the sieve in order of decreasing size of opening from top to
bottom on the sieve shaker and place the dried sample on the top
sieve. The sieve size will be used based on Table 3.1.
5. After placing the sample in the top level of the sieve, switch on the
sieve shaker to begin the sieve vibration for 5 minutes.
6. Weight and record the mass of material retained on each sieve.
7. Determine the mass of material passing each sieve and estimate the
percentage passing.
8. Plot the percentage passing versus sieve size on the sieve chart along
with its gradation limits.
Table 3.1: Sieve sizes of aggregates

BS Sieve Size BS Sieve Size
(coarse (fine aggregate)
aggregate)
10 mm 5 mm
4.75 mm 2.36 mm
2.36 mm 1.18 mm
1.18 mm 600 μm
600 μm 300 μm
300 μm 150 μm
150 μm
75 μm
35
3.6.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV)
The objective of this UPV test is to determine the existence of flaws or voids
in concrete block. It is also used to identify the quality and homogeneity of concrete
paving block. The ultrasonic pulse velocity method consists of measuring the time
travel of the ultrasonic pulse passing through the concrete paving block. The pulse
velocity will be determined by direct transmission in concrete paving block. This
UPV test is performed according to BS 1881: Part 203 (1986).
Apparatus:
1. Ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment (transducer, Pundit tester)
2. Grease
Procedures:
1. Carry out the test for 3 unit blocks sample from every each curing
methods to get the average result.
2. Spread grease on the surface of the concrete block to be tested to
enhance surface contact with the transducers.
3. Place the transmitter on the top of the concrete block surface and the
receiver on the opposite side of the block.
4. Record the time taken for the ultrasonic pulse to travel from the
transmitter through the thickness of the concrete block to the receiver.
5. The ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment provides time reading in term
of µs and this should be changed into km/s for easy data reading.
3.6.3 Compressive Strength Test
Compression test is used to determine the strength properties of hardened

concrete by measuring the compressive strength. Compression test is required to be
conducted to compare the compressive strength of concrete block affects from
difference curing techniques. Nevertheless, the compressive strength are also
depends on the compaction factor, w/c ratio, cement-sand ratio, types of cement used
36
and aggregate grading. The compressive strength of paving block samples is

determined according to BS 6073 – Part 1 (1981). The compressive strength can be
calculated using formula below:
ompressi e strength
mm
where, P = load failure

A = block surface area
Apparatus:
1. Concrete paving block samples at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days curing period.
2. Model ADR 2000 compressive machine
3. Steel capping plates with dimension of 200 mm x 100 mm
Figure 3.9: ADR 2000 machine
Procedures:
1. Prepare the concrete paving block samples to be tested.
2. Switch on the ADR 2000 compressive strength machine and set the
suitable setting for selected concrete block types. The concrete paving
block samples are tested using the compression machine under 5 kN/s
applied load.
37
3. Place the steel capping plates at the top and bottom part of the
concrete paving block surface.
4. Use the 210 mm x 110 mm x 4 mm plywood as a lining layer on the
paving block surface. This is to ensure that the load will be distributed
uniformly on the paving block surface.
5. Turn the control knob in anticlockwise direction and pull it
downward.
6. Note the value appear on the screen. 5 kN load is applied continuously
on a paving block for every second until it achieves its failure level.
The paving block is classified in failure state when the reading on the
screen becomes uniform and then reduce.
7. Record the compressive strength reading.
8. Lastly, push the control knob upward turn it to its original position.
9. Repeat the procedures for another block paving samples.
Figure 3.10: Paving block failure
3.6.4 Wet Density Test
The density test is conducted to determine the density of hardened concrete

paving blocks after the specified curing periods. Density is the mass of a unit volume
of hardened concrete expressed in kilograms per cubic meter. The wet density of
concrete paving block is examined using the BS 1881-114 (1983), methods for
determination of density of hardened concrete.
38
Apparatus:
1. Balance (accuracy of 0.1%)
2. Moist cloth
Procedure:
1. Measure the length, width and height of concrete paving block
samples. Then carry out the same procedure for the next samples and
get the average dimension.
2. Based from the average dimension, calculate the volume, V of the
block samples (in m3).
3. Before each weighing especially for water curing method, wipe off
surplus water from the surface using a moist cloth and record the
constant mass (in kg).
4. For samples under other than water curing, it will be weighted directly
during the specified curing period.
5. Place the concrete paving block sample on the balance carefully.
6. Record the reading on the balance screen.
7. Repeat the procedure for another concrete paving block samples and
get the average density.
8. Calculate the concrete paving block density using the appropriate
formula given below:
ρ=
where, mavg = average mass of saturated specimen in air (in kg)

Vavg = the average volume of block samples (in m3)
Figure 3.11: Balance

CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter discussed about the result which from the laboratory tests. The
result of tests will further discuss in detail by the comparison of several graphs.
Before carrying out the compressive strength test and ultrasonic pulse velocity test,
the average density of samples was determined for every curing method. This topic
will stress on the effect of different curing methods on quality of concrete block
paver produced.
4.2 Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is carried out on fine aggregate (natural river sand) and coarse
aggregate (crushed granite) for the concrete mix in order to produce concrete paving
block samples. The objective of this sieve analysis is to obtain the grading curve in
order to identify the grading zone and to determine the suitability of aggregates to be
used in concrete mixes.
40
4.2.1 Sieve Analysis for Fine Aggregate
From the calculation in Table 4.1, the average percentage of fine aggregate
passing 600 μm sie e size is about 46.1%. This percentage used in designing the
appropriate concrete mix to produce the concrete block units according to the desired
strength.
Based on Table 4.1 (a) and 4.1 (c), the sum of the sand weight is less than the
actual weight before conducting the sieve analysis. There is a loss of 2 grams from
the first sieve and 3 grams from the third sieve while no loss for the second sieve.
This might due to the dust lost by the wind blow when pouring the sand mass into the
sieve shaker. Another reason is when the fine aggregate particles clog the metal wire
cloth aperture causing inaccuracy on the sieve analysis results.
Table 4.1: The sieve analysis of sand for concrete block mix
(a) First Sieve
BS Sieve Retained Passed Retained Passed
Percentage Percentage
Sizes weight (g) weight (g) (%) (%)
5 mm 0 500 0 100
2.36 mm 25 475 5 95
1.18 mm 105 370 21 74
600 µm 140 230 28 46
300 µm 120 110 24 22
150 µm 78 32 15.6 6.4
pan 30 0 6 0
Total 498
(b) Second Sieve

5 mm 0 500 0 100
2.36 mm 25 475 5 95
1.18 mm 102 373 20.4 74.6
600 µm 155 218 31 43.6
300 µm 118 100 23.6 20
150 µm 70 30 14 6
pan 30 0 6 0
Total 500
41
(c) Third Sieve

5 mm 0 500 0 100
2.36 mm 24 476 4.8 95.2
1.18 mm 90 386 18 77.2
600 µm 142 244 28.4 48.8
300 µm 135 109 27 21.8
150 µm 73 36 14.6 7.2
pan 33 0 6.6 0
Total 497
120
100
Passing percentage, %
80
Upper boundary
60 Lower boundary
sieve sand 1
40
sieve sand 2
20
sieve sand 3
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
BS Sieve Sizes, mm
Figure 4.1: Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
erage percentage passing 600 μm sie e size 46.0 + 43.6 + 48.8)%
= 46.1%
According to the gradation curve that had been plotted, the passing
percentage of the sand sample falls within the specified limit range stated in ASTM
C33 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. Thus, the sand provided in the
laboratory is suitable to produce the concrete block units. From Figure 4.1, the
grading limit for this fine aggregate can be categorized in grading zone I.
42
4.2.2 Sieve Analysis for Coarse Aggregate
From the observation of data and calculation, the sum weight of coarse
aggregate that has been calculated is less than the actual weight which is 3000 grams.
This might due to the same reason as during carried out the fine aggregate sieve
analysis which is because of sieve shaken, dust lost and aggregate particles clog the
metal wire cloth aperture.
Table 4.2: The sieve analysis of crushed granite for concrete block mix
(a) First Sieve
BS Retained Passed Retained Passed
Sieve weight weight Percentage Percentage
Sizes (g) (g) (%) (%)
10 mm 0 3000 0.00 100.00
4.75 mm 2015 985 67.17 32.83
2.36 mm 530 455 17.67 15.17
1.18 mm 255 200 8.50 6.67
600 µm 99 101 3.30 3.37
300 µm 40 61 1.33 2.03
150 µm 19 42 0.63 1.40
75 µm 15 27 0.50 0.90
Pan 25 0 0.83 0.00
Total 2998
(b) Second Sieve

Sizes (g) (g) (%) (%)
10 mm 0 3000 0.00 100.00
4.75 mm 1870 1130 62.33 37.67
2.36 mm 530 600 17.67 20.00
1.18 mm 270 330 9.00 11.00
600 µm 123 207 4.10 6.90
300 µm 70 137 2.33 4.57
150 µm 45 92 1.50 3.07
75 µm 25 67 0.83 2.23
Pan 65 0 2.17 0.00
Total 2998
43
(c) Third Sieve

Sizes (g) (g) (%) (%)
10 mm 0 3000 0.00 100.00
4.75 mm 2545 455 84.83 15.17
2.36 mm 315 140 10.50 4.67
1.18 mm 65 75 2.17 2.50
600 µm 30 45 1.00 1.50
300 µm 10 35 0.33 1.17
150 µm 10 25 0.33 0.83
75 µm 5 20 0.17 0.67
Pan 20 0 0.67 0.00
Total 3000
The recommended maximum nominal size of aggregate in manufacturing the

concrete paving blocks 10 mm is used as stated in C&CI, Midrand (2009). This is to
achieve the best compaction and acceptable concrete block surface texture. If the
coarse aggregate use is too big, it might be difficult to produce a smooth surface
texture and better compaction.
120.00
100.00
Passing percentage, %
80.00
60.00 1st Sieve

2nd Sieve
40.00
3rd Sieve
20.00
0.00
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
BS Sieve Sizes
Figure 4.2: Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate

44
4.3 Compressive Strength
The concrete block samples has been cured under four types of curing
method until the day of testing. These different types of curing method were water
curing, cover with moist hessian, air curing and exposed to outdoor environment.
The average compressive strength of the concrete blocks is designed to achieve the
target mean strength of 38.12 N/mm² with characteristic strength of 25 N/mm² at 28
days comply the required strength for non traffic category. This is to ensure that the
concrete blocks have adequate resistance to specify loading.
Table 4.3: The result of compressive strength test in 3 days

Curing period : 3 days
Method of curing No. of Load at Compressive Average
Sample Failure strength compressive
(kN) (N/mm²) strength (N/mm²)
Method 1: 1 648.00 32.40
Water curing 2 644.00 32.20 32.28
3 644.80 32.24
Method 2: 1 748.00 37.40
Cover with moist 2 744.00 37.20 37.24
hessian 3 742.60 37.13
Method 3: 1 702.80 35.14
Air Curing 2 730.40 36.52 35.90
3 720.80 36.04
Method 4: 1 556.00 27.80
Exposed to outdoor 2 524.00 26.20 27.07
environment 3 544.00 27.20

Sample failure strength compressive
Method 1: 1 700.00 35.00
Water curing 2 801.20 40.06 36.48
3 687.40 34.37
Method 2: 1 802.10 40.11
Cover with moist 2 770.70 38.54 39.52
hessian 3 798.30 39.92
Method 3: 1 766.00 38.30
45
Air Curing 2 774.40 38.72 38.07

3 744.00 37.20
Method 4: 1 611.60 30.58

Method 1: 1 944.30 47.22
Water curing 2 947.50 47.38 47.29
3 945.80 47.29
Method 2: 1 943.20 47.16
Cover with moist 2 922.40 46.12 46.10
hessian 3 900.40 45.02
Method 3: 1 909.00 45.45
Air Curing 2 876.30 43.82 44.98
3 913.60 45.68
Method 4: 1 718.00 35.90

Method 1: 1 1033.00 51.65
Water curing 2 1028.00 51.40 51.03
3 1001.00 50.05
Method 2: 1 984.00 49.20
Cover with moist 2 989.00 49.45 49.36
hessian 3 988.30 49.42
Method 3: 1 967.10 48.36
Air Curing 2 956.90 47.85 48.46
3 983.70 49.19
Method 4: 1 944.00 47.20
46
60.00
Average Compressive Strength (N/mm²)

50.92 49.36 48.46
50.00 46.88
40.16 39.17 38.85

40.00 38.68 38.07
36.48 36.71 36.46
35.90 33.79
32.28 30.68 Day 3
30.00
Day 7
20.00 Day 14
Day 28
10.00
0.00
1 2 3 4
Curing Method
Figure 4.3: Effect of curing on the compressive strength of concrete paving block
The results for compressive strength have been presented in Figure 4.51. For
all different curing methods, the compressive strength of concrete block pavers
increased parallel to the increasing age begin from day 3, day 7 day 14 and day 28.
Theoretically, water curing will result in highest compressive strength and therefore
adopted as a control method. Based on results obtained at the age of 3 days and 7
days, water curing gives a lower result of compressive strength as compared to cover
with moist hessian and air-cured. This might due to the concrete properties that have
not achieved its maturity period. However, the highest compressive strength was
achieved through water curing after 14 days and 28 days (maturity period of
concrete) which is 40.16 N/mm² and 50.92 N/mm² respectively.
Curing by cover with moist hessian produced the second highest compressive
strength after water curing with 49.36 N/mm² strength closed to air-cured strength of
48.46 N/mm² at 28 days. The room temperature around 25 0C with the hot and humid
weather throughout the year helps air curing method developed the concrete block
strength. As a result, these two methods did not show significant differences in
compressive strength. The good increasing rate of compressive strength of concrete
block units when immersed in water and cover with moist hessian is due to
consistent and sufficient moisture which were maintained to continue the hydration
of cement. The strength result using the moist hessian method also indicates that a
47
good gain in compressive strength can be achieved without immersing the concrete
block directly into the water but it can be through maintaining the presence of mixing
water by providing the moist hessian cover.
When exposed to outdoor environment, the concrete block samples

developed the lowest compressive strength at all ages. There is only a slight rate of
increasement as compared to other curing methods even though the compressive
strength increased with increasing age. As expected, the hot and dry weather due to
sunlight and wind exposure outside the laboratory gives a negative effect on
compressive strength. The early drying of concrete block samples discontinue the
hydration process before the pores were filled by adequate calcium silicate hydrate
resulting creation of more pores in concrete block units as well as reducing the duly
compressive strength.
4.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
The results for ultrasonic pulse velocity have been presented in Figure 4.4. In
all curing methods, the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete block pavers increased
as the age increases, begin from day 3, day 7 day 14 and day 28. All curing method
recorded that the ultrasonic pulse velocity increased evenly.
The range of ultrasonic pulse velocity above 4.5 km/s considered as an

excellent quality of concrete grade. Nevertheless, when refer to Table 4.10, only
water curing and moist Hessian curing shows the nearest level of ultrasonic pulse
velocity to that standard which is 4.50 km/s and 4.47 km/s respectively at 28 days.
This is because water curing improved the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete block
units since the concrete block mass became denser and compacted due to the greater
amount of calcium silicate hydrate yield from the hydration process of cement.
48
Table 4.7: The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test in 3 days

Average
Method of curing No. of Time UPV test velocity
Sample μs (km/s) (km/s)
Method 1: 1 14.8 4.05
Water curing 2 14.5 4.14 4.09
3 14.7 4.08
Method 2: 1 14.6 4.11
Cover with moist 2 14.4 4.17 4.15
hessian 3 14.4 4.17
Method 3: 1 14.7 4.08
Air Curing 2 14.4 4.17 4.12
3 14.6 4.11
Method 4: 1 15.5 3.87

Average
Method 1: 1 14.4 4.17
Water curing 2 14.5 4.14 4.19
3 14.1 4.26
Method 2: 1 14.3 4.20
hessian 3 14.2 4.23
Method 3: 1 14.3 4.20
Air Curing 2 14.4 4.17 4.20
3 14.2 4.23
Method 4: 1 14.9 4.03
49

Average
Method 1: 1 13.9 4.32
Water curing 2 14.1 4.26 4.30
3 13.9 4.32
Method 2: 1 14.1 4.26
hessian 3 13.9 4.32
Method 3: 1 14.3 4.20
Air Curing 2 14.1 4.26 4.23
3 14.2 4.23
Method 4: 1 14.9 4.03

Average
Method 1: 1 13.8 4.35
Water curing 2 13.7 4.38 4.37
3 13.7 4.38
Method 2: 1 13.9 4.32
hessian 3 13.7 4.38
Method 3: 1 14.1 4.26
Air Curing 2 13.8 4.35 4.27
3 14.3 4.20
Method 4: 1 14.6 4.11
Based on the result, the second curing method which is by covering with
moist hessian produced higher ultrasonic pulse velocity compare to air curing from
day 3 till day 28 but lower than that of water curing at the age of 14 days and 28
days. This might because of moist hessian cover help to maintain the presence of
mixing water and provides some cooling through evaporation. With an adequate
50
calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) through a hydration process, the productions of dense
concrete block units are not impossible.
The concept of air curing method is almost similar to when exposed to

outdoor environment where both of these curing methods did not provide any
additional water or maintaining the mixing water of concrete. In contrast, even
though air curing is not as effective as water curing, this method did not reveal the
concrete block samples to outdoor environment which might contribute to the
tendency to retard the hydration process.
4.70
4.50 4.50 4.47

4.42
Average velocity (km/s)
4.30 4.36
4.28
4.30 4.24
4.17 4.21 4.20 4.20
4.15 4.14 4.14
4.12 Day 3
4.10 4.09
Day 7
3.90 Day 14
Day 28
3.70
3.50
1 2 3 4
Curing Method
Figure 4.4: Effect of curing on the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete paving block
\
Conversely, when exposed to outdoor environment, the lowest level of
ultrasonic pulse velocity has been recorded. The reasons are probably the same as
discussed in compressive strength test result. Inconsistent hot and dry weather
followed by rain failed to provide a sufficient moist condition for the curing process.
The evaporation caused a reduction in the amount of available moisture and lastly
retards the hydration of cement. A more continuous pore structure formed in
concrete, since it is exposed to hot sunlight and dry condition besides of rain water.
51
4.5 Concrete Block Density
A graphical representation of the relationship between the density and curing

methods for the concrete block units at 3 days, 7 days, 14 days and 28 days of curing
period is shown in Figure 4.5. Overall density results indicate that the density of
concrete block units increased with curing period. Table 4.11 until Table 4.14 shows
three samples were taken to determine the average density of the concrete block.
Table 4.11: The result of density test in 3 days

Sample
Method of curing No. of Sample weight density Average density
Sample (g) (g/cm³) (g/cm³)
Method 1: 1 2593 2.161
Water curing 2 2576 2.147 2.152
3 2577 2.148
Method 2: 1 2616 2.180
Cover with moist 2 2610 2.175 2.173
hessian 3 2598 2.165
Method 3: 1 2587 2.156
Air Curing 2 2601 2.168 2.160
3 2588 2.157
Method 4: 1 2572 2.143
Exposed to outdoor 2 2563 2.136 2.141
environment 3 2572 2.143

Sample
Method of curing No. of Sample weight density Average density
Method 1: 1 2650 2.208
Water curing 2 2666 2.222 2.216
3 2661 2.218
Method 2: 1 2690 2.242
hessian 3 2660 2.217
Method 3: 1 2669 2.224
Air Curing 2 2660 2.217 2.222
3 2670 2.225
Method 4: 1 2620 2.183
52

Method of curing No. of Sample weight Sample density Average density
Method 1: 1 2731 2.276
Water curing 2 2738 2.282 2.277
3 2729 2.274
Method 2: 1 2731 2.276
hessian 3 2718 2.265
Method 3: 1 2720 2.267
Air Curing 2 2715 2.263 2.266
3 2722 2.268
Method 4: 1 2650 2.208

Method of curing No. of Sample weight Sample density Average density
Method 1: 1 2805 2.338
Water curing 2 2755 2.296 2.303
3 2730 2.275
Method 2: 1 2755 2.296
hessian 3 2738 2.282
Method 3: 1 2700 2.250
Air Curing 2 2731 2.276 2.274
3 2756 2.297
Method 4: 1 2693 2.244
By water curing method, the average density at 14 days and 28 days curing
period recorded the highest density compared to other methods. This sudden increase
might due to calcium silicate when combine with water, forming calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH) gel that bond the concrete particles. As a result, voids reduced causing
the concrete mass become denser and increase in strength.
53
2.350
2.303
2.300 2.288 2.274
2.277 2.268 2.259
Average Density (g/cm³)

2.251 2.241
2.250 2.242 2.247 2.231
2.229 2.223
2.218 2.221
2.200 2.212
Day 3
2.150 Day 7
Day 14
2.100
Day 28
2.050
2.000
1 2 3 4
Curing Method
Figure 4.5: Effect of curing on the density of concrete paving block
From Table 4.14, covering with hessian and air cured method after 28 days of
curing period show no much difference on density between these two methods which
is 2.288 g/cm³ and 2.274 g/cm³ respectively. However, the average density of
concrete block samples when cure using moist hessian still greater than air cured.
This is because moist hessian ensured the presence of water that contributed to the
continuation of hydration process. Different from covering with moist hessian
method, neither maintaining the presence of water nor reducing the loss of water
concept was applied under air curing method. As expected, air curing method
exhibited lower average density compare to water curing and moist hessian cover at
day 28.
When the concrete block is not properly cured, voids created and this will
result in lower density for concrete blocks produced. Insufficient water or moist
condition during the hydration process can affect the strength gain and contribute to
the pore structure development and this is true when the concrete block samples are
exposed directly to sunlight and wind effect. Based on Figure 4.5, when the concrete
block samples were exposed to the outdoor environment, unexpected shrinkage
might occur besides the production of voids. This is due to the rate of moisture loss
in concrete mass and effect of discontinuation of the hydration process resulting
lowest density value starting from the first day of curing.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Introduction
In study and experimentation, the conclusions are the determination made by

studying the results of the work done in the laboratory and conclude it with a
comparison to the objectives that has been stated before. Results obtained from the
data analysis in Chapter 4 will be summarized in this chapter. After reviewing the
literature regarding the properties of concrete, the curing process followed by
conducting the laboratory tests on the effect of different curing method on quality of
concrete block paver produced, the conclusion is drawn in this chapter. Besides the
conclusion, several recommendations on the study will also be presented in this
chapter which might be useful in future.
5.2 Conclusion
The following conclusion can be drawn based on the experimental results and
data obtained through the research conducted:
i. Water curing was the most effective curing method. It recorded the highest
level of compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity. It also produced
the densest concrete block paver. Water curing does not show the highest
level of strength, pulse velocity and density at an early age up to 7 days
55
ii. curing period due to immature concrete characteristic. However, it starts

producing highest strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and density at 14 days
and achieved its full strength at 28 days of curing period. This is due to
reduction in porosity resulting from the greater degree of cement hydration
without any loss of moisture from the concrete block samples. In the presence
of sufficient water, adequate amount of calcium silicate hydrate can be
developed. Therefore, cured by water is able to increase the compressive
strength to its fullest level significantly as well as its density.
iii. By covering concrete block units with moist hessian, higher compressive
strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and density of concrete block samples were
produced as compared to air curing and exposed to the outdoor environment
method. This is attributed to reduce the amount of moisture loss from
concrete block samples. Moist covering hessian hampered excessive loss of
water through evaporation. By applying moist hessian on concrete block
surfaces, it helps maintain the presence of mixing water at an early hardening
period of concrete which lead to enhanced the rate of cement hydration
process inside the concrete although it is not as efficient as water curing. As a
result, higher level of ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength were
obtained with denser concrete block units.
iv. Fresh concrete usually contains more water than required at the starting
process of hydration. In the existing of favorable temperatures (room
temperature), the hydration is relatively rapid at the first 7 days after concrete
casting. However, the increasing rate of compressive strength, ultrasonic
pulse velocity and density of concrete block samples slowly reduced later.
The moisture movements from concrete block samples occurred during air
curing, which failed to provide protection against early drying of concrete.
The concrete surface susceptible to insufficient hydration because it dries
first. The production of secondary calcium silicate hydrate was hindered in
the absence of water. As a result, a continuous pore structure was formed
reducing the concrete block strength, density and its pulse velocity. Hence,
air curing is not the best method to apply in industry.
56
v. When exposed to outdoor environment, the concrete block samples produced

the lowest level of compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity as well as
density. This is because the degree of the evaporation process occurs on
concrete block samples was very high. Besides experience the loss of mixing
water, the presence of wind and hot weather speed up the evaporation rate
causing the cement hydration process abated. Since water moved out with
increasing age of curing period without replenishment of water, the concrete
block samples did not achieve its full strength at 28 days curing period.
Exposure to sunlight, wind and rain enable drying shrinkage to occur causing
reduction of compressive strength and the density of concrete block samples.
There are more pore structure created and porosity increased. Therefore, the
improper curing method gives great effects to the properties of hardened
concrete block samples.
vi. Curing has a strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete. Proper
curing will reduce the volume of pores in concrete mass. The test results for
ultrasonic pulse velocity found that the soundness of hardened concrete
depends on curing method. Less voids formed from water curing means the
denser the concrete mass. The dense and less volume of pore structure in the
concrete block mass produced higher compressive strength due to effective
and strong bonds between concrete particles provided by calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH) gel. Thus, high-quality concrete block paver can be
determined by taking into account its hardened properties.
vii. Concrete block pavers should be cured by water curing in order to achieve
optimum hardened properties. Water curing results no loss of moisture and
enhances the cement hydration process. However, water curing is not
practical to be adopted by small-scale industries due to the large space
requirement to construct the water bath and costly. Therefore, covering with
moist hessian can be the best alternative instead of air curing. Besides provide
lower expenses compare to water curing, it is more suitable to be adopted by
the small-scale concrete block paver manufacturer because this method gives
better effects than air cured and its results are nearest to water curing.
57
5.3 Recommendation
i. In this study, there is only water maintaining method is applied which is by

covering the concrete block samples using moist hessian in order to ensure
the presence of mixing water during the early hardening curing period. It is
suggested plastic sheets can be used as a method that reduce the loss of
mixing water from concrete surface instead of replenishing water during the
curing process. Applying both curing methods as stated before on concrete
block samples also interesting for future study. Plastic sheets are reusable and
effective moisture retarder. It can be placed over the moist hessian to retain
the water in wet covering material.
ii. Besides compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test, other
testing methods that can be carried out. For example, a shrinkage test can be
conducted to determine the rate of concrete shrink after specified curing
period. Dynamic modulus of elasticity test is much more sensitive to the
micro-structural changes in concrete than UPV test. In addition, the initial
surface absorption test is also easier to conduct.
iii. The proportion of concrete mix design, materials used and the compaction
performance should be uniform. Concrete casting process supposed to be
conducted in one go in order to get the most accurate and best results. The
materials used should be treated properly to prevent inappropriate conditions
which may lead to failed of achieving the full strength of concrete block
samples.
iv. Usually, the recommended maximum size of aggregate used in concrete mix
design for block paver is 9.5 mm. In this study, the maximum size of
aggregate used is 10 mm. The coarse particles help saving in cement
proportion. However, if the course particles are too big, it might be difficult
to achieve the optimum compaction and acceptable surface texture. Apart
from that, it will also contribute to segregation and pore structures forming in
the concrete reducing the curing performance on concrete.
58
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cement-based materials. PhD thesis. Technical University Delft. 1997.
Wang, J., Dhir, R. K., and Le itt, M. 1994 . “Membrane uring of oncrete:
Moisture Loss”. Cement and Concrete Research. 24(8), 1463 – 1474.
62
Appendix A
Flow chart of curing work
Paving Block Size
(200 mm X 100 mm X 60 mm)
3 samples for every single curing

method– to get average
Curing Methods
Control Method Cover with moist Inside the laboratory Outside the laboratory
hessian under room which is directly exposed
Immersed in Water temperature (Air to sunlight, wind and rain
Basin (Water Curing) Curing)
Curing 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days

period
Test to be Wet density Compression

UPV Test
conducted Test Test
Result
63
Appendix B
Concrete mix design calculation
50 units concrete paving block
25 28
5
1.64 1.64 8 13.12
25 13.12 38.12
0.58
0.50
0.50
30 - 60 3-6
10
230
230 0.50 460
380
460
64
2.7
2370
2370 230 460 1680
46
47
1680 0.47 789.6

1680 789.6 890.4
460 230 789.6 890.4

0.06 27.6 13.8 47.4 53.4
25% wastage 34.5 17.3 59.3 66.8
65
Table C1-3 Approximate free-water contents (kg/m3)

required to give various levels of workability
66
67

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THE EFFECT OF CURING METHODS ON QUALITY OF CONCRETE PAVING

HERDA HAZIQAH BINTI SEKARIA

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Thanks for your pray, attention and spiritual support…

It is a great pleasure to extend my gratitude to technical staff members at the

Finally, thanks to my fellow friends and everyone who has contributed

Tujuan kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk mengkaji kesan kaedah-kaedah

CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE

3.5.4 Exposed to Outdoor Environment (Method 4) 32

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 54

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Typical chemical compositions of Portland cement 6

2.2 Recommended aggregate grading for making paving blocks 7

2.3 Grading limits for fine aggregates 8

2.4 Recommended grades of paver blocks for different traffic

2.5 Criterion for concrete quality grading 22

3.1 Sieve sizes of aggregates 34

4.1 The sieve analysis of sand for concrete block mix 40

4.3 The result of compressive strength test in 3 days 44

4.4 The result of compressive strength test in 7 days 44

4.5 The result of compressive strength test in 14 days 45

4.6 The result of compressive strength test in 28 days 45

4.7 The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test in 3 days 48

4.8 The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test in 7 days 48

4.9 The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test in 14 days 49

4.10 The result of ultrasonic pulse velocity test in 28 days 49

4.11 The result of density test in 3 days 51

4.12 The result of density test in 7 days 51

4.13 The result of density test in 14 days 52

4.14 The result of density test in 28 days 52

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Types of concrete paving block based on shape 10

2.2 Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of Portland

2.3 Impervious curing paper is efficient for curing horizontal

2.4 Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds 16

2.5 Ponding method of water curing 16

2.6 Fogging minimizes moisture loss 17

2.7 Burlap sprayed with water 17

2.8 Compressive strength of concrete dried in laboratory air

3.1 Mold (200 mm x 100 mm x 60 mm) 29

3.2 Preparation steps of concrete paving block samples 29

3.3 Mold removing 30

3.4 Finished casting 30

3.9 ADR 2000 machine 36

3.10 Paving block failure 37

4.1 Sieve Analysis of fine aggregate 41

4.2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate 43

4.3 Effect of curing on the compressive strength of concrete

4.4 Effect of curing on the ultrasonic pulse velocity of

4.5 Effect of curing on the density of concrete paving block 53

ACI - American Concrete Institute

CCAA - Cement, Concrete & Aggregates Australia

CIRIA - Construction Industry Research and Information

CSH - calcium silicate hydrate