Reading

Text 1-8

(1) The Venus flytrap [Dionaea muscipula] needs to know when an ideal meal is crawling across its
leaves. Closing its trap requires a huge expense of energy, and reopening the trap can take several
hours, so Dionaea only wants to spring closed when it’s sure that the dawdling insect visiting its
surface is large enough to be worth its time. The large black hairs on their lobes allow the Venus
flytraps to literally feel their prey, and they act as triggers that spring the trap closed when the proper
prey makes its way across the trap. If the insect touches just one hair, the trap will not spring shut;
but a large enough bug will likely touch two hairs within about twenty seconds, and that signal
springs the Venus flytrap into action.

(9) We can look at this system as analogous to short-term memory. First, the flytrap encodes the
information (forms the memory) that something (it doesn’t know what) has touched one of its hairs.
Then it stores this information for a number of seconds (retains the memory) and finally retrieves
this information (recalls the memory) once a second hair is touched. If a small ant takes a while to
get from one hair to the next, the trap will have forgotten the first touch by the time the ant brushes
up against the next hair. In other words, it loses the storage of the information, doesn’t close, and the
ant happily meanders on. How does the plant encode and store the information from the unassuming
bug’s encounter with the first hair? How does it remember the first touch in order to react upon the
second?

(18) Scientists have been puzzled by these questions ever since John Burdon-Sanderson’s early report on
the physiology of the Venus flytrap in 1882. A century later, Dieter Hodick and Andreas Sievers at
the University of Bonn in Germany proposed that the flytrap stored information regarding how many
hairs have been touched in the electric charge of its leaf. Their model is quite elegant in its simplicity.
In their studies, they discovered that touching a trigger hair on the Venus flytrap causes an electric
action potential [a temporary reversal in the electrical polarity of a cell membrane] that induces
calcium channels to open in the trap (this coupling of action potentials and the opening of calcium
channels is similar to the processes that occur during communication between human neurons), thus
causing a rapid increase in the concentration of calcium ions.

(27) They proposed that the trap requires a relatively high concentration of calcium in order to close and
that a single action potential from just one trigger hair being touched does not reach this level.
Therefore, a second hair needs to be stimulated to push the calcium concentration over this threshold
and spring the trap. The encoding of the information requires maintaining a high enough level of
calcium so that a second increase (triggered by touching the second hair) pushes the total
concentration of calcium over the threshold. As the calcium ion concentrations dissipate over time,
if the second touch and potential don’t happen quickly, the final concentration after the second trigger
won’t be high enough to close the trap, and the memory is lost.

(35) Subsequent research supports this model. Alexander Volkov and his colleagues at Oakwood
University in Alabama first demonstrated that it is indeed electricity that causes the Venus flytrap to
close. To test the model they rigged up very fine electrodes and applied an electrical current to the
open lobes of the trap. This made the trap close without any direct touch to its trigger hairs (while
they didn’t measure calcium levels, the current likely led to increases). When they modified this
experiment by altering the amount of electrical current, Volkov could determine the exact electrical
charge needed for the trap to close. As long as fourteen microcoulombs—a tiny bit more than the
static electricity generated by rubbing two balloons together—flowed between the two electrodes,
the trap closed. This could come as one large burst or as a series of smaller charges within twenty
seconds. If it took longer than twenty seconds to accumulate the total charge, the trap would remain
open.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to…

A. discuss findings that offer a scientific explanation for the Venus flytrap’s closing action.
B. present research that suggests that the Venus flytrap’s predatory behavior is both complex
and unique among plants
C. identify the process by which the Venus flytrap’s closing action has evolved
D. provide a brief overview of the Venus flytrap and its predatory behavior
2. Based on the passage, a significant advantage of the Venus flytrap’s requirement for multiple
triggers is that it…
A. enables the plant to identify the species of its prey
B. conserves the plant’s calcium reserves
C. safeguards the plant’s energy supply
D. prevents the plant from closing before capturing its prey
3. The use of the phrases “dawdling insect” (line 3), “happily meanders” (line 15), and
“unassuming bug’s encounter” (line 16) in the first two paragraphs establishes a tone that is…
A. Academic
B. Melodramatic
C. Informal
D. Mocking
4. In the second paragraph, the discussion of short-term memory primarily functions to…
A. clarify an explanation of what prompts the Venus flytrap to close
B. advance a controversial hypothesis about the function of electric charges found in the leaf
of the Venus flytrap
C. stress the distinction between the strategies of the Venus flytrap and the strategies of human
beings
D. emphasize the Venus flytrap’s capacity for retaining detailed information about its prey
5. According to the passage, which statement best explains why the Venus flytrap requires a
second trigger hair to be touched within a short amount of time in order for its trap to close?
A. The second trigger produces an electrical charge that reverses the charge produced by the
first trigger
B. The second trigger stabilizes the surge of calcium ions created by the first trigger
C. The second trigger prompts the calcium channels to open
D. The second trigger provides a necessary supplement to the calcium concentration released
by the first trigger
6. Which choice describes a scenario in which Hodick and Sievers’s model predicts that a Venus
flytrap will NOT close around an insect?
A. A large insect’s second contact with the plant’s trigger hairs results in a total calcium ion
concentration above the trap’s threshold
B. A large insect makes contact with a second trigger hair after a period of inactivity during
which calcium ion concentrations have diminished appreciably
C. A large insect’s contact with the plant’s trigger hairs causes calcium channels to open in
the trap
D. A large insect’s contact with a second trigger hair occurs within ten seconds of its contact
with the first trigger hair
7. As used in line 36, “demonstrated” most nearly means…
A. Protested
 B. Established
C. Performed
D. Argued
8. Based on the passage, what potential criticism might be made of Volkov’s testing of Hodick
and Sievers’ model?
A. Volkov’s understanding of Hodick and Sievers’s model was incorrect
B. Volkov’s measurements did not corroborate a central element of Hodick and Sievers’s
model
C. Volkov’s direct application of an electrical current would have been objectionable to
Hodick and Sievers
D. Volkov’s technology was not available to Hodick and Sievers
9. Based on the passage, in studying the Venus flytrap, Volkov and his colleagues made the most
extensive use of which type of evidence?
A. Mathematical models to predict the electrical charge required to close the Venus flytrap
B. Analysis of data collected from previous researchers’ work involving the Venus flytrap’s
response to electricity
C. Information obtained from monitoring the Venus flytrap’s response to varying amounts of
electrical current
D. Published theories of scientists who developed earlier models of the Venus flytrap

Text 10-14

(1) Milton Hershey was born near the small village of Derry Church, Pennsylvania, in 1857. It was
a __________ beginning that did not foretell his later popularity. Milton only attended school
through the fourth grade; at that point, he was apprenticed to a printer in a nearby town.
Fortunately for all chocolate lovers, Milton did not excel as a printer. After a while, he left the
printing business and was apprenticed to a Lancaster, Pennsylvania candy maker. It was
apparent he had found his calling in life, and at the age of eighteen, he opened his own candy
store in Philadelphia. In spite of his talents as a candy maker, the shop failed after six years.

(8) It may come as a surprise to current Milton Hershey fans, but his first candy success came
with the manufacture of caramel. After the failure of his Philadelphia store, Milton headed
for Denver, where he learned the art of making caramels. There he took a job with a local
manufacturer who insisted on using fresh milk in making his caramels; Milton saw that this
made the caramels especially tasty. After a time in Denver, Milton once again attempted to
open his own candy-making businesses, in Chicago, New Orleans, and New York City. Finally,
in 1886, he went to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he raised the money necessary to try again.
This company— the Lancaster Caramel Company—established Milton’s reputation as a master
candy maker.

(17) In 1893, Milton attended the Chicago International Exposition, where he saw a display of
German chocolate-making implements. Captivated by the equipment, he purchased it for his
Lancaster candy factory and began producing chocolate, which he used for coating his
caramels. By the next year, production had grown to include cocoa, sweet chocolate, and
baking chocolate. The Hershey Chocolate company was born in 1894 as a subsidiary of the
Lancaster Caramel Company. Six years later, Milton sold the caramel company, but retained
the rights, and the equipment, to make chocolate. He believed that a large market of chocolate
consumers was waiting for someone to produce reasonably priced candy. He was right.
 (25) Milton Hershey returned to the village where he had been born, in the heart of dairy country,
and opened his chocolate manufacturing plant. With access to all the fresh milk he needed, he
began producing the finest milk chocolate. The plant that opened in a small Pennsylvania village
in 1905 is today the largest chocolate factory in the world. The confections created at this
facility are favorites around the world.

(30) The area where the factory is located is now known as Hershey, Pennsylvania. Within the first
decades of its existence, the town of Hershey thrived, as did the chocolate business. A bank, a
school, churches, a department store, even a park and a trolley system all appeared in
short order; the town soon even had a zoo. Today, a visit to the area reveals the Hershey
Medical Center, Milton Hershey School, and Hershey’s Chocolate World—a theme park where
visitors are greeted by a giant Reeses Peanut Butter Cup. All of these things— and a huge
number of happy chocolate lovers—were made possible because a caramel maker visited the
Chicago Exposition of 1893!

10. According to information contained in the passage, the reader can infer which of the following?
A. Chocolate is popular in every country in the world
B. Reeses Peanut Butter Cups are manufactured by the Hershey Chocolate Company
C. Chocolate had never been manufactured in the United States before Milton Hershey did it
D. The Hershey Chocolate Company now makes more money from Hershey’s Chocolate
World than from the manufacture and sale of chocolate
11. Which of the following best defines the word subsidiary (line 21) as used in paragraph 3?
A. A company owned entirely by one person
B. A company founded to support another company
C. A company that is not incorporated
D. A company controlled by another company
12. The writer’s main purpose in this passage is to
A. A. recount the founding of the Hershey Chocolate Company
B. describe the process of manufacturing chocolate
C. compare the popularity of chocolate to other candies
D. explain how apprenticeships work
13. The mention of the Chicago International Exposition of 1893 in the passage indicates that
A. the exposition in Chicago is held once every three years
B. the theme of the exposition of 1893 was “Food from Around the World”
C. the exposition contained displays from a variety of countries
D. the site of the exposition is now a branch of the Hershey Chocolate Company
14. Which of the following words best fits in the blank in paragraph 1 of the passage?
A. Dramatic
B. Modest
C. Undignified
D. Rewarding

Text 15-17

(1) The atmosphere forms a gaseous, protective envelope around Earth. It protects the planet
from the cold of space, from harmful ultraviolet light, and from all but the largest meteors. After
traveling over 93 million miles, solar energy strikes the atmosphere and Earth’s surface,
warming the planet and creating what is known as the biosphere, the region of Earth capable of
sustaining life. Solar radiation in combination with the planet’s rotation causes the atmosphere
 to circulate. Atmospheric circulation is one important reason that life on Earth can exist at
higher latitudes because equatorial heat is transported poleward, moderating the climate.

(8) The equatorial region is the warmest part of the earth because it receives the most direct and,
therefore, strongest solar radiation. The plane in which the earth revolves around the sun is
called the ecliptic. Earth’s axis is inclined 23 1/3 degrees north latitude. This is the northernmost
point where the sun can be directly overhead. On or about December 21 of each year, the sun
reaches the Tropic of Capricorn 23 1/3 degrees south latitude. This is the southernmost point at
which the sun can be directly overhead. The polar regions are the coldest parts of the earth
because they receive the least direct and, therefore, the weakest solar radiation. Here solar
radiation strikes at a very oblique angle and thus spreads the same amount of energy over a
greater area than in the equatorial regions. A static envelope of air surrounding the earth would
produce an extremely hot, uninhabitable equatorial region, while the polar regions would
remain inhospitably cold.

(19) The transport of water vapor in the atmosphere is an important mechanism by which heat energy
is redistributed poleward. When water evaporates into the air and becomes water vapor,
it absorbs energy. At the equator, air saturated with water vapor rises high into the atmosphere
where winds aloft carry it poleward. As this moist air approaches the polar regions, it cools
and sinks back to earth. At some point, the water vapor condenses out of the air as rain or snow,
releasing energy in the process. The now-dry polar air flows back toward the equator to repeat
the convection cycle. In this way, heat energy absorbed at the equator is deposited at the poles
and the temperature gradient between these regions is reduced.

(27) The circulation of the atmosphere and the weather it generates is but one example of the many
complex, interdependent events of nature. The web of life depends on the proper functioning
of these natural mechanisms for its continued existence. Global warming, the hole in the
atmosphere’s ozone layer, and increasing air and water pollution pose serious, long-term threats
to the biosphere. Given the high degree of nature’s interconnectedness, it is quite possible that
the most serious threats have yet to be recognized.

15. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
A. The circulation of atmosphere, threatened by global warming and pollution, protects the
biosphere and makes life on Earth possible
B. If the protective atmosphere around the earth is too damaged by human activity, all life on
Earth will cease
C. Life on Earth is the result of complex interdependent events of nature, and some of these
events are a result of human intervention
D. The circulation of atmosphere is the single most important factor in keeping the biosphere
alive, and it is constantly threatened by harmful human activity.
16. Which of the following best represents the organization of the passage?
A. I. Definition and description of the circulation of the atmosphere
II. How the atmosphere affects heat and water in the biosphere
III. How the circulation of the atmosphere works
IV. What will happen if human activity destroys the atmosphere and other life-sustaining
mechanisms
B. I. What will happen if human activity destroys the atmosphere and other life-sustaining
mechanisms
II. How the circulation of the atmosphere affects the equator and the poles
 III. How the circulation of the atmosphere interrelates with other events in nature to protect
life on Earth
IV. Threats to life in the biosphere
C. I. Definition and description of the circulation of the atmosphere
II. Protective functions of the circulation of the atmosphere
III. Relationship of the circulation of the atmosphere to other life-sustaining mechanisms
IV. Threats to nature’s interconnectedness in the biosphere
D. I. The journey of the atmosphere 93 million miles through space
II. How the atmosphere circulates and protects the biosphere
III. How the atmosphere interrelates with weather in the biosphere
IV. How damage to the biosphere threatens life on Earth
17. Which of the following sentences from the passage best supports the author’s point that
circulation of the atmosphere is vital to life on Earth?
A. The equatorial region is the warmest part of the earth because it receives the most direct
and, therefore, strongest solar radiation
B. The circulation of the atmosphere and the weather it generates is but one example of the
many complex, interdependent events of nature
C. The atmosphere protects Earth from the cold of space, from harmful ultraviolet light, and
from all but the largest meteors
D. A static envelope of air surrounding the earth would produce an extremely hot,
uninhabitable equatorial region, while the polar regions would remain inhospitably cold

Text 18-25

(1) The chemical formula of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is now well established. The molecule
is a very long chain, the backbone of which consists of a regular alternation of sugar and
phosphate groups. To each sugar is attached a nitrogenous base, which can be of four different
types. Two of the possible bases—adenine and guanine—are purines, and the other two—
thymine and cytosine—are pyrimidines. So far as is known, the sequence of bases along the
chain is irregular. The monomer unit, consisting of phosphate, sugar and base, is known as a
(6) nucleotide.

(7) The first feature of our structure which is of biological interest is that it consists not of one
chain, but of two. These two chains are both coiled around a common fiber axis. It has often
been assumed that since there was only one chain in the chemical formula there would only be
one in the structural unit. However, the density, taken with the X-ray evidence, suggests very
strongly that there are two.

(12) The other biologically important feature is the manner in which the two chains are held together.
This is done by hydrogen bonds between the bases. The bases are joined together in pairs, a
single base from one chain being hydrogen-bonded to a single base from the other. The
important point is that only certain pairs of bases will fit into the structure. One member of a
pair must be a purine and the other a pyrimidine in order to bridge between the two chains. If
a pair consisted of two purines, for example, there would not be room for it.

(18) We believe that the bases will be present almost entirely in their most probable forms. If this is
true, the conditions for forming hydrogen bonds are more restrictive, and the only pairs of bases
possible are: adenine with thymine, and guanine with cytosine. Adenine, for example, can occur
on either chain; but when it does, its partner on the other chain must always be thymine.
(22) The phosphate-sugar backbone of our model is completely regular, but any sequence of the
pairs of bases can fit into the structure. It follows that in a long molecule many different
permutations are possible, and it therefore seems likely that the precise sequence of bases is the
code which carries the genetical information. If the actual order of the bases on one of the pair
of chains were given, one could write down the exact order of the bases on the other one,
because of the specific pairing. Thus one chain is, as it were, the complement of the other, and
it is this feature which suggests how the deoxyribonucleic acid molecule might duplicate itself.

The table shows, for various organisms, the percentage of each of the four types of
nitrogenous bases in that organism’s DNA

Base Composition of DNA

Percentage of base in organism’s DNA
Organism
adenine (%) guanine (%) cytosine (%) thymine (%)
Maize 26.8 22.8 23.2 27.2
Octopus 33.2 17.6 17.6 31.6
Chicken 28.0 22.0 21.6 28.4
Rat 28.6 21.4 20.5 28.4
Human 29.3 20.7 20.0 30.0
Grasshopper 29.3 20.5 20.7 29.3
Sea urchin 32.8 17.7 17.3 32.1
Wheat 27.3 22.7 22.8 27.1
Yeast 31.3 18.7 17.1 32.9
E. coli 24.7 26.0 25.7 23.6

18. The authors use the word “backbone” in lines 2 and 22 to indicate that…
A. only very long chains of DNA can be taken from an organism with a spinal column
B. the main structure of a chain in a DNA molecule is composed of repeating units
C. a chain in a DNA molecule consists entirely of phosphate groups or of sugars
D. nitrogenous bases form the main structural unit of DNA
19. In the second paragraph, what do the authors claim to be a feature of biological interest?
A. The chemical formula of DNA
B. The common fiber axis
C. The X-ray evidence
D. DNA consisting of two chains
20. The authors’ main purpose of including the information about X-ray evidence and density is
to…
A. establish that DNA is the molecule that carries the genetic information
B. present an alternate hypothesis about the composition of a nucleotide
C. provide support for the authors’ claim about the number of chains in a molecule of DNA
D. confirm the relationship between the density of DNA and the known chemical formula of
DNA
21. Based on the passage, the authors’ statement “If a pair consisted of two purines, for example,
there would not be room for it” (lines 16-17) implies that
A. a pair of purines would be larger than the space between a sugar and a phosphate group.
B. a pair of purines would be larger than a pair consisting of a purine and a pyrimidine
C. a pair of pyrimidines would be larger than a pair of purines
D. a pair is consisting of a purine and a pyrimidine would be larger than a pair of pyrimidines
22. The authors’ use of the words “exact,” “specific,” and “complement” in lines 26-27 in the final
paragraph functions mainly to…
 A. confirm that the nucleotide sequences are known for most molecules of DNA
B. counter the claim that the sequences of bases along a chain can occur in any order
C. support the claim that the phosphate-sugar backbone of the authors’ model is completely
regular
D. emphasize how one chain of DNA may serve as a template to be copied during DNA
replication.
23. A student claims that nitrogenous bases pair randomly with one another. Which of the following
statements in the passage contradicts the student’s claim?
A. Lines 3-4 (“To each . . . types”)
B. Lines 5-6 (“So far . . . irregular”)
C. Lines 13-14 (“The bases . . . other”)
D. Lines 15-16 (“One member . . . chains”)
24. Based on the table and passage, which choice gives the correct percentages of the purines in
yeast DNA?
A. 17.1% and 18.7%
B. 32.9% and 17.1%
C. 31.3% and 18.7%
D. 31.3% and 32.9%
25. Do the data in the table support the authors’ proposed pairing of bases in DNA?
A. Yes, because for each given organism, the percentage of adenine is closest to the
percentage of thymine, and the percentage of guanine is closest to the percentage of
cytosine
B. Yes, because for each given organism, the percentage of adenine is closest to the
percentage of guanine, and the percentage of cytosine is closest to the percentage of
thymine
C. No, because for each given organism, the percentage of adenine is closest to the percentage
of thymine, and the percentage of guanine is closest to the percentage of cytosine
D. No, because for each given organism, the percentage of adenine is closest to the percentage
of guanine, and the percentage of cytosine is closest to the percentage of thymine