IST-Africa 2019 Conference Proceedings

Paul Cunningham and Miriam Cunningham (Eds)

IIMC International Information Management Corporation, 2019
ISBN: 978-1-905824-63-2

A Gamification Model For E-Learning Platforms

Samuel KAMUNYA1, Elizaphan MAINA2 , Robert OBOKO3
1
South Eastern university Kenya P.O. Box 170-90200Kitui, Kenya
Tel: +254 722999273, Email: [email protected]
2
Kenyatta University, P.O Box 43844, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
Tel: +254 722822708, Email: [email protected]
3
University of Nairobi, P.O Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
Tel: +254 722320525, Email: [email protected]
Abstract: The use of gamification in education has been viewed as an innovative
approach to introduce benefits of games in a non gaming context. Instructively, for a
successful gamification process in learning, motivational theories and behavioral
outcomes for the learner have to be incorporated in design framework. Observably
gamification projects particularly within the education domain for e-learning
platforms have encountered challenges key amongst them, emanating from lack of
appropriate gamification design framework. Subsequently the study sought through
systematic literature review to investigate types of gamification design frameworks.
16 design frameworks were evaluated and only 2 frameworks were designed for
gamification within an e-learning environment. However the two frameworks did not
address motivational affordances, behavioral Outcomes and evaluations rigor. In
view of this the study proposes a framework identifying games elements as
motivational affordances that influence behavioral outcome of the learner.

Keywords: Gamification, design framework, motivation , behavioural outcome

1. Introduction
Play has been recognized and acknowledged as an integral component in cognitive
development and learning [1]. The introduction of the concept zone of proximal
development [2], posits play taking a lead factor in contributing to the growth of user
enjoyment and engagement. As such play whether physical or digital is essential in learning
and cognitive development as it influences learning through creating these zones. Play is
typified as games. Games have been actively deployed in teaching and learning in form of
game based learning, serious games, and gamification [3]. A key distinction of serious (SG)
and gamification as opined by [3] is that SGs are ‘games primarily focus on education
rather than entertainment’ but costly in development and implementation. Gamification
offers a reprieve, as it still provides the gaming experience through use of game design
elements at a reduce cost and without implementation delay.
Gamification as defined by [3] is ” the use of game design elements in non-game
context “ whereas [4] elaborate gamification as the use of game mechanics, dynamics, and
frameworks to promote desired behaviors . Gamification is the intentional use of game
elements for a gameful experience of non-game tasks and contexts as elucidated by [5].
Game elements include patterns, objects, principles, models, and methods directly inspired
from games as used in Education for student motivation and engagement in classroom, and
by teachers as tools to guide, reward students and facilitate immersive learning [4].
Postulation by [6] on gamification is that it seeks to increase people’s engagement and
promote certain behaviors. They argue that the key contribution of gamification in
education is to increase the level of engagement of students, as such the aim is to extract the

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game elements, adapt them and use the elements as motivational affordances in the
learning. Instructively motivation and engagement are vital to learning.
Motivation [34] , within the Self determination theory (SDT) is theoretical construct
used to explain the energy, direction, persistence and quality of behaviour which greatly
contributes to better performance, persistence, creativity and vitality. Whereas Engagement,
as defined by [35] is the extent of students’ active involvement in learning. [35]
Distinguishes between motivation and engagement where motivation is the force that
energizes behaviour and its direction, borne out of unobservable psychological, neural, and
biological process which is private, while engagement is the publicly observable behaviour
which is its precedent. Engagement can categorized as either as behavioural engagement
(participation in learning), cognitive engagement and emotional engagement (affective).
When games elements (ICT artefacts) are used in learning for student motivation and
engagement these are termed as motivational affordances [16].
In education, E-learning is a vital tool in pedagogy. E-learning can be described as a
learning mode which encompasses web-based technologies or virtual learning
environments in which learning process can occur electronically anytime and anywhere via
the internet or intranets [7]. E-learning Platforms have a limitation of lacking emotion and
engagement as would a teacher [36], hence they must compensate for this. Intuitively,
gamification can be introduced to e-learning platform for better student learning, motivation
and engagement. Many e-learning systems as noted by [37] do not achieve desired
objectives due to non compliance and lack knowledge of techniques for development.
Fortuitously , [8] [9] [11] aver that gamification has had some limited successes due to
poor understanding on how to successfully design gamification and ad hoc implementation.
This can be attributed to lack of formal process of proven design framework to support
gamified e-learning hence, the need for formalization of the gamification design processes.
Design frameworks as a real or conceptual structure can serve as a support or guide for
construction process [10], hence the need for an e-learning gamification design framework.

2. Objectives
Gamification requires a specific and formal design process given that its purpose is
different to that for games [9]. Further [12] cautions, without the suitable design and
systematic design process, gamification of learning may not achieve the success particularly
within the e-learning domain. As such the study sought to
x Review literature on the gamification frameworks suitable for e-learning platforms
x Identify design elements and constructs for an effective gamified e-learning system.
x Propose a gamification design framework for an e-learning platform.

3. Methodology
The study followed the systematic literature review method so as to achieve the study
objectives. The collection of data was done on works relating to gamification design,
particularly within the education domain. The review of works was carried out in indexed
databases such as Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), ProQuest and Google Scholar, also in
digital libraries such as ACM Digital Library, Science Direct (Elsevier), IEEE Xplore and
Springer with the following search keywords of gamification frameworks in education,
gamification design in education and gamification design frameworks in education, in the
title, abstract, metadata and full-text , with the inclusion and exclusion criteria adapted
from [10] as presented in Table 1 , A complementary manual search using Google , for
relevant Conferences and journals in the search area described.

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 Table 1: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Classification Inclusion criteria Exclusion Criteria Number

Language English Not in English 349
Gamification Explicitly Discussed Not Explicitly Discussed 70
design process
Gamification Explicitly Discussed Not Explicitly Discussed 16
Design framework

4. Findings
Table 2: Summary of the Gamification Frameworks
S.N AUTHOR THEORETICAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES SHORTCOMINGS
UNDERPINNING
1 (Simões, Redondo, & None Social gamification framework. Ͳ Not evaluated
Vilas, 2012) Action Research Experiment use Ͳ No theoretical
Motivation affordances x Underpinning
2 (Nicholson, 2012) Organismic Design must be user centered , Ͳ No empirical evaluation
Integration Theory, Rewards are intrinsic , Play Ͳ No e-learning Platform
Situational Relevance centered design for Proposal
and universal design Motivational Affordance
for learning.
(Nah, Telaprolu, None Uses Principles of gamification for Ͳ No empirical evaluation
3 Shashank Rallapalli, Proposal . use Motivation x
& Venkata, 2013) affordances
4 (Wongso, None Use DSR method to develop the Ͳ No learner
Rosmansyah, & Guidelines of a Proposal . use adaptivity
Bandung, 2014). Motivation affordances x
5 (Hamzah, Ali, Saman, ARCS model Vroom Deploys the ARCS model design Ͳ No player /learner
Yusoff, & Yacob, expectancy-value for experiment . use adaptivity
2015) theory and MDA Motivation affordances
6 (Klock et al., 2015) None MDA framework for Experiment Ͳ Adaptivity
use Motivation affordances Ͳ No Evaluation
7 (Zachary Fitz, 2015) Uses the Flow Theory Uses User centered design , Ͳ No adaptivity.
, PAT model Gameful design for Experiment Ͳ Length of study, sample
Mobile platform .use population
Motivation affordances
8 (AlMarshedi, Wills, Flow Dimension sustainable gamification impact Ͳ No evaluation ,
Wanick, & Ranchhod, Theory design for Proposal . use Ͳ No adaptivity
2015) Motivation, SDT Motivation affordances
9 (Lamprinou & Based on SDT theory Structural and meaningful Ͳ No evaluation
Paraskeva, 2015) and MDA framework gamification As experiment in e-
learning platform
10 (Mora, Zaharias, None Agile development for experiment Ͳ No evaluation
Gonzalez, & Arnedo- , use x
Moreno, 2015 )
11 (Baldeón, Rodríguez, OBE theory Learning Uses User centered design , ͲNo evaluation
& Puig, 2016) style theory , Gameful design for proposal . use
Motivation affordances
12 (Reem I. Malas & None Gamification and e-learning design Ͳ Evaluation carried out
Hamtini, 2016 ) aspects Experimented in e-learning Ͳ No Adaptivity
use Motivation affordances
13 (Vermeulen, Gain, Activity theory Based on Activity theory for Ͳ Not implemented in e-
Marais, & ODonovan, proposal . use Motivation learning Platform
2016) affordances
14 (Khaleel, Ashaari, User centred design , User centered design principles for Ͳ No Adaptivity.
Wook, & Ismail, learning theories Experiment . use Motivation
2017) affordances
15 (Piteira, Costa, & Flow theory , MDA Structural Gamification for Ͳ Limited evaluation and
Aparicio, 2017) framework experiment . use adaptivity
Motivation affordances
16 (Morschheuser, Design science User centered for experiment . use Ͳ Yes but on Staff
Werder, Hamari, & research philosphy Motivation affordances
Abe, 2017)

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 4.1 Gamification Design Framework Review

The results of the systematic review findings of the design framework applicable with the
e-learning environment are as presented in Table 2. This section discusses the results of the
review in terms of design principles, games elements and results so as to address the study
objectives
x Publication in respect of the Framework
x The Publications are distributed as shown in Table 3
Table 3: Publications of Design Frameworks

x Year x 2012 x 2013 x 2014 x 2015 x 2016 x 2017

x No of x 2 x 1 x 1 x 6 x 3 x 3
Publications
The research focussed from year 2012 -2017 The Distribution is noted to have picked up in
the last 3 year depicting an increase application and research interest of gamification
studies, this can be attributed to systematic reviews of [9] and [10]
x Theoretical underpinning of the design frameworks
x Any good design framework must be framed theoretically, from the review 38% of
the studies have no theoretic underpinning. The most utilized theory for
gamification development is the MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics and Aesthetics )
design framework which is the bedrock of the computer games development , this is
closely followed by Motivation theories of Flow theory and Self Determination
Theory (SDT) , followed by learning theories . [5] Lament that there is a dearth in
the application of theories away from the predominant ones, in the development of
gamification projects. Hence there is need to consider other theories specific to the
e-learning platforms.
x Design Principles
x Principles are the guidelines that inform and direct the framework development,
these can be derived from the theoretical framework or system development
philosophy. 50% of the frameworks utilize the user centered design principle of
[13], since the user is at the heart of the gamification effort, in which the structural
gamification type is deployed to suit the intrinsic motivation dynamic suited to a
user [10]. It’s instructive to note that there is mention of two research methodologies
namely action research and design science research to act template in the framework
formulation. In addition only study 12 has factored in design principles for e-
learning for the gamification frameworks
x Implementation
Of the developed frameworks 38% were just proposals, with the rest be validated either
within a Learning management system (LSM) or Web based platforms. From the review the
implemented frameworks were appendages on the education platforms, with only 3 studies
(5,9,12) where the framework was used in development of a gamified e-learning platform.
x Motivation Affordances
In all the design frameworks, motivational affordances were present either as game
elements, gamification dynamics or gamification strategies. The most predominate been
pointers, badges and leader boards (PBL). In gamification games elements are key
components in the system.
x Shortfalls and challenges
A key notable concern has been lack of rigour in design of the evaluation of these
gamification frameworks [5]. 80% of these frameworks are without effective evaluations,
and as observed by [14] this has hampered the growth and establishment of successful

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gamification projects in education, as there inadequacy of evidence for appropriate designs.
This is attributable to lack of specific measurement elements in the gamification design
frameworks. Further only 2 studies (6, 15) have embraced user adaptivity in gamification
design, hence most lacked in personalization effort.

4.2 Synthesized Design Elements and Constructs

From the evaluation of the 16 frameworks, the critical design elements and constructs were
x Motivational affordance includes game elements, gamification dynamics or
gamification strategies. Motivation is afforded when the features of an object
(games) and abilities of subject trigger intrinsic satisfaction hence prompting for
continued use as argued by [38]. Undoubtedly without motivational affordances
featuring, then gamification efforts within the e-learning platform would not bear
the intended engagement and motivation of the learner.
x Behavioural outcomes refers to the intended learner desired output. The aim of
gamification is usually to ensure sustained user engagement and learning.
Engagement can be of the various types cognitive, affective, behavioural and social.
x From the analyzed results evaluation rigor has been lacking in many of the
implemented frameworks this can be attributed to lack of metrics for evaluations.
The evaluation allows for establishment of the correct design principles of what is
valid and gives output or not. Further the evaluation framework needs to be
established to prove its effectiveness particularly within an e-learning platform.

5. Proposed Gamification Framework

Based on the review of literature, it’s evident that a gamification framework must be
theoretically founded, to incorporate the theoretic frame, design principles and more
importantly constructs identified above to allow for evaluation [5, 14]. For this, the
researchers formulated model using the key Theories of : Self Determination theory,
Motivational affordance theory [16],Flow theory, e-Learning theory, Technology task fit
model and adaptivity .
Fig 1: Proposed Gamification Design Framework Model Adapted From [15]

Motivational Affordances Psychological Outcome Behavioral Outcome

MDA FLOW

GAMIFICATION
MOTIVATION TO USE AND
ELEMENTS LEARN USING E-
ENJOYMENT ENGAGEMENT
LEARNING GAMIFIED
SYSTEM

TASK FIT
PERSONALIZATION
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
USER CHARACTERISTICS
Ͳ DEMOGRAPHIC,
Ͳ LEARNER RELATED
Ͳ GAME RELATED

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The main components of the gamification framework
x Motivational affordance
Affordances are IT Artefacts that trigger occurrences, as Such game elements are
considered as affordances. According to SDT [17], there three psychological needs :
autonomy (ownership of behaviour), competence (ability to produce) and relatedness. If
these are fulfilled they elicit intrinsic motivation which drives is need for achievement.
Personalization would refer to the adaptivity aspect where each user of the system is
provided with games elements according to some criteria, either learning style,
personality or player type. The Game elements are developed within the MDA
framework.
x Psychological Outcome
This focuses on the resultant effect on the use of the game elements in the systems,
according to [18], the student feels challenged and up for the task at hand and at the
same time there is fun. Further due to the challenge at hand the student selects one that
fits the task at hand. These all in turn motivate the student to learn using the gamified
system .As the learner uses games elements there are some mediating factors that need
to be incorporated namely those related to learner demography of age, gender; learner
related emanating for the learning style or behaviour; game related to type of
gamification strategies.
x Behavioral Outcome
Gamification seeks a desired outcome, which is the behavioural engagement of student
in the learning processes. [19] Stipulates that engagement can be represented as learning
outcome which can be evaluated using the metrics of recency, frequency, duration,
virality, and ratings, all of which are indicative of the time a student spends on the
systems carry out learning activities.
The theoretical model presented can be used as frame for development of the
gamification design framework, using the principles e-learning development framework
discussed in [20], in particular to the design framework should incorporate user centred,
MDA guidelines and adaptivity factor. In particular this gamification framework can be
used in the development of gamified e-learning platform to teach ill-structured courses like
programming, data structures and design and analysis of algorithms

6. Business Benefits of the Model

E-learning Platforms are critical in modern day educational pedagogy; however they can be
inefficient and ineffective if poorly designed particularly when gamification is introduced.
A remedy to this, is to have a well-defined elaborated method for design and
implementation, hence the focus of the research was identification of determinant elements
for successful gamified e-learning platforms.
The gamification framework proposed provides a platform to philosophically,
methodologically and analytically situate gamification research within an e-learning
platform, as it builds on the various theories. It allows the researchers to have a lens for
guidance on the research design, data collection procedures and tools and importantly
enabling evaluation rigour in the study. The model illuminates the problem of lack of a an
effective design framework for gamification within an e-learning context whilst
establishing the relationship between the key factors of motivational affordances,
behavioural outcomes and rigour of study.
In particular, the model proposed allows the researchers to be guided in the next phase 2
which is the development of the design framework, implementation and its validation. The
model will assist teachers, understand how gamified e-learning systems works and how to
assist in making content suitable for the learners particularly bearing in mind that learners
have different learning styles , habits and motivation .
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 To the policy makers to understand how gamification of e-learning can be introduced ,
identify the resources needed and how to evaluated the effectiveness of the system
Finally to the developers of gamification projects within an e-learning systems context it
guides the setting of architectural layout and framework of the system, how the interaction
within the system should be implemented and enhanced, and importantly to test the
effectiveness of the system in a learning environment.

7. Conclusions
The study was a review of the gamification design framework and how it’s been adapted
within the education domain. The study sought to examine the theoretical underpinnings,
the design guidelines, implementation and evaluation, where key theoretical frames were
elaborated, design guidelines illustrated, implementation efforts discussed and outcomes of
evaluation. From the study, gamification design frameworks focusing on e-learning
platforms are limited, only 1 design framework for e-learning has been developed and
evaluated. This is attributable to lack of theoretical model for design and evaluation, of
which the study proposed.
Gamification is vital in education, particularly since its provides for learner motivation
and engagement. Pedagogy is now been propagated through E-learning and especially in
higher education institutions (HEIs) as such there is need for concerted effort for
assimilation of gamification through validated design frameworks and processes .
For a proper gamification framework suited for e-learning, its must be theoretical
derived on user centred design, motivational theories, e-learning theories and vigorous
validation. We intend to do further research by developing a gamified e-learning prototype
and integrate it in a LMS such as Moodle based on the proposed gamification framework.
Also the area of adaptivity and how this can be implemented to allow for personalization
effort in learning should be explored as well.

Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the National Research Fund 2016/2017 grant award under
the multidisciplinary-multi-institutional category involving Kenyatta University, University
of Nairobi and The Cooperative University of Kenya.

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