Op-Amp Circuits: Part 1

M. B. Patil
[email protected]
www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel

Department of Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amps: introduction

* The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a versatile building block that can be

used for realizing several electronic circuits.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amps: introduction

* The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a versatile building block that can be

used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The characteristics of an op-amp are nearly ideal → op-amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amps: introduction

* The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a versatile building block that can be

used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The characteristics of an op-amp are nearly ideal → op-amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.
* Amplifiers built with op-amps work with DC input voltages as well → useful in
sensor applications (e.g., temperature, pressure)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amps: introduction

* The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a versatile building block that can be

used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The characteristics of an op-amp are nearly ideal → op-amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.
* Amplifiers built with op-amps work with DC input voltages as well → useful in
sensor applications (e.g., temperature, pressure)
* The user can generally carry out circuit design without a thorough knowledge
of the intricate details of an op-amp. This makes the design process simple.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-Amp 741

VCC
Q8 Q13 Q14
Q12 Q9
Q15
R6
Symbol
Q1 Q2 OUT
Q19 R7 VCC
R5 Q21
CC Q18
R10 OUT
Q3 Q4
−VEE
Q20
Q23
Q7
Q16

Q5 Q6 Q17
Q10
R9 Q22
Q11 R8
R4 R3
R1 R2 Q24
−VEE

offset adjust

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

* The external resistances (∼ a few kΩ) are generally much larger than Ro and much smaller than Ri → we
can assume Ri → ∞, Ro → 0 without significantly affecting the analysis.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

* The external resistances (∼ a few kΩ) are generally much larger than Ro and much smaller than Ri → we
can assume Ri → ∞, Ro → 0 without significantly affecting the analysis.
* VCC and −VEE (∼ ±5 V to ±15 V ) must be supplied; an op-amp will not work without them!

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

* The external resistances (∼ a few kΩ) are generally much larger than Ro and much smaller than Ri → we
can assume Ri → ∞, Ro → 0 without significantly affecting the analysis.
* VCC and −VEE (∼ ±5 V to ±15 V ) must be supplied; an op-amp will not work without them!
In op-amp circuits, the supply voltages are often not shown explicitly.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

* The external resistances (∼ a few kΩ) are generally much larger than Ro and much smaller than Ri → we
can assume Ri → ∞, Ro → 0 without significantly affecting the analysis.
* VCC and −VEE (∼ ±5 V to ±15 V ) must be supplied; an op-amp will not work without them!
In op-amp circuits, the supply voltages are often not shown explicitly.

Parameter Ideal Op-Amp 741

* AV ∞ 105 (100 dB)

Ri ∞ 2 MΩ
Ro 0 75 Ω

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-Amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

saturation linear saturation

10 Vsat 10

saturation
5 5
Vo (V)

Vo (V)
0 0
linear

−5 −5 saturation
slope = AV
−10 −Vsat −10

−0.2 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 −5 0 5

Vi (mV) Vi (V)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-Amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

saturation linear saturation

10 Vsat 10

saturation
5 5
Vo (V)

Vo (V)
0 0
linear

−5 −5 saturation
slope = AV
−10 −Vsat −10

−0.2 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 −5 0 5

Vi (mV) Vi (V)
* The output voltage Vo is limited to ±Vsat , where Vsat ∼ 1.5 V less than VCC .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-Amp: equivalent circuit

OUT OUT
VCC Ro

Vi Vo Vi Vo
OUT Ri AV Vi AV Vi
−VEE

saturation linear saturation

10 Vsat 10

saturation
5 5
Vo (V)

Vo (V)
0 0
linear

−5 −5 saturation
slope = AV
−10 −Vsat −10

−0.2 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 −5 0 5

Vi (mV) Vi (V)
* The output voltage Vo is limited to ±Vsat , where Vsat ∼ 1.5 V less than VCC .
* For −Vsat < Vo < Vsat , Vi = V+ − V− = Vo /AV , which is very small
→ V+ and V− are virtually the same.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

* Broadly, op-amp circuits can be divided into two categories:

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

* Broadly, op-amp circuits can be divided into two categories:

- op-amp operating in the linear region

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

* Broadly, op-amp circuits can be divided into two categories:

- op-amp operating in the linear region
- op-amp operating in the saturation region

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

* Broadly, op-amp circuits can be divided into two categories:

- op-amp operating in the linear region
- op-amp operating in the saturation region
* Whether an op-amp in a given circuit will operate in linear or saturation region depends on

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

* Broadly, op-amp circuits can be divided into two categories:

- op-amp operating in the linear region
- op-amp operating in the saturation region
* Whether an op-amp in a given circuit will operate in linear or saturation region depends on
- input voltage magnitude

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits

10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

* Broadly, op-amp circuits can be divided into two categories:

- op-amp operating in the linear region
- op-amp operating in the saturation region
* Whether an op-amp in a given circuit will operate in linear or saturation region depends on
- input voltage magnitude
- type of feedback (negative or positive)
(We will take a qualitative look at feedback later.)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

iin 10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

iin 10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)
In the linear region,
* Vo = AV (V+ − V− ), i.e., V+ − V− = Vo /AV , which is very small
→ V+ ≈ V−

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

iin 10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)
In the linear region,
* Vo = AV (V+ − V− ), i.e., V+ − V− = Vo /AV , which is very small
→ V+ ≈ V−
* Since Ri is typically much larger than other resistances in the circuit,
we can assume Ri → ∞ .
→ iin ≈ 0

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

iin 10 Vsat
OUT
VCC saturation
Ro 5

Vo (V)
Vi Vo 0
OUT Ri AV Vi linear

−VEE −5 saturation

−10 −Vsat
−5 0 5
Vi (V)
In the linear region,
* Vo = AV (V+ − V− ), i.e., V+ − V− = Vo /AV , which is very small
→ V+ ≈ V−
* Since Ri is typically much larger than other resistances in the circuit,
we can assume Ri → ∞ .
→ iin ≈ 0

These two “golden rules” enable us to understand several op-amp circuits.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
   
Vi R2
→ Vo = V− − i1 R2 = 0 − R2 = − Vi .
R1 R1
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
   
Vi R2
→ Vo = V− − i1 R2 = 0 − R2 = − Vi .
R1 R1
The circuit is called an “inverting amplifier.”
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2
Vi
R1 ii Vo

RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
   
Vi R2
→ Vo = V− − i1 R2 = 0 − R2 = − Vi .
R1 R1
The circuit is called an “inverting amplifier.”
Where does the current go?
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2 i1 R2
Vi Vi −1 V
R1 ii Vo 0.1 V R1 Vo

RL RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
   
Vi R2
→ Vo = V− − i1 R2 = 0 − R2 = − Vi .
R1 R1
The circuit is called an “inverting amplifier.”
Where does the current go?
Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i1 R2 i1 R2
Vi Vi −1 V
R1 ii Vo 0.1 V R1 Vo

RL RL

Since V+ ≈ V− , V− ≈ 0 V → i1 = (Vi − 0)/R1 = Vi /R1 .

(The non-inverting input is at real ground here, and the inverting input is at virtual ground.)
Since ii (current entering the op-amp) is zero, i1 goes through R2 .
   
Vi R2
→ Vo = V− − i1 R2 = 0 − R2 = − Vi .
R1 R1
The circuit is called an “inverting amplifier.”
Where does the current go?
(Op-amp 741 can source or sink about 25 mA.)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

Vm = 0.5 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

Vm = 0.5 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

* The gain of the inverting amplifier is −R2 /R1 . It is called the “closed-loop gain” (to distinguish it from
the “open-loop gain” of the op-amp which is ∼ 105 ).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

Vm = 0.5 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

* The gain of the inverting amplifier is −R2 /R1 . It is called the “closed-loop gain” (to distinguish it from
the “open-loop gain” of the op-amp which is ∼ 105 ).
* The gain can be adjusted simply by changing R1 or R2 !

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

Vm = 0.5 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

* The gain of the inverting amplifier is −R2 /R1 . It is called the “closed-loop gain” (to distinguish it from
the “open-loop gain” of the op-amp which is ∼ 105 ).
* The gain can be adjusted simply by changing R1 or R2 !
* For the common-emitter amplifier, on the other hand, the gain −gm (RC k RL ) depends on how the BJT is
biased (since gm depends on IC ).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

Vm = 0.5 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

* The gain of the inverting amplifier is −R2 /R1 . It is called the “closed-loop gain” (to distinguish it from
the “open-loop gain” of the op-amp which is ∼ 105 ).
* The gain can be adjusted simply by changing R1 or R2 !
* For the common-emitter amplifier, on the other hand, the gain −gm (RC k RL ) depends on how the BJT is
biased (since gm depends on IC ).

(SEQUEL file: ee101 inv amp 1.sqproj)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

15
Vm = 2 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k

R1 Vo 0
Vi
RL

−15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

15
Vm = 2 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k

R1 Vo 0
Vi
RL

−15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

* The output voltage is limited to ±Vsat .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

15
Vm = 2 V
10 k
f = 1 kHz Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
R2
Vi 1k

R1 Vo 0
Vi
RL

−15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t (msec)

* The output voltage is limited to ±Vsat .

* Vsat is ∼ 1.5 V less than the supply voltage VCC .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

10
Vm = 1 V Vo (expected)
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2 Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−10
0 20 40 60 80
t (µsec)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

10
Vm = 1 V Vo (expected)
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2 Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−10
0 20 40 60 80
t (µsec)

* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical op-amp cannot keep up with the input due to its “slew rate”
limitation.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

10
Vm = 1 V Vo (expected)
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2 Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−10
0 20 40 60 80
t (µsec)

* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical op-amp cannot keep up with the input due to its “slew rate”
limitation.
* The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate at which the op-amp output can rise (or fall).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

10
Vm = 1 V Vo (expected)
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2 Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−10
0 20 40 60 80
t (µsec)

* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical op-amp cannot keep up with the input due to its “slew rate”
limitation.
* The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate at which the op-amp output can rise (or fall).
* For the 741, the slew rate is 0.5 V /µsec.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

10
Vm = 1 V Vo (expected)
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2 Vo

Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vi 1k
0
R1 Vo
Vi
RL

−10
0 20 40 60 80
t (µsec)

* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical op-amp cannot keep up with the input due to its “slew rate”
limitation.
* The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate at which the op-amp output can rise (or fall).
* For the 741, the slew rate is 0.5 V /µsec.

(SEQUEL file: ee101 inv amp 2.sqproj)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

R2 R2

Vi R1 Vo Vi R1 Vo

RL RL

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

What if the + (non-inverting) and − (inverting) inputs of the op-amp are interchanged?

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

R2 R2

Vi R1 Vo Vi R1 Vo

RL RL

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

What if the + (non-inverting) and − (inverting) inputs of the op-amp are interchanged?
R2
Our previous analysis would once again give us Vo = − Vi .
R1

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

R2 R2

Vi R1 Vo Vi R1 Vo

RL RL

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

What if the + (non-inverting) and − (inverting) inputs of the op-amp are interchanged?
R2
Our previous analysis would once again give us Vo = − Vi .
R1
However, from Circuit 1 to Circuit 2, the nature of the feedback changes from negative to positive.
→ Our assumption that the op-amp is working in the linear region does not hold for Circuit 2, and
R2
Vo = − Vi does not apply any more.
R1

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits: inverting amplifier

R2 R2

Vi R1 Vo Vi R1 Vo

RL RL

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

What if the + (non-inverting) and − (inverting) inputs of the op-amp are interchanged?
R2
Our previous analysis would once again give us Vo = − Vi .
R1
However, from Circuit 1 to Circuit 2, the nature of the feedback changes from negative to positive.
→ Our assumption that the op-amp is working in the linear region does not hold for Circuit 2, and
R2
Vo = − Vi does not apply any more.
R1
(Circuit 2 is also useful, and we will discuss it later.)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i2

R2
i1

R1 ii Vo
Vi
RL

* V+ ≈ V− = Vi

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i2

R2
i1

R1 ii Vo
Vi
RL

* V+ ≈ V− = Vi
→ i1 = (0 − Vi )/R1 = −Vi /R1 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i2

R2
i1

R1 ii Vo
Vi
RL

* V+ ≈ V− = Vi
→ i1 = (0 − Vi )/R1 = −Vi /R1 .
   
Vi R2
* Since ii = 0, i2 = i1 → Vo = V− − i2 R2 = V+ − i1 R2 = Vi − − R2 = Vi 1+ .
R1 R1

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i2

R2
i1

R1 ii Vo
Vi
RL

* V+ ≈ V− = Vi
→ i1 = (0 − Vi )/R1 = −Vi /R1 .
   
Vi R2
* Since ii = 0, i2 = i1 → Vo = V− − i2 R2 = V+ − i1 R2 = Vi − − R2 = Vi 1+ .
R1 R1
* This circuit is known as the “non-inverting amplifier.”

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

i2

R2
i1

R1 ii Vo
Vi
RL

* V+ ≈ V− = Vi
→ i1 = (0 − Vi )/R1 = −Vi /R1 .
   
Vi R2
* Since ii = 0, i2 = i1 → Vo = V− − i2 R2 = V+ − i1 R2 = Vi − − R2 = Vi 1+ .
R1 R1
* This circuit is known as the “non-inverting amplifier.”
* Again, interchanging + and − changes the nature of the feedback from negative to positive, and the
circuit operation becomes completely different.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Inverting or non-inverting?

R2

Vs R1
R2
Vo = − Vs
R1
RL

Inverting amplifier

R2

R1 !
R2
Vs Vo = 1 + Vs
R1
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be preferred?
Inverting or non-inverting?

i1 R2
R2 Vs
R1 Ro
Vs R1
R2 Vi Vo RL
Vo = − Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL

Inverting amplifier

R2

R1 !
R2
Vs Vo = 1 + Vs
R1
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be preferred?
Inverting or non-inverting?

i1 R2
R2 Vs
R1 Ro
Vs R1
R2 Vi Vo RL
Vo = − Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL

Inverting amplifier

R2

R1 !
R2
Vs Vo = 1 + Vs
R1
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be preferred?
* For the inverting amplifier, since V− ≈ 0 V , i1 = Vs /R1 → Rin = Vs /i1 = R1 .
Inverting or non-inverting?

i1 R2
R2 Vs
R1 Ro
Vs R1
R2 Vi Vo RL
Vo = − Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL

Inverting amplifier

R2
R2
R1 Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi Vo RL
Vs Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL
Vs
Non−inverting amplifier

* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be preferred?
* For the inverting amplifier, since V− ≈ 0 V , i1 = Vs /R1 → Rin = Vs /i1 = R1 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Inverting or non-inverting?

i1 R2
R2 Vs
R1 Ro
Vs R1
R2 Vi Vo RL
Vo = − Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL

Inverting amplifier

R2
R2
R1 Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi Vo RL
Vs Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL
Vs
Non−inverting amplifier

* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be preferred?
* For the inverting amplifier, since V− ≈ 0 V , i1 = Vs /R1 → Rin = Vs /i1 = R1 .
R1
* For the non-inverting amplifier, Rin ∼ Ri AV . Huge!
R1 + R2
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers: summary

R2 R2

!
Vs R1 R2 R1 R2
Vo = − Vs Vo = 1 + Vs
R1 R1
Vs
RL RL

Inverting amplifier Non−inverting amplifier

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier

R2

R1
Vo
Vi
Non-inverting amplifier

R2 Vi
Vo
R1
Vo
Vi
R1 R2
Non-inverting amplifier

R2 Vi
Vo
R1
Vo
Vi
R1 R2

Vi
Vo

R2
R1
Non-inverting amplifier

R2 Vi
Vo
R1
Vo
Vi
R1 R2

Vi Vi
Vo Vo

R2

R2
R1 R1

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier

R2

R1 Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL

Consider R1 → ∞ , R2 → 0 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier

R2

R1 Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL

Consider R1 → ∞ , R2 → 0 .
Vo R2
→1+ → 1 , i.e., Vo = Vi .
Vi R1

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier

R2

R1 Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL

Consider R1 → ∞ , R2 → 0 .
Vo R2
→1+ → 1 , i.e., Vo = Vi .
Vi R1
This circuit is known as unity-gain amplifier/voltage follower/buffer.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier

R2

R1 Vo Vo
Vi Vi
RL RL

Consider R1 → ∞ , R2 → 0 .
Vo R2
→1+ → 1 , i.e., Vo = Vi .
Vi R1
This circuit is known as unity-gain amplifier/voltage follower/buffer.
What has been achieved?

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Loading effects

Rs Ro

Vs Vi Vo RL
Ri AV Vi

Consider an amplifier of gain AV . We would like to have Vo = AV Vs .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Loading effects

Rs Ro

Vs Vi Vo RL
Ri AV Vi

Consider an amplifier of gain AV . We would like to have Vo = AV Vs .

However, the actual output voltage is,
RL RL Ri
Vo = AV Vi = AV Vs .
Ro + RL Ro + RL Ri + Rs

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Loading effects

Rs Ro

Vs Vi Vo RL
Ri AV Vi

Consider an amplifier of gain AV . We would like to have Vo = AV Vs .

However, the actual output voltage is,
RL RL Ri
Vo = AV Vi = AV Vs .
Ro + RL Ro + RL Ri + Rs
To obtain the desired Vo , we need Ri → ∞ and Ro → 0 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Loading effects

Rs Ro

Vs Vi Vo RL
Ri AV Vi

Consider an amplifier of gain AV . We would like to have Vo = AV Vs .

However, the actual output voltage is,
RL RL Ri
Vo = AV Vi = AV Vs .
Ro + RL Ro + RL Ri + Rs
To obtain the desired Vo , we need Ri → ∞ and Ro → 0 .
The buffer (voltage follower) provides these features.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

VB VB − AV Vi VB − VA
KCL at B: + + = 0.
RL Ro R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

VB VB − AV Vi VB − VA
KCL at B: + + = 0.
RL Ro R2
VA VA − VB
Source current: IS = + .
R1 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

VB VB − AV Vi VB − VA
KCL at B: + + = 0.
RL Ro R2
VA VA − VB
Source current: IS = + .
R1 R2
Using Vi = IS Ri , VA = VS − Vi , and after some algebra, we get
1 1
     
Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro AV
1+ + + Ri + 1+ + − 2 +
VS RL R2 R1 R2 RL R2 R2 R2
Rin = = .
IS 1 1
  
Ro Ro Ro
+ 1+ + − 2
R1 R2 RL R2 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

VB VB − AV Vi VB − VA
KCL at B: + + = 0.
RL Ro R2
VA VA − VB
Source current: IS = + .
R1 R2
Using Vi = IS Ri , VA = VS − Vi , and after some algebra, we get
1 1
     
Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro AV
1+ + + Ri + 1+ + − 2 +
VS RL R2 R1 R2 RL R2 R2 R2
Rin =
IS
= 
1 1

Ro Ro

Ro
. STOP
+ 1+ + − 2
R1 R2 RL R2 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier: input resistance (continued)

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

1 1
     
Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro AV
1+ + + Ri + 1+ + − 2 +
VS RL R2 R1 R2 RL R2 R2 R2
Rin = = .
IS 1 1
  
Ro Ro Ro
+ 1+ + − 2
R1 R2 RL R2 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Non-inverting amplifier: input resistance (continued)

R2
R2 B
R1 A Ro
R1 !
R2 Vi RL
VS Vo = 1 + Vs Ri AV Vi
R1
RL IS

Non−inverting amplifier VS

1 1
     
Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro AV
1+ + + Ri + 1+ + − 2 +
VS RL R2 R1 R2 RL R2 R2 R2
Rin = = .
IS 1 1
  
Ro Ro Ro
+ 1+ + − 2
R1 R2 RL R2 R2
Since Ro is much smaller than R1 , R2 , RL , or Ri ,
1 1 R1 + R2
    
AV AV
1 + Ri + + Ri +
R1 R2 R2 R1 R2 R2 R1
Rin ≈ ≈ ≈ A V Ri .
1 1 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
 
+
R1 R2 R1 R2
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Op-amp buffer: input resistance

Ro

Vo = Vs Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL IS

Buffer VS

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

Ro

Vo = Vs Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL IS

Buffer VS

Let Ro → 0.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

Ro

Vo = Vs Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL IS

Buffer VS

Let Ro → 0.
VS = Vi + AV Vi = Vi (1 + AV ).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

Ro

Vo = Vs Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL IS

Buffer VS

Let Ro → 0.
VS = Vi + AV Vi = Vi (1 + AV ).
Vi
IS = .
Ri

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: input resistance

Ro

Vo = Vs Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL IS

Buffer VS

Let Ro → 0.
VS = Vi + AV Vi = Vi (1 + AV ).
Vi
IS = .
Ri
VS
→ Rin = = Ri (AV + 1)
IS

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance

R2
R2
R1 Ro
R1 Vo Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL
Vs
Rout
Non−inverting amplifier

To find Rout ,
* Deactivate the input source.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance

R2
R2
R1 Ro
R1 Vo Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL
Vs
Rout
Non−inverting amplifier

To find Rout ,
* Deactivate the input source.
* Replace RL with a test source V 0 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance

R2
R2
R1 Ro
R1 Vo Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL
Vs
Rout
Non−inverting amplifier

To find Rout ,
* Deactivate the input source.
* Replace RL with a test source V 0 .
* Find the current (I 0 ) through V 0 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance

R2
R2
R1 Ro
R1 Vo Vi RL
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL
Vs
Rout
Non−inverting amplifier

To find Rout ,
* Deactivate the input source.
* Replace RL with a test source V 0 .
* Find the current (I 0 ) through V 0 .
V0
* Rout = .
I0

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance (continued)

I2

R2
I′
R2 AV Vi ′
R1 −Vi Ro I 1 V
R1 Vo Vi V′
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance (continued)

I2

R2
I′
R2 AV Vi ′
R1 −Vi Ro I 1 V
R1 Vo Vi V′
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

(Ri k R1 )
Vi = − V 0 ≡ −kV 0 .
R2 + (Ri k R1 )

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance (continued)

I2

R2
I′
R2 AV Vi ′
R1 −Vi Ro I 1 V
R1 Vo Vi V′
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

(Ri k R1 )
Vi = − V 0 ≡ −kV 0 .
R2 + (Ri k R1 )
V 0 − AV Vi V 0 − (−Vi ) 1 1
I 0 = I1 + I 2 = V 0 + kAV V 0 + V 0 − kV 0 .



+ =
Ro R2 Ro R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance (continued)

I2

R2
I′
R2 AV Vi ′
R1 −Vi Ro I 1 V
R1 Vo Vi V′
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

(Ri k R1 )
Vi = − V 0 ≡ −kV 0 .
R2 + (Ri k R1 )
V 0 − AV Vi V 0 − (−Vi ) 1 1
I 0 = I1 + I 2 = V 0 + kAV V 0 + V 0 − kV 0 .



+ =
Ro R2 Ro R2
I0 1 1 V0 Ro R2 Ro
0
= (1 + kAV ) + (1 − k) → Rout = 0 = k ≈
V Ro R2 I (1 + kAV ) (1 − k) (1 + kAV )

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer: output resistance (continued)

I2

R2
I′
R2 AV Vi ′
R1 −Vi Ro I 1 V
R1 Vo Vi V′
Vs Ri AV Vi
RL

Non−inverting amplifier

(Ri k R1 )
Vi = − V 0 ≡ −kV 0 .
R2 + (Ri k R1 )
V 0 − AV Vi V 0 − (−Vi ) 1 1
I 0 = I1 + I 2 = V 0 + kAV V 0 + V 0 − kV 0 .



+ =
Ro R2 Ro R2
I0 1 1 V0 Ro R2 Ro
0
= (1 + kAV ) + (1 − k) → Rout = 0 = k ≈
V Ro R2 I (1 + kAV ) (1 − k) (1 + kAV )
Special case: Op-amp buffer
(Ri k R1 ) Ro
k= →1 ⇒ Rout ≈
R2 + (Ri k R1 ) 1 + AV
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Op-amp buffer

Vs RL
Vs Vs
RL

Rin Rout

In summary, the buffer (voltage follower) provides

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vs RL
Vs Vs
RL

Rin Rout

In summary, the buffer (voltage follower) provides

* a large input resistance Rin as seen from the source.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vs RL
Vs Vs
RL

Rin Rout

In summary, the buffer (voltage follower) provides

* a large input resistance Rin as seen from the source.
* a small output resistance Rout as seen from the load.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vs RL
Vs Vs
RL

Rin Rout

In summary, the buffer (voltage follower) provides

* a large input resistance Rin as seen from the source.
* a small output resistance Rout as seen from the load.
* a gain of 1, i.e., the output voltage simply follows the input voltage.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Loading effects (revisited)

Rs Ro

Vs Vi Vo RL
Ri AV Vi

Problem: We would like to have Vo = AV Vs .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Loading effects (revisited)

Rs Ro

Vs Vi Vo RL
Ri AV Vi

Problem: We would like to have Vo = AV Vs .

But the actual output voltage is,
RL RL Ri
Vo = AV Vi = AV Vs .
Ro + RL Ro + RL Ri + Rs

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vo
source Vo1 Vo2
Rs buffer 2
Ro i2 RL
buffer 1
i1 load
Vi
Vs Ri AV Vi

amplifier

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vo
source Vo1 Vo2
Rs buffer 2
Ro i2 RL
buffer 1
i1 load
Vi
Vs Ri AV Vi

amplifier

Since the buffer has a large input resistance, i1 ≈ 0 A,

and V+ (on the source side) = Vs → Vo1 = Vs .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vo
source Vo1 Vo2
Rs buffer 2
Ro i2 RL
buffer 1
i1 load
Vi
Vs Ri AV Vi

amplifier

Since the buffer has a large input resistance, i1 ≈ 0 A,

and V+ (on the source side) = Vs → Vo1 = Vs .
Similarly, i2 ≈ 0 A, and Vo2 = AV Vi = AV Vs .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vo
source Vo1 Vo2
Rs buffer 2
Ro i2 RL
buffer 1
i1 load
Vi
Vs Ri AV Vi

amplifier

Since the buffer has a large input resistance, i1 ≈ 0 A,

and V+ (on the source side) = Vs → Vo1 = Vs .
Similarly, i2 ≈ 0 A, and Vo2 = AV Vi = AV Vs .
Finally, Vo = Vo2 = AV Vs , as desired, irrespective of RS and RL .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp buffer

Vo
source Vo1 Vo2
Rs buffer 2
Ro i2 RL
buffer 1
i1 load
Vi
Vs Ri AV Vi

amplifier

Since the buffer has a large input resistance, i1 ≈ 0 A,

and V+ (on the source side) = Vs → Vo1 = Vs .
Similarly, i2 ≈ 0 A, and Vo2 = AV Vi = AV Vs .
Finally, Vo = Vo2 = AV Vs , as desired, irrespective of RS and RL .
Note that the load current is supplied by the second buffer which acts as a voltage source (= AV Vs ) with zero
source resistance.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

Vi3
i3 R3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo

RL

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

Vi3
i3 R3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo

RL

V− ≈ V+ = 0 V → i1 = Vi1 /R1 , i2 = Vi2 /R2 , i3 = Vi3 /R3 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

Vi3
i3 R3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo

RL

V− ≈ V+ = 0 V → i1 = Vi1 /R1 , i2 = Vi2 /R2 , i3 = Vi3 /R3 .

 
Vi1 Vi2 Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = + + .
R1 R2 R3

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

Vi3
i3 R3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo

RL

V− ≈ V+ = 0 V → i1 = Vi1 /R1 , i2 = Vi2 /R2 , i3 = Vi3 /R3 .

 
Vi1 Vi2 Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = + + .
R1 R2 R3
Because of the large input resistance of the op-amp, ii ≈ 0 → if = i, which gives

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

Vi3
i3 R3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo

RL

V− ≈ V+ = 0 V → i1 = Vi1 /R1 , i2 = Vi2 /R2 , i3 = Vi3 /R3 .

 
Vi1 Vi2 Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = + + .
R1 R2 R3
Because of the large input resistance of the op-amp, ii ≈ 0 → if = i, which gives
   
Vi1 Vi2 Vi3 Rf Rf Rf
V o = V − − if Rf = 0 − + + Rf = − Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 ,
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
i.e., Vo is a weighted sum of Vi1 , Vi2 , Vi3 .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Op-amp circuits (linear region)

Vi3
i3 R3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo

RL

V− ≈ V+ = 0 V → i1 = Vi1 /R1 , i2 = Vi2 /R2 , i3 = Vi3 /R3 .

 
Vi1 Vi2 Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = + + .
R1 R2 R3
Because of the large input resistance of the op-amp, ii ≈ 0 → if = i, which gives
   
Vi1 Vi2 Vi3 Rf Rf Rf
V o = V − − if Rf = 0 − + + Rf = − Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 ,
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
i.e., Vo is a weighted sum of Vi1 , Vi2 , Vi3 .
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R , the circuit acts as a summer, giving
Vo = −K (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 ) with K = Rf /R .

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Summer example
1.2

Vi1
Vi3 0.6
i3 R3 Vi3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf 0
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo Vi2
−0.6
RL
Vo
−1

R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 kΩ
−2
Rf = 2 kΩ
→ Vo = −2 (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 )
−3
SEQUEL file: ee101 summer.sqproj
0 1 2 3 4
t (msec)

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Summer example
1.2

Vi1
Vi3 0.6
i3 R3 Vi3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf 0
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo Vi2
−0.6
RL
Vo
−1

R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 kΩ
−2
Rf = 2 kΩ
→ Vo = −2 (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 )
−3
SEQUEL file: ee101 summer.sqproj
0 1 2 3 4
t (msec)

* Note that the summer also works with DC inputs (so do inverting and non-inverting amplifiers).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Summer example
1.2

Vi1
Vi3 0.6
i3 R3 Vi3
Vi2
i2 R2 if Rf 0
Vi1
i1 R1 i ii Vo Vi2
−0.6
RL
Vo
−1

R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 kΩ
−2
Rf = 2 kΩ
→ Vo = −2 (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 )
−3
SEQUEL file: ee101 summer.sqproj
0 1 2 3 4
t (msec)

* Note that the summer also works with DC inputs (so do inverting and non-inverting amplifiers).
* Op-amps make life simpler! Think of adding voltages in any other way.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Choice of resistance values

* If resistances are too small, they draw larger currents → increased power
dissipation

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Choice of resistance values

* If resistances are too small, they draw larger currents → increased power
dissipation
* If resistances are too large,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Choice of resistance values

* If resistances are too small, they draw larger currents → increased power
dissipation
* If resistances are too large,
- The effect of offset voltage and input bias currents becomes more
pronounced (to be discussed).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Choice of resistance values

* If resistances are too small, they draw larger currents → increased power
dissipation
* If resistances are too large,
- The effect of offset voltage and input bias currents becomes more
pronounced (to be discussed).
- Combined with parasitic (wiring) capacitances, large resistances can
affect the frequency response and stability of the circuit.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Choice of resistance values

* If resistances are too small, they draw larger currents → increased power
dissipation
* If resistances are too large,
- The effect of offset voltage and input bias currents becomes more
pronounced (to be discussed).
- Combined with parasitic (wiring) capacitances, large resistances can
affect the frequency response and stability of the circuit.
- Thermal noise increases as R increases, and it may not be desirable in
some applications.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Choice of resistance values

* If resistances are too small, they draw larger currents → increased power
dissipation
* If resistances are too large,
- The effect of offset voltage and input bias currents becomes more
pronounced (to be discussed).
- Combined with parasitic (wiring) capacitances, large resistances can
affect the frequency response and stability of the circuit.
- Thermal noise increases as R increases, and it may not be desirable in
some applications.
* Typical resistance values: 0.1 k to 100 k.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.
Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2

R′1
Vi
Vo

Rin
Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2
Rin = R10 = 10 k.
R′1
Vi
Vo

Rin
Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2
Rin = R10 = 10 k.
R′1 R20
Vi AV = − = −100 → R20 = 100 × 10 k = 1 MΩ
Vo R10

Rin
Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2
Rin = R10 = 10 k.
R′1 R20
Vi AV = − = −100 → R20 = 100 × 10 k = 1 MΩ
Vo R10
R20 may be unacceptable from practical considerations.
Rin
Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2
Rin = R10 = 10 k.
R′1 R20
Vi AV = − = −100 → R20 = 100 × 10 k = 1 MΩ
Vo R10
R20 may be unacceptable from practical considerations.
Rin
→ need a design with smaller resistances.
Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2
Rin = R10 = 10 k.
R′1 R20
Vi AV = − = −100 → R20 = 100 × 10 k = 1 MΩ
Vo R10
R20 may be unacceptable from practical considerations.
Rin
→ need a design with smaller resistances.

I1
0V V1

R′1
Vi
Vo

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Design an amplifier with Rin = 10 k and AV = −100.

R′2
Rin = R10 = 10 k.
R′1 R20
Vi AV = − = −100 → R20 = 100 × 10 k = 1 MΩ
Vo R10
R20 may be unacceptable from practical considerations.
Rin
→ need a design with smaller resistances.
V1
I1 If we ensure = R20 , we will satisfy the gain condition.
I1
0V V1

R′1
Vi
Vo

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

I1 R1 I2 R3
V1

R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

I1 R1 I2 R3
V1 V1
I2 =
R3 + (R1 k R2 )
R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

I1 R1 I2 R3
V1 V1
I2 =
R3 + (R1 k R2 )
R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2
I1 = I2 = × V1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R3 (R1 + R2 ) + R1 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

I1 R1 I2 R3
V1 V1
I2 =
R3 + (R1 k R2 )
R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2
I1 = I2 = × V1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R3 (R1 + R2 ) + R1 R2

V1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff ≡ =
I1 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

I1 R1 I2 R3
V1 V1
I2 =
R3 + (R1 k R2 )
R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2
I1 = I2 = × V1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R3 (R1 + R2 ) + R1 R2

V1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff ≡ =
I1 R2

→ Choose R1 , R2 , R3 such that Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

I1 R1 I2 R3
V1 V1
I2 =
R3 + (R1 k R2 )
R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2
I1 = I2 = × V1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R3 (R1 + R2 ) + R1 R2

V1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff ≡ =
I1 R2

→ Choose R1 , R2 , R3 such that Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

Let R1 = R3 ≡ R

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

R 2 + 2 R R2
 
R
Let R1 = R3 ≡ R → Reff = =R +2
R2 R2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

R 2 + 2 R R2
 
R R
Let R1 = R3 ≡ R → Reff = =R +2 → R2 =
R2 R2 Reff
−2
R

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

R 2 + 2 R R2
 
R R
Let R1 = R3 ≡ R → Reff = =R +2 → R2 =
R2 R2 Reff
−2
R
10 k
For R = 10 k, R2 = ≈ 102 Ω.
100 − 2

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ.

R 2 + 2 R R2
 
R R
Let R1 = R3 ≡ R → Reff = =R +2 → R2 =
R2 R2 Reff
−2
R
10 k
For R = 10 k, R2 = ≈ 102 Ω.
100 − 2
Ref: Wait et al, Introduction to op-amp theory and applications, McGraw-Hill, 1992.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

 R1 R3
R′2
R2
R′1
Vi R′1
Vo Vi
Vo

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Reff =
R2
We want Reff = R20 = 1 MΩ. 10 k 10 k

R 2 + 2 R R2
 
R R
Let R1 = R3 ≡ R → Reff = =R +2 → R2 = 102 Ω
R2 R2 Reff
−2
R 10 k
Vi
10 k Vo
For R = 10 k, R2 = ≈ 102 Ω.
100 − 2
Ref: Wait et al, Introduction to op-amp theory and applications, McGraw-Hill, 1992.

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay