Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Learning and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lindif

Exploring personality traits as predictors of English achievement and global T

competence among Chinese university students: English learning motivation
as the moderator☆
⁎,1
Chun Caoa, , Qian Mengb,2
a
Northeast Normal University, China
b
Changchun University of Science and Technology, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aimed to delve deeper into the relationship between personality traits and academic performance by
Personality traits focusing on two specific aspects that can be critically important in the globalized world: global competence and
English learning motivation achievement in learning English as a second language. We recruited 555 Chinese university students who
English achievement completed a web-based survey. Results revealed that the Big Five Personality (conscientiousness, neuroticism,
Global competence
extraversion, openness, and agreeableness) functioned differently in predicting the outcome variables.
Moderation
Conscientiousness and extraversion positively predicted English achievement. Extraversion and openness posi-
tively predicted all three dimensions of global competence (global attitudes, skills, and knowledge).
Agreeableness positively predicted global attitudes. Conscientiousness positively predicted global knowledge but
negatively predicted global attitudes, while neuroticism negatively predicted global skills and attitudes.
Furthermore, English learning motivation was found to moderate the relationships of extraversion to English
achievement and global knowledge. Specifically, the two positive relationships were stronger at high than at low
levels of motivation.

1. Introduction on Chinese university students and examines the relationship of per-

sonality traits to global competence and English achievement, both of
One important assumption in individual differences research is that which are important instrumental tools largely determining effective-
students who differ in personality traits will also differ in learning be- ness in the current globalized world (Meng, Zhu, & Cao, 2018).
haviors and learning outcomes (Poropat, 2009). Abundant research has Global competence is defined as having knowledge and capacity to
established the relationship between personality and overall academic identify cultural differences, possessing interest and willingness to in-
achievement (e.g., De Feyter, Caers, Vigna, & Berings, 2012; Komarraju, teract with culturally different people, and utilizing cultural skills to
Karau, Schmeck, & Avdic, 2011; Vedel, Thomsen, & Larsen, 2015). In effectively function in different cultural contexts (Hunter, White, &
recent years, researchers have emphasized the importance of under- Godbey, 2006). Researchers argue that nurturing students' global
standing the role of personality in achievement in specific subjects and/ competence should become one core educational goal for mass educa-
or capacities, rather than simply the overall achievement (Rosander, tion, rather than just for elite education (Reimers, 2009). In China,
Bäckström, & Stenberg, 2011). Researchers also note that the person- English learning and teaching are assigned a central role in both sec-
ality-achievement relationship is overwhelmingly investigated within ondary and post-secondary education, whereas many students fail to
European or North American settings, and more research is thus needed achieve a desired level of proficiency in English, due to a lack of pur-
to understand this relationship within other sociocultural settings (Kao posive and individualized educational perspectives (Wen, 2018).
& Craigie, 2014). Responding to these calls, the present study focuses As noted above, whether and how personality traits are related to

☆
The study is funded by the Humanities and Social Sciences Project of the Ministry of Education of China (Grant Number: 18YJC740063) Social Sciences Funding
Project of Jilin Province, China (Grant Number: 2019B168).
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Cao).
1
Address: 5268, Renmin Street, Changchun, China.
2
Address: 7186, Weixing Road, Changchun, China.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101814
Received 7 July 2019; Received in revised form 2 November 2019; Accepted 12 December 2019
1041-6080/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
C. Cao and Q. Meng Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

global competence and foreign language (FL) achievement need to be revealed the positive relationship between openness and FL achieve-
researched and understood. However, this research objective receives ment (Rizvanović, 2018; Rosander et al., 2011). Agreeableness includes
scant attention in the existing literature. Moving beyond this objective, qualities of altruism, friendliness, modesty, cooperative behaviors and
we intend to further expand the extant literature by combining per- generosity (Komarraju et al., 2011). Inconsistent associations between
sonality traits and English learning motivation. Since scholars have agreeableness and academic performance were found in the literature.
argued that motivation and personality may work jointly and sy- Specifically, while Komarraju et al. (2011) and De Feyter et al. (2012)
nergistically to determine performance (Di Domenico & Fournier, revealed agreeableness as a positive predictor of academic achieve-
2015), English learning motivation is examined in our study as a po- ment, Kappe and van der Flier (2010) and Zhou (2015) found no as-
tential moderator in the relationships between personality traits and sociations between the two constructs. More relevant to our research
English achievement. objective is the study conducted by Shirdel and Naeini (2018) who
found a strong positive relationship between agreeableness and English
2. Literature review achievement among university undergraduates.

2.1. Personality and FL achievement 2.2. Personality and global competence

The Big Five model of personality (conscientiousness, neuroticism, Researchers argue that the concept of global competence can be
extraversion, openness, and agreeableness; Goldberg, 1992) has been used interchangeably with intercultural competence, multi-cultural
revealed as a robust approach to conceptualizing and assessing per- competence, or intercultural sensitivity, though these concepts are
sonality traits (e.g., Kappe & van der Flier, 2010; Rizvanović, 2018). often assessed with different dimensions (Li, 2013; Meng et al., 2018;
Among the five dimensions, conscientiousness is consistently confirmed Semaan & Yamazaki, 2015). Researchers have reached an agreement on
as the best predictor of academic success. Conscientious students often dimensions of global competence: knowledge, skills and attitudes
have better academic performance because they are featured by orga- (Hunter et al., 2006; Li, 2013; Meng et al., 2018). Global knowledge
nized, disciplined, perseverant, and precise manners of learning (De means the knowledge of one's own culture and alien cultures, including
Feyter et al., 2012; Rosander et al., 2011). The meta-analyses found that traditions, norms, history and other aspects, which provides back-
conscientiousness had the strongest correlates with university students' ground information for intercultural interactions; global skills mean an
academic performance (O'Connor & Paunonen, 2007; Richardson, array of capacities enabling one to function in intercultural settings,
Abraham, & Bond, 2012; Vedel, 2014). By contrast, neurotic students, such as identifying cultural differences and successfully participating in
characterized by emotional instability and lack of control in day-to-day intercultural settings; global attitudes mean positive attitudes towards
situations, often achieve lower academic performance due to their high cultural differences and willingness to embrace and engage in cultural
anxiety associated with exams and academic pressures, and their less diversity (Hunter et al., 2006; Li, 2013). Therefore, the three dimen-
dedication to achievement (Kappe & van der Flier, 2010; Komarraju sions should be operationalized as separate constructs because they
et al., 2011). We assume that the impact of conscientiousness and may be inter-correlated yet conceptually distinctive.
neuroticism may also apply to the specific achievement in FL learning. Recently, researchers stress that more attention should be given to
Supportive evidence can be found in the study by Kao and Craigie domestic students who are much greater in number than internationally
(2014) who surveyed a group of Taiwanese students and found that mobile students and also need to prepare for globalization (Jon, 2013;
neuroticism negatively predicted FL achievement. MacIntyre and Meng, Zhu, & Cao, 2017). Studies that attempt to explore individual
Charos (1996) found that conscientiousness was indirectly and posi- differences in global competence are scarcely available in the existing
tively related to second language fluency through attitudes towards literature. Nonetheless, prior findings of individual differences in some
learning situations among a group of Anglophone students. related constructs (e.g., intergroup attitudes, intercultural friendships,
As compared to the above two personality traits, empirical evidence and cross-cultural adjustment) can support our assumption that per-
on predictive roles of extraversion, openness and agreeableness in sonality may play a part in global competence. For instance, con-
academic performance is mixed (O'Connor & Paunonen, 2007). scientious individuals tend to be featured by conservatism and tradi-
Trapmann, Hell, Hirn, and Schuler's (2007) meta-analysis revealed that tionalism (Roberts, Chernyshenko, Stark, & Goldberg, 2005), implying
these three traits were not related to academic success at university, that they may be less willing to engage in cultural diversity. Supporting
whereas Vedel's (2014) meta-analysis found that both openness and this argument, Stupar, van de Vijver, Te Lindert, and Fontaine (2014)
agreeableness significantly correlated with university students' Grade found a negative relationship between conscientiousness and multi-
Point Average (GPA). Extraversion describes individuals who are social, culturalism among Dutch majority members and immigrants. There-
assertive, and talkative (Komarraju et al., 2011). Many researchers re- fore, we assume that conscientiousness is a negative predictor of global
ported no or even negative correlations between extraversion and competence. The negative link with global competence may also apply
academic performance among university students (De Feyter et al., to neuroticism featured by social anxiety, social insecurity and moo-
2012; Furnham, Nuygards, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013; Komarraju diness (Ramirez, 2016). Such profiles may undermine individuals'
et al., 2011; Poropat, 2009; Rosander et al., 2011). We assume, how- willingness for and effectiveness in intercultural engagement. Ang, Van
ever, that extraversion may be beneficial for FL learning due to its Dyne, and Koh (2006) provided empirical evidence that Singaporean
different features from other academic disciplines. For instance, undergraduates higher in neuroticism scored lower on the behavioral
learning a language cannot be separated from using the language, thus dimension of cultural intelligence, a construct reflecting “capacity to
needing willingness and courage to speak, communicate and collabo- acquire new behaviors appropriate for a new culture” (Earley & Ang,
rate in the target language (Wen, 2018). Extraverted students may excel 2003, p. 82). Wilson, Ward, and Fischer's (2013) meta-analysis also
in such aspects since they are proactive, gregarious, and always ready revealed that neuroticism negatively correlated with sociocultural ad-
to engage (Kappe & van der Flier, 2010; Rizvanović, 2018). Empirical justment based on a total of 66 independent studies.
support can be obtained from a recent study (Liang & Kelsen, 2018) in The other three personality traits (i.e., openness, extraversion, and
which extraverted Japanese college students were found to possess agreeableness) are key dispositions strongly influencing the way in-
superiority in English oral presentations. In addition, Biedroń (2011) dividuals behave in interpersonal communication and relations
found that Polish university students higher in extraversion tended to (Barrick, Parks, & Mount, 2005; Vater & Schröder-Abé, 2015). For in-
achieve better grades in language ability tests. Openness is reflected in a stance, individuals low in openness may view sojourning in culturally
strong intellectual curiosity and a preference for variety and novelty different contexts as threatening and intimidating, while those high in
(Komarraju et al., 2011). Despite being limited, a few studies have openness may view such experiences as interesting and exciting (Van

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C. Cao and Q. Meng Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

der Zee & van Oudenhoven, 2013). Turner, Dhont, Hewstone, diverse types of behaviors, such as reading English materials, viewing
Prestwich, and Vonofakou (2014) explored the relationships of these English programs, or initiating communication with native speakers.
three personality traits to cross-cultural friendships, intergroup anxiety, These behaviors function as adding diverse extra sources of information
and outgroup attitudes among British undergraduate students. Their and knowledge about norms, traditions and history of alien cultures. A
results showed that extraversion positively predicted cross-cultural better understanding of and identification with alien cultures can lead
friendships, openness negatively predicted intergroup anxiety but po- to affective, behavioral and cognitive changes, for example, shaping
sitively predicted outgroup attitudes, and agreeableness negatively intergroup attitudes and building intercultural relations (Cao, Meng, &
predicted intergroup anxiety. Burke, Watkins, and Guzman (2009) fo- Shang, 2018). Therefore, it is assumed that English learning motivation
cused on international students sojourning in Latin America and iden- may be beneficial for global competence as measured by global
tified openness and agreeableness as positive predictors of adjustment knowledge, attitudes, and skills. The supportive evidence can be found
to the multi-cultural contexts. In another instance, both extraversion in Semaan and Yamazaki's (2015) study which established a direct and
and openness positively predicted Vietnamese Australian students' positive association between English learning motivation and global
cross-cultural self-efficacy (Mak & Tran, 2001). Supporting evidence competence.
can also be found in Wilson et al.'s (2013) meta-analysis in which all the
three personality traits positively correlated with sociocultural adjust-
2.4. The present study
ment: for openness (r = 0.29), for extraversion (r = 0.29), and for
agreeableness (r = 0.16).
Built on the aforementioned research, this study intends to examine
whether the five personality traits can be related to English achieve-
2.3. Direct and moderating effects of FL learning motivation
ment and global competence, and whether English learning motivation
can moderate the relationships between the five traits and English
According to the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000),
achievement.
human motivation, boosted by basic psychological need satisfaction,
Concerning direct relationships, the hypotheses are formulated
largely determines engagement and performance in an activity or task.
The present study focuses on a specific type of motivation, namely H1. Conscientiousness (H1a), extraversion (H1b), openness (H1c), and
English learning motivation. Its positive relationship to English agreeableness (H1d) will be positively associated with English
achievement has been solidly established (e.g., Hernández, 2006; achievement, while neuroticism (H1e) will be negatively associated
Rizvanović, 2018). We aim to delve deeper into the topic by in- with English achievement.
vestigating moderating role of motivation in the personality-English
H2. Extraversion (H2a), openness (H2b), and agreeableness (H2c) will
achievement relationship. The underlying rational for this moderation
be positively associated with global competence, while
perspective is that some scholars postulate that motivational attributes
conscientiousness (H2d) and neuroticism (H2e) will be negatively
may modify the personality-performance relationship and recommend
associated with global competence.
more research to empirically examine the complex relationships be-
tween personality, motivation, and performance (or development) H3. English learning motivation will be positively associated with
(Barrick, Mount, & Li, 2013). According to Di Domenico and Fournier English achievement (H3a) and global competence (H3b).
(2015), highly motivated individuals tend to invest extra resources
Concerning moderated relationships, the research question is raised
(e.g., time and energy) in pursuing performance or development, thus
having potentials to attenuate weaknesses or boost strengths of per- RQ. Will English learning motivation moderate the relationships
sonality traits. There is also some empirical evidence that support our between personality traits and English achievement?
moderation perspective. For instance, Barrick et al. (2005) surveyed
Executive MBA students and found that in working contexts, the posi-
tive relationships of extraversion, openness, and emotional stability 3. Methods
(conversely neuroticism) to interpersonal performance only appeared at
low levels of self-monitoring motivation. In academic contexts, Belgian 3.1. Participants and procedure
college freshmen's academic motivation was revealed as a moderator in
the relationship between conscientiousness and academic performance Participants were second-year students at a large comprehensive
(De Feyter et al., 2012). Specifically, this positive relationship was university in China. Chinese government requires most undergraduates
shown only at high levels of academic motivation. Di Domenico and to enroll for the course of learning English as a second language at the
Fournier (2015) yielded a somewhat contradictory finding among Ca- first two years of university education. We purposively selected the
nadian undergraduate students. Their study showed that the relation- second-year students because it is their final academic year for man-
ship between conscientiousness and cumulative GPA was significant dated English learning and they have had one-whole-year English
only at low levels of autonomous motivation. Given the inconsistent learning experiences at university.
and rather scarce evidence, our study will put forward a research To reach the participants, eight English teachers were contacted
question concerning moderating roles of English learning motivation, after the approval for conducting this work was obtained from the re-
rather than offer specific hypotheses. search ethics committee of the university. With their assistance, the
On the surface, the two constructs of English learning motivation online survey was distributed to students they taught via a social media.
and global competence seem to be unrelated. However, if we consider Voluntary participation, anonymity, and research objectives were sent
potential affective, behavioral and cognitive changes underlying the together with the link to the online survey. All procedures performed in
motivational attitudes, it may make sense to assume their relationship. this study were in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and
The theory of planned behavior (TPB; Ajzen, Czasch, & Flood, 2009) its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
articulates that perceived control over social norms and attitudes can Of the 555 participants, there were 367 male students (66.1%) and
influence one's behavioral motivation, which increases the probability 188 female students (33.9%). Their ages ranged from 16 to 29
of implementing actual behaviors to pursue his or her goals. According (M = 19.50; SD = 1.10). Their reported academic majors were as
to the TPB, goals, motives, and needs are closely associated with goal- follows: 423 (76.2%) in natural sciences and 132 (23.8%) in social
striving behaviors (Lonsdale, 2017). Thus, TPB implies that those sciences and humanities. Four students (0.7%) had study abroad ex-
highly motivated students may have the impetus to invest time and periences and fifty-nine students (10.6%) had travelling abroad ex-
effort in pursuing better grades or achievement in English through periences. There were no missing data in the data set.

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C. Cao and Q. Meng Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

Table 1
Means, standard deviations and correlations of the variables (N = 555).
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. Conscientiousness –
2. Neuroticism −0.281⁎⁎ –
3. Agreeableness 0.080 −0.174⁎⁎ –
4. Openness 0.237⁎⁎ −0.342⁎⁎ 0.458⁎⁎ –
5. Extraversion 0.359⁎⁎ −0.262⁎⁎ 0.405⁎⁎ 0.611⁎⁎ –
6. Learning motivation 0.280⁎⁎ −0.235⁎⁎ 0.315⁎⁎ 0.358⁎⁎ 0.397⁎⁎ –
7. Overall achievement 0.385⁎⁎ −0.203⁎⁎ 0.238⁎⁎ 0.287⁎⁎ 0.382⁎⁎ 0.529⁎⁎ –
8. Speaking 0.424⁎⁎ −0.228⁎⁎ 0.207⁎⁎ 0.323⁎⁎ 0.431⁎⁎ 0.513⁎⁎ 0.768⁎⁎ –
9. Listening 0.396⁎⁎ −0.217⁎⁎ 0.159⁎⁎ 0.294⁎⁎ 0.368⁎⁎ 0.493⁎⁎ 0.728⁎⁎ 0.776⁎⁎ –
10. Reading 0.346⁎⁎ −0.183⁎⁎ 0.263⁎⁎ 0.317⁎⁎ 0.366⁎⁎ 0.499⁎⁎ 0.810⁎⁎ 0.670⁎⁎ 0.645⁎⁎ –
11. Writing 0.391⁎⁎ −0.199⁎⁎ 0.247⁎⁎ 0.328⁎⁎ 0.417⁎⁎ 0.517⁎⁎ 0.761⁎⁎ 0.694⁎⁎ 0.630⁎⁎ 0.761⁎⁎ –
12. Global attitudes 0.146⁎⁎ −0.404⁎⁎ 0.467⁎⁎ 0.589⁎⁎ 0.489⁎⁎ 0.361⁎⁎ 0.281⁎⁎ 0.291⁎⁎ 0.268⁎⁎ 0.276⁎⁎ 0.278⁎⁎ –
13. Global skills 0.278⁎⁎ −0.388⁎⁎ 0.382⁎⁎ 0.587⁎⁎ 0.561⁎⁎ 0.423⁎⁎ 0.359⁎⁎ 0.374⁎⁎ 0.390⁎⁎ 0.348⁎⁎ 0.346⁎⁎ 0.741⁎⁎ –
14. Global knowledge 0.355⁎⁎ −0.279⁎⁎ 0.245⁎⁎ 0.450⁎⁎ 0.472⁎⁎ 0.427⁎⁎ 0.432⁎⁎ 0.422⁎⁎ 0.480⁎⁎ 0.404⁎⁎ 0.445⁎⁎ 0.490⁎⁎ 0.702⁎⁎ –
15. Gender (Male) −0.080 0.013 0.105⁎ 0.037 −0.011 0.074 0.081 0.051 −0.008 0.038 0.076 −0.121⁎⁎ 0.019 0.109⁎ –
M 2.98 2.57 3.70 3.62 3.19 2.99 2.96 2.84 2.74 3.05 2.96 3.73 3.38 3.09 0.66
SD 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.78 0.81 0.89 0.76 0.83 0.87 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.74 0.47

Note.
⁎
p < .05.
⁎⁎
p < .01.

3.2. Measures English achievement for two reasons. First, the participants in our study
were from various faculties and had different test formats for English
3.2.1. Personality traits achievement. Thus, it is not suitable to use their prior English test scores
This scale was measured by Chinese Big Five Personality Inventory- to assess their achievement. Second, research has shown that self-re-
Brief Version (CBF-PI-B; Wang, Dai, & Yao, 2011). This inventory has ports of language achievement are reliable (see Marian, Blumenfeld, &
been validated and widely used in Chinese contexts. Seven items as- Kaushanskaya, 2007, for a review of language self-assessment studies)
sessed conscientiousness (e.g., I make decisions after careful con- and have been widely used in the literature (e.g., Meng et al., 2018;
sideration), seven items assessed neuroticism (e.g., I often worry about Sullivan & Schatz, 2009). Despite these reasons, it needs to be admitted
things that are of little importance), six items assessed extraversion that a range of factors may influence validity of self-assessment, in-
(e.g., I like social interactions and social events), eight items assessed cluding participants' experiences with the assessed language domain
openness (e.g., I am curious about many different things), and five skills (Ross, 1998). English achievement was assessed in five aspects
items assessed agreeableness (e.g., I am considerate and kind to almost (Kim, Wang, Deng, Alvarez, & Li, 2011): speaking, listening, reading,
everyone). The response categories ranged from 1 (not at all applicable writing, and overall proficiency. The participants rated each aspect by
to me) to 5 (very much applicable to me). Cronbach's alpha was 0.87 for picking one of the following response options: “very low”, “low”,
conscientiousness, 0.92 for neuroticism, 0.88 for extraversion, 0.93 for “average”, “high”, “very high”. Cronbach's alpha was 0.93.
openness, and 0.86 for agreeableness.
3.3. Data analysis
3.2.2. Global competence
Global competence scale, validated by Meng et al. (2018), included Using the AMOS 22.0 software, we evaluated the research model by
15 items (Hunter et al., 2006; see Appendix A for specific items). Each conducting structural equation modeling (SEM) through Maximum
of the three subscales (i.e., global knowledge, skills, and attitudes) Likelihood method. Five goodness-of-fit indices were used to assess the
contained five items. Global knowledge measured the level of knowl- model fit: χ2/df ratio (< 3), comparative fit index (CFI, > 0.95),
edge related to one's own and foreign cultures, world events and his- Tucker-Lewis index (TLI, > 0.90), root-mean-square error of approx-
tory. Global skills measured capabilities to engage in intercultural ac- imation (RMSEA, < 0.06) and standardized root-mean-square residual
tivities and collaborate cross cultures. Global attitudes measured (SRMR, < 0.08) (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
students' attitudes towards cultural differences and their willingness to
engage in those differences. The response categories ranged either from 4. Results
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) or from 1 (very low) to 5
(very high). Higher scores of each subscale indicated higher levels of 4.1. Preliminary analysis
global competence on the respective dimension. Cronbach's alpha was
0.90 for knowledge, 0.90 for skills, and 0.91for attitudes. Since previous research indicated that there were gender differences
in English performance (Zhou, 2015) and global competence (Meng
3.2.3. English learning motivation et al., 2017), gender was included in the correlational analysis. Besides,
This uni-dimensional scale was measured by six items (Yashima, overall and domain-specific achievement (speaking, listening, reading,
Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004, see Appendix A for specific items). and writing) were included in the analysis to gain an comprehensive
Students were asked to rate the extent to which each statement mat- picture of correlations between personality and English achievement.
ched their self-perceived motivation for learning English. The response Means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients are presented
categories ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) and a in Table 1. As shown in the table, conscientiousness, agreeableness,
higher score was reflective of a higher level of motivation for English openness, extraversion and English learning motivation were positively
learning. Cronbach's alpha was 0.92. correlated with indicators of English achievement and dimensions of
global competence, whereas neuroticism was negatively correlated
3.2.4. English achievement with them. In addition, gender (male) was negatively correlated with
In this study, we used the self-report method to assess students' global attitudes and positively correlated with global knowledge, and

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C. Cao and Q. Meng Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

Table 2 (CR: larger than 0.60; AVE: larger than 0.50), as shown in Table 2.
Composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) and square roots Discriminant validity was assessed by square roots of AVE, and the
of AVE for latent constructs in the measurement model. results indicated that the criterion was fulfilled because all these values
Variables CR AVE Square roots of AVE were larger than a specific variable's correlations with all other vari-
ables (see Tables 1 and 2 for comparison) (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988).
1. Conscientiousness 0.86 0.67 0.82 In addition, Harman's single factor test was performed to check
2. Neuroticism 0.87 0.69 0.83
common method bias due to the cross-sectional design (Podsakoff,
3. Agreeableness 0.90 0.75 0.87
4. Openness 0.93 0.82 0.91 MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). All 59 items were forced to load
5. Extraversion 0.88 0.71 0.84 on a single un-rotated factor and this single factor extracted only
6. English learning motivation 0.93 0.80 0.89 34.41% of the variance, well below the warning threshold value of
7. English achievement 0.94 0.85 0.92
50%. We also evaluated a one-factor model which indicated a very poor
8. Global attitudes 0.93 0.82 0.91
9. Global skills 0.91 0.78 0.88
model fit: χ2 (405, N = 555) = 8082.964, p < .001, χ2/df = 19.958;
10. Global knowledge 0.92 0.79 0.89 SRMR = 0.131; RMSEA = 0.185; CFI = 0.460; TLI = 0.420. These
results can show that common method bias was not a problem for the
study.
hence was included in the research model for further analysis.
4.3. The structural model
4.2. The measurement model and common method variance
The structural model was larger than the measurement model due to
Prior to evaluating the measurement model, three-item parcels were including gender (male) and latent interactions between five person-
respectively created for all of the focal variables to reduce model ality traits and English learning motivation. To create these latent in-
complexity and estimation errors (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & teraction variables, we followed the recommendations of Marsh, Wen,
Widaman, 2002). Following the steps suggested by statistical scholars, and Hau (2004) by first centering all indicators of these six variables
we first conducted a series of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) which around their own means and then using the matched-pair strategy to
confirmed the uni-dimensionality of these variables, and then created form three indicators for each of the five latent interaction terms. Marsh
parcels for each of them using the item-to-construct method (see Little et al. (2004) have demonstrated that the matched-pair strategy can
et al., 2002, p. 166). outperform other interaction-constructing approaches in evaluating
Overall, the measurement model, including ten latent variables, interacting effects.
achieved an acceptable model fit: χ2 (360, N = 555) = 923.206, An initial test of the structural model revealed an acceptable model
p < .001, χ2/df = 2.564; SRMR = 0.038; RMSEA = 0.053; fit: χ2 (898, N = 555) = 2020.315, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.250;
CFI = 0.960; TLI = 0.952. All factor loadings were significant at the SRMR = 0.042; RMSEA = 0.047; CFI = 0.947; TLI = 0.938.
level of p < .001, ranging from 0.76 to 0.93. Reliability and con- Nonetheless, modification indices showed that the model fit could be
vergent validity of the measurement model were measured by compo- improved if the direct path from the interaction (extra-
site reliability (CR) and average variance extraction (AVE), respec- version×motivation) to global knowledge was added. After it was
tively. According to Bagozzi and Yi (1988), all scales performed well added, re-testing the model showed an improvement: χ2 (897,

Fig. 1. Results of testing the structural model. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. Covariances between the exogenous variables and those between the endogenous
variables are not shown for parsimony of the model. The solid lines indicate significant standardized coefficient paths; The dotted lines indicate non-significant
standardized coefficient paths.

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C. Cao and Q. Meng Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

N = 555) = 2007.944, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.239; SRMR = 0.039;

RMSEA = 0.047; CFI = 0.947; TLI = 0.939. The Chi-square difference
test showed a significant difference between the two models:
Δχ2 = 12.371, Δdf = 1, p < .001.
Standardized path coefficients of the final model are presented in
Fig. 1. It needs to be noted that covariances between the exogenous
variables and those between the endogenous variables are not shown in
the figure for model parsimony. The results indicated that con-
scientiousness (β = 0.31, p < .001) and extraversion (β = 0.18,
p = .002) positively predicted English achievement, while openness
(β = 0.03, p = .636), agreeableness (β = −0.01, p = .844) and
neuroticism (β = 0.01, p = .875) were non-significant for English
achievement. Thus, H1a and H1b were supported, but H1c, H1d and
H1e were not supported.
Extraversion positively predicted global skills (β = 0.25,
p < .001), global knowledge (β = 0.19, p = .002), and global atti- Fig. 2. Interaction between extraversion and English learning motivation on
tudes (β = 0.18, p = .002). Thus, H2a was supported. Likewise, English achievement.
openness positively predicted global skills (β = 0.29, p < .001), global
knowledge (β = 0.22, p < .001), and global attitudes (β = 0.29,
p < .001). Thus, H2b was supported. Agreeableness positively pre-
dicted global attitudes (β = 0.21, p < .001), but was non-significant
for global skills (β = 0.07, p = .087) and global knowledge
(β = −0.01, p = .834). Thus, H2c received partial support. Con-
scientiousness positively predicted global knowledge (β = 0.16,
p < .001) and negatively predicted global attitudes (β = −0.11,
p = .008), but was non-significant for global skills (β = 0.02,
p = .580). Thus, H2d received partial support. Neuroticism negatively
predicted global skills (β = −0.18, p < .001) and global attitudes
(β = −0.25, p < .001), but was non-significant for global knowledge
(β = −0.06, p = .146). Thus, H2e received partial support.
In addition, English learning motivation positively predicted all the
outcome variables [English achievement (β = 0.43, p < .001), global
skills (β = 0.16, p < .001), global knowledge (β = 0.20, p < .001), Fig. 3. Interaction between extraversion and English learning motivation on
and global attitudes (β = 0.09, P = .019)]. Thus, H3a and H3b were global knowledge.
supported. Finally, gender (male) negatively predicted global attitudes
(β = −0.09, p < .001) and positively predicted global knowledge 5.1. Relationships between personality and English achievement
(β = 0.12, p < .001).
Of the five personality traits, only conscientiousness and extraver-
sion predicted English achievement. The positive relationship between
4.4. Moderation analysis conscientiousness and overall academic performance has been widely
revealed (O'Connor & Paunonen, 2007; Richardson et al., 2012; Vedel,
Regarding the RQ, the structural model revealed that English 2014). The beneficial features of conscientiousness (e.g., hard-working,
learning motivation moderated the relationships of extraversion to disciplined and perseverant ways of learning) may as well apply to
English achievement (β = 0.36, p < .001) and global knowledge English learning outcomes, which was consistent with prior studies
(β = 0.12, p < .001) (see Fig. 1). To further probe the moderation, (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; Zhou, 2015). Success in FL learning, as a
simple slope analyses were conducted to respectively examine re- structured course for Chinese university students, are highly dependent
lationships of extraversion to English achievement and global knowl- on their organization, self-regulation, and attention to details.
edge at low (one SD below the mean) and high (one SD above the mean) In higher education, extraversion has been widely discussed in
levels of motivation (Aiken & West, 1991). The result indicated that the terms of its non-significant or negative relationship with academic
positive relationship between extraversion and English achievement performance (e.g., De Feyter et al., 2012; Kappe & van der Flier, 2010;
was much stronger at high (t = 7.938, p < .001) than at low levels of Komarraju et al., 2011). Scholars generally argue that extraverted
motivation (t = 4.012, p < .001) (see Fig. 2). Similarly, the positive students are distractible, sociable, and weak in long term memory, thus
relationship between extraversion and global knowledge was much undermining their academic performance (Furnham et al., 2013).
stronger at high (t = 11.42, p < .001) than at low levels of motivation However, we revealed extraversion as a strong positive predictor of
(t = 5.63, p < .001) (see Fig. 3). English achievement. Although few studies examine the relationship
between personality and FL achievement, our finding can obtain sup-
port from a prior study (Kao & Craigie, 2014). FL learning is an aca-
5. Discussion and implications demic subject that highly requires speaking, communicating, oral pre-
sentation, and group work in the target language that are often heavily
The present study examined the Big Five personality traits and their represented in exams. Extroverts often excel in these aspects (Kappe &
relationships to English achievement and global competence. van der Flier, 2010), partially because high extraversion is often asso-
Furthermore, English learning motivation was revealed to moderate the ciated with low FL anxiety (Dewaele, 2002). Further, Kao and Craigie
relationships of extraversion to English achievement and global (2014) found that extraverted students used English more often than
knowledge. These findings can add insightful knowledge to the litera- introverted students, thus contributing to the improvement.
ture on individual differences and FL learning. The non-significant relationships of openness and neuroticism to

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English achievement were out of our expectations. Openness manifests traits positively predicted all three dimensions of global competence.
itself in intellectual curiosity, broad interest, creativity and divergent High extraversion indicates strong intentions to contact with outgroups
thinking (Komarraju et al., 2011), and thus was assumed to positively and maintain intercultural friendships (Mak & Tran, 2001; Turner et al.,
predict FL learning that incorporates exposures of new cultures and 2014), which can positively predict perceived competence in multi-
peoples. However, according to Wen (2018), pedagogical methods in cultural contexts (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011). Students high in
English teaching in Mainland China are still text-centered and input- openness to new ideas and experiences may be more likely to embrace
based, and only some teachers are experimenting with task-based ap- cultural diversity and engage in the diversity, as reflected in global
proaches (e.g., providing cultural exposures and stimulating creative attitudes and skills. Bartel-Radic and Giannelloni (2017) also revealed
thinking). Therefore, many students high in openness may lack op- openness as a positive predictor of cross-cultural knowledge.
portunities to exhibit their good qualities in English learning courses. Qualities manifested in agreeableness include considerateness,
Alternatively, Rosander et al. (2011) argue that openness could facil- friendliness and generosity, which is positively related to one's attitudes
itate the learning of practical subjects such as art and music, but lan- towards foreign cultures and peoples (Stürmer et al., 2013). This may
guage learning should imply different properties from those found in partially explain the mechanism underlying the agreeableness-global
openness. Most studies revealed the negative relationship between attitudes relationship. In contrast, neuroticism negatively predicted
neuroticism and performance, due to neurotic students' high anxiety in global attitudes and skills. Neurotic individuals tend to display strong
the face of exams and pressures (Kappe & van der Flier, 2010). Note- social anxiety and nervousness (De Feyter et al., 2012) that have been
worthy is that these prior studies overwhelmingly focused on European widely recognized as negative predictors of willingness for intercultural
or North American contexts. The non-significance between neuroticism communication (Stephan, 2014) and effectiveness in intercultural
and English achievement revealed in our study may result from our communication (Gudykunst, 2005).
Chinese educational contexts where performance evaluation is heavily
exams-based throughout different educational stages (Yin, Han, & Lu, 5.3. Functional roles of English learning motivation
2017). Chinese students' rich experiences with exams may largely re-
lieve them from the anxiety. Echoing our result, Zhou (2015) found that Our findings suggested that English learning motivation was posi-
emotional stability (conversely neuroticism) was not related to Chinese tively related to English achievement and all dimensions of global
students' English achievement. In Poropat's (2009) meta-analysis, the competence. The former relationship has been extensively revealed,
relationship between agreeableness and academic performance varied while the latter one is rather scarcely examined and can be supported
as a function of educational levels. Specifically, this relationship was by few studies (e.g., Semaan & Yamazaki, 2015). As motivation is often
0.30 at the primary educational level, whereas it decreased to 0.06 at evolved into behavioral practices (Ajzen et al., 2009), English learners
the higher education level. Kappe and van der Flier (2010) also argue with strong motivation tend to seek various opportunities to participate
agreeable students may thrive in collaborative academic and/or social in communities where the target language is used, both directly (e.g.,
settings because they possess good qualities (e.g., friendliness, modesty, direct contact) and indirectly (e.g., newspaper and entertainment pro-
and cooperation) in building harmonious interpersonal relationships. grams in English). The participating behaviors may contribute to better
The above-mentioned finding and/or argument may be the underlying understanding traditions and norms of foreign cultures. Besides, many
reason for the non-significance between agreeableness and English motivated students view language learning as a stepping stone to an-
achievement, a finding revealed among Chinese undergraduates mainly other goal, such as preparatory for study abroad and career choices.
situated in less collaborative academic contexts. Possibly, they may apply what they have learned to practical use to
reflect their aspirations and needs (Semaan & Yamazaki, 2015), thus
5.2. Relationships between personality and global competence further developing their global competence.
Our findings spoke to the complex nature of the moderated re-
Our study can contribute to the individual difference and high lationships of extraversion to English achievement and global knowl-
education research by combining personality traits and global compe- edge by English learning motivation. Of the two moderated relation-
tence. Some studies have examined roles of personality in some inter- ships, the one related to global knowledge was a finding not
cultural outcomes (e.g., cross-cultural friendships, intergroup attitudes, hypothesized in the study. Specifically, the positive extraversion-
and adjustment) among immigrants or sojourners (e.g., Turner et al., English achievement and extraversion-global knowledge relationships
2014; Zhang, Mandl, & Wang, 2010). Although these outcome con- were stronger at high than at low levels of motivation (see Figs. 2 and
structs are related to global competence in one way or another, it is 3). In this sense, English learning motivation functioned as com-
necessary to gain a direct and insightful knowledge about the re- plementary rather than compensatory as a moderator, strengthening
lationship between personality and global competence. these relationships. To interpret the moderations, we can seek support
The findings showed that the five personality traits can be related to from features of extraversion. Although extraversion was revealed as a
global competence in different ways. The negative conscientiousness- positive predictor, this personality has some obvious disadvantages in
global attitudes relationship and the positive conscientiousness-global academic learning (e.g., easily distractible and less focused) (Furnham
knowledge relationship were interesting and worth discussing. Global et al., 2013). Academic motivation, however, can help monitor and
knowledge is mainly assessed by knowledge of one's own and foreign control learning behaviors (Mega, Ronconi, & De Beni, 2014), thus
cultures and world history. Such knowledge can be gained through possibly making extraverted students more focused and concentrated.
relevant structured courses, and as discussed previously, conscientious Therefore, extraversion and motivation may work jointly to help stu-
students may be superior in course learning due to their self-regulated dents achieve better performance in learning English and acquiring
and persistent learning. Despite these desirable profiles, conscientious global knowledge.
individuals also hold features of conservatism and traditionalism
(Roberts et al., 2005), which may be negatively related to willingness to 5.4. Practical implications
embrace cultural diversity and readiness to engage in cultural differ-
ences (as measured by global attitudes). Of relevance, Stupar et al. Our findings showed huge individual differences in both English
(2014) found the negative relationship between conscientiousness and achievement and global competence among Chinese university stu-
multiculturalism. dents. It obviously hinted at the importance of continuously monitoring
The existing literature has revealed importance of the two person- students' personality traits, through class observation, feedback as-
ality traits of extraversion and openness in intercultural experiences sessment, or evaluation survey. Understanding their personality profiles
(Turner et al., 2014). Our findings are encouraging because the two can help university management, teachers and counselors design

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C. Cao and Q. Meng Learning and Individual Differences 77 (2020) 101814

appropriate interventions, incorporate effective strategies into teaching Appendix A

practices, and upgrade service programs.
For instance, many prior studies stress that interactions among Items for the scale of English learning motivation
culturally diverse students can promote global/multicultural compe-
tence (e.g., Jon, 2013). However, for neurotic students who may be low 1. Compared to my classmates, I think I study English relatively hard.
in global skills and attitudes due to high anxiety in intercultural in- 2. I often think about the words and ideas that I learn about in my
teractions, administers may consider setting situations conductive to English classes.
lowering their anxiety levels (Liang & Kelsen, 2018). Hence, the in- 3. If English were not taught at school, I would study it on my own.
tegration programs need to be designed wisely, for example, with 4. I think I spend fairly long hours studying English.
common goals and interest. Teachers also need to offer more emotional 5. I really try to learn English.
and instrumental support for introverted students to encourage their 6. After I graduate from college, I will continue to study English and
active participation in speaking and communicating in FL learning. try to improve.
Collaborative learning environment and interesting cultural exposures
can be designed to nurture students' qualities of agreeableness and Items for the scale of global competence
openness (Zhou, 2015). Finally, promoting students' English learning Global knowledge subscale
motivation seemed to be critical. Hence, teacher need to seek out di-
verse and innovative teaching approaches to arouse students' interest in 1. I hold positive attitudes towards cultural diversity.
and motivation for language learning and cultural exploration (Wen, 2. I recognize that my own worldview is not universal.
2018). 3. I am willing to step outside of my own cultures and experience life
as “the other”.
6. Limitations and conclusion 4. I am willing to take risks in pursuit of cross-cultural learning and
personal development.
Several limitations of this study have to be acknowledged. First, it 5. I take a non-judgmental reaction to cultural difference.
required caution to interpret the findings as causal relationships due to
the cross-sectional design. For example, higher levels of English Global skills subscale
achievement may as well predict stronger English learning motivation.
Future research is encouraged to conduct longitudinal studies to reveal 1. I am capable to identify cultural differences.
causal relationships among these variables. Second, the sample were 2. I can live comfortably outside my own cultures.
selected from a single university, which may reduce the generalizability 3. I can successfully participate in different sociocultural settings.
of the results. Future research is recommended to address this limita- 4. The extent to which I collaborate effectively across cultures.
tion by collecting data from diverse sources. Third, in our study English 5. I can successfully participate in project-oriented activities with
learning motivation was a uni-dimensional scale (Yashima et al., 2004). people from other cultures.
Though this single-factor scale is widely used, the self-determination
theory documents that motivation can be divided into intrinsic and Global knowledge subscale
extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Thus, if our work can develop
a bi-dimensional scale of learning motivation and simultaneously ex- 1. The extent to which I understand Chinese cultural norms and ex-
amine its intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions, a better understanding of pectations.
the relationships of motivation to English achievement and global 2. The extent to which I understand norms and expectations of cultural
competence may be gained. Finally, some important constructs for others.
academic performance (e.g., self-regulated learning and academic self- 3. The extent to which I have a knowledge of current world events.
efficacy) are ignored in our study. Future research is encouraged to 4. The extent to which I have a knowledge of world history.
examine their potential interplay with personality traits in predicting 5. The extent to which I understand the concept of globalization.
FL achievement.
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