FLUID MECHANICS

CODE: MET05204

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS ....................................................... 2

2.0 PROPERTIES OF FLUID ...................................................................................... 2
3.0 HYDROSTATICS .................................................................................................. 4
3.1 Types of liquid state of rest ................................................................................. 4
3.2 Liquid at a state of rest ........................................................................................ 4
4.0 TOTAL THTRUST ON A VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE ................................ 5
4.1 CENTRE OF PRESSURE .................................................................................. 6
4.2 INCLINED SURFACE ..................................................................................... 12
4.3 CENTRE OF PRESSURE FOR INCLINED SURFACE ................................ 13
5.0 BUOYANCY ........................................................................................................ 18
6.0 HYDRODYNAMICS ........................................................................................... 19
6.1 Fluid flow conditions ........................................................................................ 19
6.2 ENERGY IN FLUID FLOW ............................................................................ 21
6.3 BERNOULLIN’S EQUATION (CONSERVATION OF ENERGY) .............. 24
6.4 EQUATION OF CONTINUTY ....................................................................... 25
6.5 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW IN PIPES ......................................................... 27
7.0 VENTURIMETER ............................................................................................... 29
8.0 ORIFICES ............................................................................................................. 36
8.1 Classification of orifices ................................................................................... 36
8.2 COEFFICIENTS ............................................................................................... 38
9.0 MOUTHPIECE ..................................................................................................... 44
9.1 Classification of Mouthpieces........................................................................... 44
9.2 Flow through an external Mouthpiece .............................................................. 44
9.3 Flow through a convergent-divergent Mouthpiece ........................................... 47
9.4 Discharge through an internal mouthpiece ....................................................... 49
10.0 POWER OF A JET .............................................................................................. 53
11.0 FLOW OF REAL FLUID ..................................................................................... 55
11.1 Flow at low velocity......................................................................................... 56
11.2 Pressure loss in viscous laminar flow ............................................................... 56
11.3 Turbulence of flow ............................................................................................ 57
11.4 Pressure loss in Turbulent flow......................................................................... 57
11.5 Pressure loss ...................................................................................................... 58
12.0 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM OF FLUID JET ................................................ 61
12.1 Impact of jet normal to a stationary flat vane ..................................................... 61
12.2 Impact of jet normal to a moving flat vane in the same direction .................... 61
12.3 Impact of Jet inclined to a stationary vane........................................................ 64
12.4 Impact of jet inclined to a moving vane............................................................ 65
12.5 The impact of Jet tangential to a curved stationary Vane ................................. 70
12.6 The impact of Jet tangential to a curved moving vane ..................................... 72
13.0 READING LIST ....................................................................................................... 82

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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

1.1 Fluid mechanics:

Fluid mechanics is that branch of science that deals with the behavior of fluids
when they are subjected to changes of pressure, frictional resistance, flow through
various types of restrictions, production of power etc.

1.2 Fluid:
A fluid is a physical body or substance which may flow. Fluid constituent’s
particles may continuously change their positions relative to one another. A fluid
is said to be flexible because it has the ability to change its shape under the
influence of external force acting on it.
A fluid may be in liquid or gaseous form.

1.3 Liquid fluid:

It is the one whose physical properties greatly depend on the influence of external
forces
-Liquid fluid usually has a free surface in a container.
- It can not be compressed

1.4 Gaseous fluid :

It is the one whose physical properties greatly depend on the influence of heat and
pressure.
- It completely fills the space in which it is contained.
- It can be compressed relatively easily

2.0 PROPERTIES OF FLUID

2.1 Density
The density of a fluid is the ratio of the mass of the fluid to the volume occupied
by the fluid

M
 = (kg / m 3 ) .................................................2.1
V
2.2 Specific volume (v)
This is the reciprocal of the density of the fluid

1 Volume 3
V   (m / kg ) 2.2
s Mass

2.3 Specific weight (w)

This is the ratio of the weight of a substance to its volume

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 Mg Vg
w   g , ( N / m 3 ) ..............................2.3
V V

2.4 Specific gravity (S)

This is expressed as the ratio of the weight of fluid to the weight of equal volume
of pure water

S= Weight of fluid ( no units) = Wf ...............2.4

Weight of equal volume of pure water Wv

2.5 Relative density (R.d)

This is expressed as the ratio of mass of fluid to the mass of equal volume of pure
water

R..d = Mass of fluid = Mf..................................2.5

Mass of equal volume of pure water Mv

2.6 Viscosity
Viscosity of the fluid is the property of fluid that offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer analogous to frictional
forces between layers.

There are two types of viscosity

Dynamic viscosity and Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity (  ) to density of the

fluid, 

i.e   ...........................................................2.6


2.7 Compressibility of the fluid

This is the measure of change of volume (or density) when a substance is
subjected to pressure. The reciprocal of coefficient of compressibility is known
as bulk modulus of elasticity and it is this bulk modulus of elasticity (k) that
characterizes the degree of compressibility of a substance.

2.8 Surface tension , 

Surface tension is the force per unit length. Surface tension is the same along the
surface and it acts in a normal direction to any imaginary line drawn along the
surface. It is said to be constant for a constant temperature.

F
Surface tension ,  = .....................................2.7
L

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3.0 HYDROSTATICS
Hydrostatics is that part of fluid mechanics which deals with liquids at a state of
rest.

3.1 Types of liquid state of rest

There are two types of liquid state of rest:-

- Absolute state of rest

- Relative state of rest

3.1.1 Absolute state of rest

A liquid is said to be at an absolute state of rest when there is no motion of liquid
particles relative to the earth

3.1.2 Relative state of rest

A liquid is said to be at a relative state of rest when liquid particles are not in
motion whenever there is a motion of the container in which the liquid occupies.

3.2 Liquid at a state of rest

(a) The pressure intensity at any depth is the same and will remain the same
everywhere

P1=P2=P3=P4

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 (b) The pressure will be the same in all directions

P1=P2=P3=P4

4.0 TOTAL THRUST ON A VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE

Consider a surface of area A immersed vertically in a fluid of specific weight, w

The pressure on one side of the surface is normal to the surface and gives rise to a
resultant thrust on that side. From the figure.4 above,

Pressure P on one side of strip D at depth X is

P = wx =  gx
Area of strip of breadth (b), thickness (dx),
A = b.dx
Force on strip,
F = pxbdx
F=  gx.bdx

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 Total force, F on area, A
F=   gxbdx
F= g   bxdx

But  bxdx is the total moment of area A about an axis through O in the water
surface written as A X
Where X is the depth of centroid G of the plane surface below the water line

Hence,

Force , F =  gAX ..................................................4.1

and

Pressure, P =  gX ................................................4.2

4.1 CENTRE OF PRESSURE

The centre of pressure is the point on which resultant pressure (or force)
acts.
To determine the centre of pressure, the principle of moments is applied.

Consider the following figure.4.1

Figure.4.1

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 The sum of the moments about the water surface 0-0 of the forces on all
thin strips such as DE must equal the moment, F. y of the resultant thrust
F about 0-0

Force on strip DE = Pressure x strip area

dF = P bdx
=  gXbdx

Moment of this force about 0-0 is

dF x X =  gX2bdx

This moment is equal to the moment F.y of the resultant force F about 0-0.
Hence,

F.y =  g  bx2dx

But  bx2dx is the total second moment, Io of area A about 0-0. Thus,

F. y =  gIo
gI o gI o
y = 
F gXA

y = Io = 2nd moment of area about 0-0

AX 1st moment of area about 0-0

Where X is the distance of the centroid G below 0-0

Let IG = 2nd moment of area A about axis through G parallel to water surface 0-0
i.e. IG= Ak2

Where, k is the corresponding radius of gyration. Using parallel axis theorem for
second moment of area

Io = IG + AX2

Hence,
y = Io = IG + AX2
AX AX , IG = Ak2

= Ak2 + AX2 = k2 + X2
AX X

y = k2 + x ........................................... 4.3
x

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 Thus,
y–x = k2
x

y - x is the distance of Centre of pressure C below centroid G. This expression

tends to zero as x becomes very large. i.e the centre of pressure C is always below
the centroid, G.

The second moment of area IG and their corresponding radius of gyration (k) for
rectangular, circular and triangular sections

IG = bd3 = Ak2 = bdk2

12

So, k2 = d2
12

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 d 4 d 2 k 2
IG =  AK 2 
64 4

So,
2 d2
k =
16

bd 3 bdk 2
IG =  Ak 2 
36 2

So,
d2
k2 =
18
Radius of gyration, k
If the whole mass of a body be supposed to be concentrated at a point distance k
from the axis such that Mk2 has the same value as the moment of inertia about the
axis ie. Mk2 =  Mk 2 , the length k is called the radius of gyration

Or

If the whole area A of a plane be supposed to be concentrated at a point distant

from the axis such that Ak2 has the same value as the second moment of area
about the axis i.e. Jp = Ak2, then the length k is called the radius of gyration
about the axis.

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 Example 1
A lock gate has sea - water to a depth of 3.6m on one side and 1.8m on the other.
Find (a) the resultant thrust per meter on the gate. (b) the resultant moment per
meter width tending to over turn the gate at its base. Specific weight of sea-water
is 10kN/m2

Solution

On the left hand side

Centroid depth, X= 1.8m

F1 (from left to right) =  gAX

= 10x (3.6 x 1) x 1.8
= 64.8.KN/m width

Centre of pressure
Y = X + k2, k2 = d2
X 12

3.6 2
y = 1.8 + 
12x18

y = 2.4m

Thus, the total thrust on the left hand side acts at 1.2 m from the base.

Thus, moment of total force about the base is

64.8 x 1.2 = 77.76 KN-m/m width

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 Similarly on the right hand side

X = 0.9m

F2 = 10 x 1.8 x 1 0.9
= 16.2 kN/m width

y =X + k2/X
1.8
= 0.9 +
12 x0.9

y = 1.2m
Thus, the total thrust on the left hand side acts at 0.6 m from the base
Moment of force F2 about base
= 16.2 x 0.6
= 9.72kN-m/m width

Thus, the resultant thrust (from left to right

FR = F1 – F2
= 64.8 – 16.2
= 48.6 kN/m

Net overturning moment

= 77.76 – 9.72
= 68.04 kN-m/m width (clockwise)

Class work 1
A fuel tank contains oil of specific gravity 0.7. In one vertical side is cut a
circular opening 1.8 m diameter closed by a trap door hinged at the lower end B
and held by a bolt at the upper edge A. If the fuel level is 1.8m above the top
edge of the opening. Calculate
(a) The total force on the door Ans. ( 47.2kN, 21.6kN, 25.6kN)
(b) The force F in the bolt
(c) the force on the hinge
Density of water is 1Mg/m3

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4.2 INCLINED SURFACE
Note that the total force and centre of pressure for an inclined surface is
determined in the similar way as for vertical surface except that now the variable
X is measured along the incline of the plane (i.e. XSin  )

Consider the above figure and element DE of the inclined plane, distance X from
the water line 0-0, X being measured along the incline. The pressure, p on the
element at vertical depth AB is given by

P =  gAB
=  gxsin 

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 Where  is the acute angle made by the plane with the water surface.

Force dF on the element is given by

dF = P x area of element

= wxSin  .bdx

= wbxSin  dx

Where b = element width

dx = element thickness

Total force F on surface =  dF

F = dF
=  wbxSin  dx

= wSin   bxdx

But  bxdx = total moment of area about 0-0 = A x

where x = distance OG of centroid G from 0-0 and A is the area of wetted

surface

Thus,
F = wAh , where w =  g

F =  gAh ........................................................4.4

The total force on the inclined surface is determined by the vertical depth, h of the
centroid. The force is however normal to the surface at C, the centre of pressure.

4.3 CENTRE OF PRESSURE FOR INCLINED SURFACE

Referring to the same above figure

Force, dF= wbxsin dx

Moment of force dF about 0,

= dF x X
= wbx2sin dx

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 Total moment about 0

 wbx Sindx
2
=

= wSin  bx 2 dx

= wsin  Io, Since  bx2dx =Io

Since, Io =  bx2dx = 2nd moment of area about 0-0

The total moment exerted by the elementary forces is equal to the moment (F.y)
of the resultant force F about O

Thus,
wIosin  = F.y
Where y is the distance OC of centre of pressure C from O measured along the
inclined surface

But F = wAxsin 

Hence,
wIosin  = wAxsin  x Y

y = Io
Ax

From the theorem of parallel axis

Io = IG + A x 2

= A(k2 + x 2)

Where IG = 2nd moment of area about centroid, G and, k the radius of gyration

y = A(k2 + x 2 )
Ax

y = k2 + x .................................................4.5
x

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 Example 2

In figure above QR represents a trap door, 3m wide and 2.4m deep, in the side of
water land. It is pivoted at Q and held against water pressure by eight bolts at R.
Calculate the force in each bolt. The water level is 1.8m vertically above R.
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Solution
Vertical depth of centroid G of wetted surface is
h = OR = 0.9m

Wetted depth = 1.8/sin 60o

Door width = 3m
Wetted surface area = 1.8 x 3 = 6.23m2
Sin 60

Total force, F on surface, OR

F =  gAh
= 1000 x 9.8 x 6.23 x. 0.9
= 55,200N

Distance x of centroid G

x = 0.9 = 1.04m
Sin60o

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 For wetted area,
d2 1 1.8 2
2
k =  ( o
)  0.36m 2
12 12 Sin60

Distance, GC of centre of pressure from centroid, G is

k2 = 0.36 = 0.347m
x 1.04

QC = QO + OG + GC

= ( 2.4 – 1.8 ) + 1.04 + 0.347 = 1.71m

Sin60o

If F is the force in each bolt then taking moments about hinge Q

8F x 2.4 = 55200 x QC
= 55200 x 1.71

F = 4,920N

Class work.2
A circular plate of 1m diameter is immersed in water such that its plane makes an
angle 300 to the horizontal and its edge is 1.5m below the free water surface.
Determine the total force and pressure acting on the plate and its centre of
pressure
(13.477kN, 17.167kN/m2, 1.759m from top)

H/w
1. A lock gate is of rectangular section 7.2 wide. Theta allowable resultant
thrust is 1.5 MN. Calculate the least value of h if this thrust is not to be
exceeded
(6.52m)

2. A lock gate 18m wide has sea water of specific gravity 10KN/m3 to a depth of 6m
on one side and 3m on the other. Find
(a) the resultant thrust on the gate
(b) the resultant moment tending to overturn the gate about its lower edge
(2.43 MN, 5.67 MN-m)

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 3. A triangular plate whose base is 1m and the height 2m is immersed in water in
such away that its plane is inclined at 300 to the horizontal. The base of the plate
is parallel to and at a depth of 1m from the free surface of water. Find the total
pressure, force and its centre of pressure. ( h = 1.375m from top)

4. A rectangular plate 4m long and 2m wide is immersed in water so that its 2m side
is parallel to the water surface. The top edge is 1m and the bottom edge is 3m
below the water surface find the total force, pressure and the point at which it
acts. ( h = 2.167m from top) {inclined at 30}

5. A tank 1.2m high, 0.9m wide and 2.4m long is filled with water. Find the total
force and the position at which it acts for (a) an end (b) a side (c) the base

6. A tank of water has vertical sides and a rectangularx opening in one end. The
opening is covered by a door hinged along its top edge and held by 4 bolts at the
lower end B. The opening is 0.6m wide and 1.5m deep and the hinge at A is 1.2m
below the water surface. Find (a) the depth at which the resultant water thrust acts
(b) the load on each bolt (c) the load on the hinge at A

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5.0 BUOYANCY
When a body is immersed in a fluid (partly or fully), it displaces the amount of
fluid which results in a vertically upward force, which is exerted by the fluid on
the body. This vertically upward force is called buoyant force. The magnitude
of buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

The Archimedes Principle state that a submerged body is subjected to buoyancy

equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Consider a sold body immersed fully in liquid as shown below

Assume vertical cylindrical element of cross sectional area dA. As dA is small,

the pressure on the ends of the cylinder may be taken as P1 and P2, Since P2 is
greater than P1 then there will be an upward force of (P2-P1) dA acting on the
cylindrical element

i.e upward force = (P2-P1)dA

Therefore, the buoyant force on the element is

dF = ( P2 –P1 ) dA

= w( h2 – h1 )dA

= wdV

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 Thus,
F = w  dV
= wV

F =  gAh ..........................................................5.1
since, w = g 

Class work 3
A metallic body floats in the interface of water and mercury such that 40% of its
volume is immersed in mercury of specific gravity 13.6 and 60% of its volume is
immersed in water. Determine the density of the body

6.0 HYDRODYNAMICS
Hydrodynamics is that part of fluid mechanics which deals with liquid (fluids) in
motion.

6.1 Fluid flow conditions

6.1.1 Uniform flow and Non-uniform flow.

Uniform flow:
The uniform flow of a fluid is defined as that in which the velocity at given time
interval is the same in magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid.

Non-uniform flow:
The non-uniform flow of a fluid is defined as that in which the velocity at the
given time interval changes from point to point in the fluid

6.1.2 Steady and unsteady flow

Steady flow:
The steady flow is defined as that in which the parameters (velocity field, pressure
field and cross-sections) of the flow (stream) vary from point to point but do not
change with time.

Unsteady flow:
The unsteady flow is defined as that in which the parameters (velocity field,
pressure field and cross-section) of the flow (stream) change from point to point
with time.

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6.1.3 Fluid flow types

In practice, four types of flow are distinguished which are

i. Steady uniform flow

ii. steady non uniform flow
iii. unsteady uniformflow
iv. unsteady non uniform flow

Steady uniform flow

Is that in which conditions do not change with time
eg. Velocity of the stream and cross section of the stream
Flow in a pipe of a uniform diameter with constant velocity

Steady non-uniform flow

Is that in which the conditions do change from point to point but do not
change with time
e.g flow in a tapering pipe with a constant velocity

Non-steady uniform flow

Is that in which at any given time interval the velocity at every point is the same
but this velocity will change with time.
e.g. Accelerating flow in a uniform bore pipe

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 Non-steady non-uniform flow
Is that in which the velocity and cross-sectional are of stream will change
from point to point with time.
e.g. Accelerating or decelerating flows in a tapering pipe.

6.2 ENERGY IN FLUID FLOW

The fluid into a container has three types of energy that are
i. Potential energy
ii. Kinetic energy
iii. Pressure energy- by virtue of the work done in introducing it into a
container under pressure

Note that the fluid in question is assumed to be incompressible fluid

6.2.1 Pressure energy

Consider the following tank

Let’s calculate the work done in introducing on additional volume of liquid at

level A into the tank against pressure P at A

Assuming that head, h of liquid remaining constant thus pressure P is also

constant. The area, a is very small so that pressure on piston face is considered
uniform. Then force on piston.
F=pxa
The work to cause a small displacement x is
workdone = F.x = pax

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 The movement of the fluid with piston represents energy possessed by the fluid
force into the tank i.e (Pressure energy)

Volume of liquid entering tank = a x

Mass of liquid entering tank =  ax
Hence energy possessed by unit mass of liquid

= Work done on liquid = Pax = P (N-m/kg)

Mass of liquid  ax 

Pressure energy per unit weight = p/w

This pressure energy per unit weight is termed as the pressure head (m)

6.2.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY

Consider the pressure at a depth, h

P=  gh
h = p/  g and gh = p/ 

where, h = P (Pressure head) and

g
It has been found that gh = p/  is the pressure energy per unit mass of liquid.
Thus gh must also represent energy per unit mass of liquid and since p/  g is the
pressure energy per unit weight. Thus h must also represent energy per unit
weight i.e. h is potential energy per unit weight of liquid at B

Thus, Potential energy + Press energy = Constant

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 PE + Pressure E = C

i.e. h + P = Const per unit mss

g
and gh + p/  = constant per unit mass obtained by A as a datum level

Generally,

H + P = Const. per unit weight

g

And gH + P = Const per unit mass


Where, H is the potential energy per unit weight. (Height measured above the
convenient datum position).

6.2.3 KINETIC ENERGY

Consider the figure below.

Let’s remove piston at A so as liquid flows freely.

Consider a particle of unit mass falling freely from the free surface at B to level A
and then escaping with a velocity V

Potential (PE) lost by the particle in falling is balanced by kinetic energy K.E gain

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 P.E lost per unit mass = gh
1 2
KE gained per unit mass = V
2
PE lost per unit mass = K.E gained per unit mass

1 2
gh = V
2

V2
= h
2g

V= 2 gh

V2
But h was obtained to be potential energy per unit weight: Thus, must also be
2g
(KE)

Kinetic energy per unit weight and is termed as velocity head.

6.3 BERNOULLIN’S EQUATION (CONSERVATION OF ENERGY)

As observed already, there are three forms of energy to be considered

i. Pressure energy = P/w
V 2 
ii. Potential energy,  
 2g 
iii. Kinetic Energy (H) per unit weight

Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy is equal to constant
i.e Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy = const.

p V2
+ + H = Constant .........................6.1
g 2g

2 2
p1 V p2 V
That is, + 1 + H1 = + 2 + H2 = Constant
g 2g g 2g

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 For unit mass of liquid
Note that P is the gauge pressure

Bernoulli’s equation shows that a loss or reduction in one term is always balanced
by an increase in one or both of the other energy terms. Thus a drop in pressure, p
may accompany a corresponding increase in height, H or in velocity V.

The equation holds in the above form provided the following assumptions are
made.

i. There is no loss of energy by friction or leakage

ii. The motion is not turbulent or fluctuating

Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of the Principle of conservation of energy for

the particular case of a liquid in steady motion.

6.4 EQUATION OF CONTINUTY

Consider fluid flowing through a pipe between two points with different cross
sections.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation

P1
+ V21 + H1 = P2 + V22 + H2 = constant
w
2g w 2g

Assuming that the liquid is incompressible, the volume of liquid passing A

per unit time must be equal to the volume passing B per unit time

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 i.e. volume passing, A per second (flow rate)
QA=A1 x V1

Volume passing B per second (flow rate), QB

QB =A2 x V2

Thus,

QA=QB=A1V1=A2V2 ......................................................................6.2

Hence, V1 = A2
V2 A1

Known as the equation of Continuity:

Velocity of flow is inversely proportional to the cross section of the pipe.

Example.3
Water flows down a sloping pipe which has one end 1.3 m above the other. The
pipe section tapers from 0.9m diameter at the top end A to 0.45m diameter at the
lower end B. The flow of water is 9 tonne/min. Find the pressure difference
between A and B in kN/m2. Density of water = 1kg/litre

Solution
dA = 0.9m
dB = 0.45m
w = 1kg/liter
Q = 9tonne/min


Area of pipe at A = x0.9 2  0.637m 2
4


Area of pipe at B = X 0.452 = 0.159m2
4

M = 9000kg/min

Q=
9000
1000x60
 
m 3 / S  0.15m 3 / S

From equation of continuity

Q =A1V1 = A2V2

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 26

 0.15 = 0.637V1 = 0.159V2

V1 = 0.235m/s

V2 =0.944m/s

Bernoulli’s equation

2 2
p1 v2 P v2
+ + H1 = 2 + + H2
W 2g w 2g

p1
+ 0.2352 + 1.3 = P2 + 0.9442 + 0
9800
2 x 9.8 9800 2 x 9.8

 0.2352 0.9442 
P2-P1 = 1. 3    x9800
 2 x9.8 2 x9.8 

P2-P1 = 12330N/m

Class work.4

A jet of water from a 25mmdiameter nozzle is directed vertically upwards.

Assuming that the jet remains circular and neglecting any loss of energy, what
will be the velocity and diameter of the jet at a point 4.5m above the nozzle if the
velocity with which the jet leaves the nozzle is 12m/s.

6.5 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW IN PIPES

The flow of gas or liquid may be described as stream line where there is no
velocity component normal to the flow direction (i.e. there is no cross flow) or
turbulent where a continual motion of liquid particles exist in all directions.
Although the mean velocity may be constant in magnitude and direction, an
intermediate state can exist-described as transitional.

Which of these states actually exists in a flow depends, in a circular pipe, on the
following variables:-

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 27

   The mean velocity = Q A

d= The pipe bore

  The dynamic viscosity of the fluid

  Density of the fluid

These are combined to give a dimensionless parameter known as the Reynolds

Number (Re) which describes the flow

 d  d
Re   , where is the kinematics viscosity ........................6.3
 

and
    is the Kinematics Viscosity
Usually stream line or lamina flow exists for Re  2000 and
turbulent flow for Re  2000

P1 and V1 are the pressure and velocity respectively at point 1 and P2 and V2 are
values at point 2 as indicated above.

If the flow of a liquid is at constant rate through a converging pipe as shown then
the velocity must gradually increase as the area of the cross-section reduces.
Hence the pressure will reduce if the axis of the pipe is horizontal and may do so

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 28

 if it is slopping. This loss of pressure with increasing velocity at reduced area
section is used in many flow measuring devices, one very common being
carburetor where the pressure of the throat is a function of the velocity of air into
the engine. The measurement is not indicated but is used directly to control the
quantity of petrol entering the air stream

7.0 VENTURIMETER

Applying Bernoulli’s principle between points (1) and (2)

2 2
P1 V1 P V
  Z1  2  2  Z 2  h f .........................7.1
g 2 g g 2 g

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 29

 Where hf = head loss due to friction in the converging

Assuming Ideal fluid hf =0

Using continuity equation
Q  V1 A1  V2 A2  cons tan t ....................................7.2

This is called the theoretical discharge or flow rate

Q  V1 A1  V2 A2

The actual flow rate Qact will be obtained by multiplying the theoretical value by a
certain design factor of the instrument.

Qact  C D .Qr , Where CD =discharge coefficient

Note
For most meters CD varies in the range (0.90-0.99 ).
V A
From (7.2) V1  2 2 ..........................................................7.3
A1
Substitute (7.3) in (7.1)

2
V 2 2  A2 
 A1   Z  P2  V 2  Z
2
P1

g g 2 g
1 2
2g

2
V 2  A2 
2

 A1   Z  P2  V 2  Z
2
P1

g g 2 g
1 2
2g

For a horizontal pipe Z1=Z2, so

P1  P2 V 2 2   A 2 
 1   2    H ..........................................7.4
g 2g   A1  
 

Where H = the total head that maintains the flow velocity at the throat, V2 can be
calculated from equation (7.4) as follows

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 30

 P1  P2 P V 2   A2  
2

  1  
g g 2 g   A1  
 

A2 d 2 2 d 21 d 2 2
For  /  2
A1 4 4 d1

A2 d 2 2

A1 d1 2

2 4
A  d 
So that  2    2 
 A1   d1 

Where d1 and d2 are the diameters of the flange and throat respectively

P V 2 2   d 4 
  1   2  
g 2 g   d1  
 

2 g P 
V 22 
  d 4 
g 1   2  
  d1  
 

2P 
V2 
2

 d 
4

 1   2  
  d1  
 

  g  Specific weight of the fluid

2P
V2  E ...................................................................7.5


1
E ...........................................................7.6
  d2 4 
1   
 d1  
 

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 31

 Where E = The velocity of approach factor

2P
The actual flow rate through the throat Qact  C D A2 E ...............7.7


Note:

P P1  P2
  H  The pressure difference between 1 and 2 usually
g g
measured by a differential manometer.

From:

P1  P2  Hg  Gauge pressure

P1  P2  Hg   m ghm

Example.4
The flow of fuel of density 820kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity of 2.4  103 ms / m 2
through a horizontally mounted venturimeter, given a head (hm) of mercury of
144mm and the pipe and throat diameters are 80mm and 40mm respectively
calculate.

(a) The flow rate in liters/min if the discharge coefficient is 0.97

(b) Reynolds number if the dynamic viscosity is as given in the question.

Solution.

Data
  820kg / m 3
  2.4  10 3 Ns / m 2
C D  0.97
d1  80mm
d 2  40mm

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 32

 The flow rate ,Q

2P 2 ghm  m
Q  C D A2 E  C D A2 E
 

Q  C D A2 E 2 ghm  m / 

1
  2 1
    2

  4 
 1 1
E 4  1.033
1  d2  
  d   

 1  40
80
 

  1 

d 2 2   0.042
A2    0.00126m 2
4 4

2  9.81 0.144  13560

2 ghm  m /  
820

 6.835

Flow rate Q  0.97  1.033 0.00126 6.835

3
 0.0086m or8.6litres / sec
s

 or 0.0086  60  1000

 516litres / min

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 33

 H/W
1. A venturi meter carrying water has its axis vertical, inlet and throat diameters are
150mm and 75mm respectively, the throat is 225mm above the inlet and the
discharge coefficient is 0.96. Petrol of specific gravity 0.78 flows through the
water at the rate of 0.0396 m 3 / s . Calculate by applying Bernoulli’s Principle
the pressure difference between inlet and throat.

2. In a vertically mounted venturimeter measuring water flow as shown below, the

distance between tapping points 1 & 2 is 112mm. The diameters of the meter at
point 1 is 100mm and at point 2 is 80mm.If the pressure differential is (P 1-P2) is
30.6 kPa .

Calculate:
(a) the velocity in the throat if the meter coefficient is 0.97
(b) the Reynolds number for the flow in the throat if Kinematics’ viscosity is
1x 10-6m2/s
(c) the height hm of mercury in a U-tube manometer connected to the same levels
in the meter. Ans (9.7m/s, 7.76x105, 239mm)

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 34

3 The measured discharge of water through a venturimeter is 78,000kg/h. The inlet
and throat diameters are 120mm and 55mm respectively. The pressure drop
between inlet and throat is 42kPa. Calculate the coefficient of discharge.
Ans ( 0.98)

4 A horizontal venturimeter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity of 0.9 in a

75mm diameter pipeline. If the pressure difference between full bore and the
throat tapings is 34.5kPa and the area ratio (A1/A2) is 4, calculate the flow rate in
liters per second assuming a discharge coefficient of 0.97. Ans ( 9.67Lt/s)

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 35

8.0 ORIFICES
An orifice is an opening in the wall or bottom of a tank and serves to
discharge the fluid contained in the tank. The top edge of the opening lies
below the surface of the fluid in the tank

8.1 Classification of orifices

The orifices are classified as follows

i) According to shape
An orifice may be circular, triangular, rectangular or square depending
upon its cross sectional area

ii) According to size

An orifice may be small or large depending upon the size of the orifice as
compared to the head of the fluid on the upstream side. If the head of the
fluid is quite high as compared to the dimensions of the orifice
(approximately H>5d) and the variations in the velocity is negligible from
top to the bottom edge of the orifice it is known as small orifice. On the
other hand if the head is small the velocity of flow through the orifice
varies from top to the bottom edge it is known as a large orifice

iii) According to shape of upstream edge

An orifice may be sharp-edged or bell mouthed

iv) According to discharge condition

An orifice may be free discharging or submerged (drowned). A free
discharging orifice discharges into the atmosphere whereas a submerged
orifice discharges to another tank of fluid. Further a submerged orifice
may be fully or partially submerged.

Consider the figure below,

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 36

 Since the volume of the container is large U 1  0
Also, P1  P2  atmospheric pressure.
Application of Bernoulli’s principle between 1 & 2 levels that

2 2
P1 U P U
 Z1  1  2  Z 2  2
 2g  2g

For

P1  P2 and U=0 the

2
U
Z1  Z 2  2
2g
2
H  U2
2g

So that the theoretical flow velocity U 2  U T is

U T  2 gH

The theoretical flow rate QT is

QT  A2 2 gH .......................................8.1
Note:
Since H  hm  m /  then

2p
VT   2 ghm  m /  ..........................8.2


2P
QT  A2 ..............................................8.3


The actual flow rate is less than the theoretical value due to:

(i) The velocity of flow is less due to friction and Vact = Cv.VT
Where Cv = The coefficient of velocity

(ii) Also the area of the jet is less at the vena contracta than is at the orifice
and, Aact = Cc.A.
Where Cc= the coefficient of contraction

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 37

 Therefore the actual flow rate Qact becomes

2P
Qact  CV .CC . A ..................................................8.4


Where C v .C c  C d  discharge coefficient

8.2 COEFFICIENTS

8.2.1 Coefficient of Discharge (Cd)

The coefficient of discharge (Cd) is the ratio of the actual discharge (Q) to the
theoretical discharge Qt

Cd = Actual discharges
Theoretical discharge

For a venturimeter
Cd lies between 0.9  Cd <1

For a small office

Cd lies between 0.6.< Cd<0.7

8.2.2 Coefficient of velocity (CV)

Due to friction between the liquid and the wall surfaces near the orifice the
velocity of the jet is therefore less than the theoretical value. Thus the coefficient
of velocity, Cv is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of the jet to the
theoretical velocity of the jet.

i.e Cv = actual velocity of the jet = V

Theoretical velocity of the jet 2 gh

8.2.3 Vena contracta: Coefficient of contraction (Cc)

The section of the jet where it first becomes parallel and the area least is known
as the vena contracta.

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 38

 The coefficient of contraction, Cc is defined as the ratio of the area of a jet at vena
contracta to the area of the orifice

i.e Cc = area, a of jet at vena contracta = a

area, A of the orifice A

Hence the effective area of the jet is

a(effective)= Cc x A

For a circular orifice coefficient of contraction lies between

0.63  Cc  0.65

8.2.4 Relation between the coefficients

The actual velocity of a jet is

V = Cv 2 gh

The effective area is

a = Cc x A
Thus the actual discharge, Q is

Q = effective area x actual velocity

=axV
= Cc x A x Cv 2 gh
Q = Cc.Cv.A 2 gh …………..............................8.5

But Q = Cd A 2 gh ……………................................8.6

Comparing the equations (8.5) and (8.6) it is obtained that

Cd = Cc x Cv

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 39

8.2.5 Experimental determination of orifice coefficients
(Cd, Cv, &Cc)

The most easily obtained coefficient is discharge coefficient, Cd. It is found

directly by weighing the liquid discharged in a given time while the head is kept
constant. The coefficient of velocity Cv is found from the geometry of jet.

Figure below shows a jet issuing horizontally from an orifice. At a distance y,

below the centre of the orifice, the distance of the centre of the jet from the vena
contracta is X. It may be assumed each particle of liquid to act as a projectile,
traveling without interference from other particles.

If V is the actual horizontal velocity at the orifice, then the distance X is given by

x
X = Vt or V=
t

Where t = time to travel from A to B and also to fall freely a distance y, from rest.
Thus, y is given by

1 2
Y= gt
2

 2y 
T=  
 g 

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 40

 x x
Hence, V = 
t  2y 
 
 g 

V = X g / 2y

Theoretical velocity = 2 gh
Hence the coefficient of velocity, Cv is

Cv = Actual velocity
Theoretical velocity
V
=
2 gh

X g / 2y
=
2 gh

X
Cv = ..........................................................8.7
2 Yh

Finally the coefficient of contraction, Cc is given by

Cd
Cc = ...............................................8.8
Cv

Although Cc can also be obtained by direct measurement of the jet diameter at the
vena contracta, is neither accurate nor easy method

Example.5
A tank of oil discharged through an orifice of 10mm diameter. The measured
discharge was 13.6kg/min. When the head of oil in the tank was 1.8 m measured
from the centre line of the orifice. The jet issued horizontally falling a distance of
330mm in a distance of 1.5m. The relative density of oil was 0.76. Find the
coefficients of discharge, velocity and contraction.

Solution
Density of oil,  o = 0.76 x density of water
= 0.76 x 1000 = 760 kg/m3

Mass flow rate, in = Q  = 13.6 Kg/min

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 41

 Discharge = 13.6 Kg/min
Then Q = 13.6
769 x 60
= 0.000298 m3/s

Q = CdAo 2 gh

Where A0 = orifice are, G = head of oil


0.000298 = Cd x x0.012 2 xx9.8 x1.8
4

Cd = 0.637
X 1.5
Cv = =
2 yh 2 0.33x1.8

Cv =0.975

Cd = Cc x C v

0.637= Cc x 0.975

Thus, Cc = 0.653

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 42

 H/W
1. An orifice plate is situated in a water pipe 50mm diameter and has an orifice
30mmdiameter .For a Reynolds Number of 100,000 the discharge coefficient is
0.61, calculate, (a) nominal velocity at the orifice to give this flow value.
(b) the corresponding pressure difference at tapings. Take water density as
1000kg/m3 and kinematics’ viscosity as 10-6m2/s (3.33m/s , 13kPa)

2 Determine the diameter of circular orifice to discharge 15dm3/s under a head of

1.5m using a discharge coefficient of 0.6. If the orifice is in the vertical plane
and the jet falls in a horizontal from the vena contracta as shown in figure below
calculate the coefficient of contraction. ( 76.6mm, 0.612)

y = 250mm
x = 1.2m

h = 1.5m

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 43

 9.0 MOUTHPIECE
A mouthpiece is a short length of pipe or tube fixed on an orifice. The pipe
extension is usually 2 to 3 times the orifice diameter. It is used to measure
the discharge from the tank or reservoir.

9.1 Classification of Mouthpieces

The mouthpieces are classified

i) According to shape
e.g. Cylridrical, convergent, covergent-divergent etc

ii) According to position

e.g. Internal or external

iii) According to nature of discharge

e.g Running free, or running full. This classification is limited to

internal mouthpieces. A mouthpiece is running free if the jet of fluid after
contraction does not touch the sides. On the other hand in a mouthpieces
running full, the liquid touches the walls of the mouthpiece completely
after the contraction.

9.2 Flow through an external Mouthpiece

Consider the figure below which shows a tank fitted with an external small
tube (two or three times its diameter in length) known as orifice. The jet
of liquid entering the mouthpiece contracts to form a vena-contracta at a
section C-C. The jet again expands beyond this section to fill the
mouthpiece completely.

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 44

 Let,
H= liquid head above centre line of mouthpiece
A= Mouthpiece area at outlet
Ac= Mouthpiece area at vena - contracta
V1= liquid velocity at outlet
Vc= Liquid velocity at vena - contracta
Cc= Coefficient of contraction

The loss of head is due to sudden enlargement from C-C to 1-1. Thus

H= c
V  V1 2 ............................................9.1
2g

From continuity equation

AcVc = V1A1

a1V1  V1 V
Vc = = = 1
ac a c a1 C c

Assuming Cc = 0.62

V1
Vc = ...........................................9.2
0.62

V1
[  V1 ] 2 2
0 . 62 V12  1 
hL = = 1
2g 2 g  0.62 

0.375V12
hL = .................................9.3
2g

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A and B

PA V A2 P V2
  Z A  B  B  hL
w 2g w 2g

V! 2 0.375V12
O + O + H = O + +O +
2g 2g

V12
H = 1.375
2g

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 45

 2gH
V1 = = 0.855 2 gH
1.375

Theoretical velocity of liquid at the outlet, V= 2 gH

0.855 2 gH
Cv = actual velocity =  0.855
2 gh
Theoretical velocity

For a mouthpiece Cc = 1, as the area of jet of liquid at the outlet is equal to

the area of the mouthpiece at the outlet
Cd= Cv x Cc = 0.855 x 1
Cd = 0.855

It may therefore be observed that the value of Cd for a mouthpiece is

higher than that for an orifice. Thus, the discharge through a mouth piece
is more as compared to orifice

Example.6
An external cylindrical mouth piece of 100mm diameter discharges water
under a constant head of 5m. The value of Cc is 0.62 and Cd is 0.85. The
atmospheric head is 10.3m of water. Determine the discharge through the
mouthpiece and the absolute pressure head of water at the vena-contracta

Solution
H= 5m
Ha = 10.3m
D= 0.1m
Cd= 0.85m
Cc=0.62

Q = Cd.a 2 gH

= 0.85 x
 x0.1 2
2 x9.81x5
4

= 0.0661m3/s

Applying Bernoulli’s equation

PA V A2 Pc Vc2
  ZA =   Zc
w 2g w 2g

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 46

 VC2
Ha + O H = Hc + + O
2g

H
Ha + H = Hc + 2.6.1
1.375

5
10.3 + 55 = Hc + 2.601 x
1.375

Hc = 5.84 m absolute

9.3 Flow through a convergent-divergent Mouthpiece

Consider a figure below. If a mouthpiece first converges up to vena-
contract and then diverges gradually, it is known as a convergent divergent
mouthpiece. In thirds type of mouthpiece there is no sudden enlargement
of the jet due to constant gradual enlargement of the section. Thus the
energy loss due to sudden enlargement of the jet is eliminated.

Therefore, Cv is taken as 1 in this case. Since Cc is also 1 as the area of

the jet a the outlet is equal to that of the mouthpiece
Cd = Cc x Cr = 1 x 1 = 1

Ratio of the cross sectional areas at the outlet and at the vena-contracta
can be found as given below.

Let;
H1 = Liquid head above the mouthpiece
Ha = atmospheric pressure head
Hc = absolute pressure head at Vena-contracta

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 47

 Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A and 1-1 taking
mouthpiece centerline as datum and writing in terms of absolute pressures

PA V A2 P V2
  Z A = 1  1  Z1
w 2g w 2g

V12
Ha + O + H = Ha + O
2g

V1 = 2 gH

Now apply Bernoulli’s equation between (c-c) and )1-1)

Pc Vc2 P V2
  Z c = 1  1  Z1
w 2g w 2g

V2
Hc + c  O = Ha +
 2 gH 
2

O
2g 2g

Vc2
 Ha + H-Hc
2g
Vc = 2 g Ha  H  Hc  ..........................................9.4

From continuity equation,

a1V1 = acVc

a1 Vc 2 g ( Ha  H  Hc)
 
ac V1 2 gH

a1 Vc Ha  Hc
  1 .........................................9.5
ac V1 H

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 48

 Example.7
Water is discharged a constant head of 3.6 m through a convergent
divergent mouthpiece with a throat diameter of 48mm. Find the maximum
outlet diameter to avoid that separation of water flow if the maximum
permissible vacuum pressure is 8 m. Also find the discharge

Solution

H= 3.6m
dc= 0.048m
Ha – Hc = 8m (permissible Vacuum Pressure)

Ac =
 x0.0482  0.0018m 2
4

a1 Ha  Hc
 1
ac H

2
 d1  8
  = 1 =1.795
 dc  3.6

d1
 1.34
dc

d1= 1.34 x 0.048

= 64.3mm

Q = Ac 2 gH
= 0.00181 2 x9081x3.6
= 0.0152m3/s

9.4 Discharge through an internal mouthpiece

If a short cylindrical tube is fitted to an orifice of a tank in such a way that
it projects inwards, it is known as an internal or re-entrant mouth piece.

The internal mouthpiece is said to be;

i) Running free, when the length of the tube is equal to the diameter and
the jet of liquid comes out without touching the sides of the tube

ii) Running full, when the length of the tube is about three times its
diameter and the jet comes out with its diameter equal to the diameter of
the mouthpiece at the outlet

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 49

 9.4.1 Mouthpiece running free
Consider the figure below

Let:
H=liquid head above centerline
a= Mouthpiece area
ac = area of the contracted jet
Vc= Velocity of the contracted jet

According to momentum equation

The force applied on the mouthpiece = mass flow rate x change in velocity
w
Pressure x area = x Q x V
g

w.acVc
wH.a = x(Ve  O)
g

w.acVc2
wH.a =
g

wH.a = w.
ac
g
 2Hg 
2

w.ac
wH.a = .2 gH
g

ac
= 0.5 ........................................9.6
a

Cc = 0.5

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 50

 As there is no loss of head, Cv = 1
Cd = Cv.Cc = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5
And the discharge

Q = Cd.a. 2 gH = 0.5a 2 gH

Q = 0.5a 2 gH .....................................................9.7

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A and (C-C)

PA V A2 Pc Vc2
  ZA =   Zc
 2g  2g

Vc2
O + O + H =O + O
2g

Vc = 2 gH
9.4.2 Mouthpiece Running full
In this case of mouthpiece running full, the jet of water (liquid) after
passing through C-C suddenly enlarges to fill the whole area of the
mouthpiece and thus there are losses due to sudden enlargement.

Consider the figure below,

hL =
Vc  V1 2
2g

But from continuity equation

AcVc = A1V1

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 51

 a1V1
Vc =  2V1
ac

(From the first case when the mouthpiece runs free, Cc = a1 2

a2
2
 2V1  V1  V2
hL =    1
 2g  2g

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A (liquid free surface) and

1-1 (in the tank)

PA V A2 P V2
  Za  1  1  Z1  hL
 2g  2g

V12 V2
O+O+H=O+ O 1
2g 2g

2V12  2 gH
V1 = 2 gH

V1 = 2 gH

Here V is the actual velocity since losses are considered.

Theoretical velocity V= 2 gH ( i.e Neglect losses)

V1 2 gh 1
CV =    0.707
Vth 2 gh 2

Cc = 1, as the area at the outlet is equal to area of the

mouthpiece

Cd = Cc x Cv = 1 x 0.707 = 0.707
Discharge, Q = Cd x a 2 gH
Q = 0.0707 x a 2 gh ............................................9.8

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 52

 Example. 8
An internal mouthpiece 120mm in diameter discharges water under a
constant head of 8m. Calculate the discharge through the mouthpiece
when it is running (i) free (ii) full

Solution
H = 8m
d = 0.12m
 d 2  x 0.122  0.0113m 2
a=
4
 4
i) When running free

Q = 0.5 x a x 2 gH
= 0.5 x 0.0113 x 2 x9.81x8

= 0.0708m3/s

ii) When running full

Q = 0.707 x a 2 gH
= 0.707 x 0.0113 x 2 x9.81x8

= 0.1001m3/s

10.0 POWER OF A JET

1
The power of a jet is given by mv2.
2
1
Power, P = mv2
2
Where m is the mass flow rate of fluid per second and Q, volume of fluid
per second
Volume of fluid per second is given by
Volume, Q = area of section jet x velocity
Q = A.V
Mass of fluid per second (m) is given by
M = density x flow rate
M =  Q =  .a.V .....................................................10.1

Thus the power is given by

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 53

 1 1
Power, P = mv2 =  a v3 ................................10.2
2 2

Where  is the fluid density

Where the jet flows from the orifice, the actual V is given by

V = Cv 2 gh
Then, the actual discharge (m) is given by

M =  CcA x Cv 2 gh

M =  ACd 2 gh ..............................................10.3
Where A is the area of orifice

Example.9
A hydraulic machine is driven by a jet from a nozzle of 25mm diameter in
a water main under a gauze pressure of 700 kN/m2
Neglect any loss of energy. Find the power supplied to the machine. Take
 w = 1000jg/m3, w = 9800N/m3

Solution
Pressure head

P 700x103
h=   71.4m
W 9800

Volocity of jet

V = 2 gh
= 2 x9.8 x71.4
= 37.4 m/s

Flow rate, Q
Q = A.V

= x0.0252 x37.4
4
= 0.01835m3/S
Mass of water per second (m)
M = 0.01835 x 1000 kg/s
=18.35 kg/s

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 54

 Kinetic energy of a jet

1
K.E = mV2
2

1
= 18.35 x 37.42
2

= 1285 J/s, (Joules/Sec)

= 12850W (watts)
= 12.85 kW

Class work. 6

Water flows from an orifice in the side of a tank. The head of water above
the centre line of the orifice is 12 m and the opening is 30mm diameter.
The coefficient of velocity for the orifice is 0.95 and the coefficient of
discharge 0.6. Find the power of the jet.

11.0 FLOW OF REAL FLUID

So far a fluid has been assumed to be perfect by friction loss and the pipe
walls to be perfectly smooth. A frictionless fluid flows as shown in
figure below, each layer traveling in a smooth path without interference
from adjacent layers. In practice, the effects of both fluid friction and pipe
wall friction must be considered

Streamline or lamina flow

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 55

 11.1 Flow at low velocity
Consider a viscous fluid entering smoothly and slowly into a pipe.
Because of wall friction fluid sticks to the wall surface forming a
boundary layer which is at rest relative to the pipe. Figure 22a. Due to
viscosity of the fluid a drag force is exerted on the remainder of the
moving fluid by the boundary layer. The velocity of the fluid outside the
boundary layer is however, roughly uniform across the pipe, decreasing
within the boundary layer to zero at the pipe wall. As the fluid
continues down the pipe the boundary layer thickens until it completely
fills the pipe. The flow is now said to be fully developed. The
distribution of velocity across the pipe is now taking a form of
parabola as seen in figure 22b. below.

Fully developed viscous flow

Velocity distribution in viscous laminar flow

However, note that viscous flow is still regular, i.e. streamline or laminar

11.2 Pressure loss in viscous laminar flow

The viscous drag forces in the fluid involve a loss of pressure and thus a
drop in pressure head along the pipe. This drop in pressure;
i) Is proportional to the mean flow velocity
ii) Is proportional to the length of pipe
iii) Varies inversely as the square of the pipe diameter
iv) Is greater with more viscous fluids
v) Is independent of pipe roughness

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 56

 Viscous flow of this nature occurs with very viscous oils at low speeds
and with ordinary fluids such as water when the pipe diameter is
very small indeed.

11.3 Turbulence of flow

At higher velocities the fluid flow loses its regular streamline form and
takes on an irregular motion or turbulent flow.
Turbulence of the flow arises from the initial presence of boundary layer.
Fluid near the boundary tends to drag behind the main stream to disturb a
uniform flow. Once flow turbulence has set in the viscosity of the
fluid is no longer of great importance. Layers of fluid near the pipe wall
still adhere to it however, even though the fluid is turbulent, a laminar
boundary layer remains but is thinner than in viscous flow. When the
pipe surface roughness is such that the irregularities are larger than the
boundary layer thickness then pipe roughness becomes important.

11.4 Pressure loss in Turbulent flow.

The drop in pressure head due to turbulence does not obey the same law as
in viscous laminar flow.
The loss is now:
i) proportional to the square of the mean velocity
ii) proportional to the length of the pipe
iii) inversely proportional to the pipe diameter
iv) nearly independent of fluid viscosity but may depend on pipe
roughness.

In most practical pipeline applications, turbulence may usually be assumed

to occur. This is almost always the case for water flow. Note that the
pressure loss in turbulent flow is much greater than that for viscous
laminar flow.

Generally, the fluid flow may be divided into three types of flow form
i) Laminar flow
ii) Transition
iii) Turbulent flow

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 57

 11.5 Pressure loss

Consider the figure below which shows the effect of pressure loss due to
friction on the pressure head, for liquid flow through uniform
horizontal pipe connected to a reservoir at constant pressure, P. Note
that, since the area is uniform the velocity head V2/2g, is uniform
along the pipe.

The head hf lost in friction is given by

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 58

 Hf = h1-h2

H2 = h1- hf

More generally,
Total energy at A – energy lost between A & B = Total energy at B

P1 V12 P V2
i.e. H1 +   hf  H 2  2  2 or
w 2g w 2g

V12 V22
H1 + h1 +  hf  H 2  h2  ................................................11.1
2g 2g

This is Bernoulli’s equation per unit weight of liquid modified to allow for
friction loss in the pipeline.

Example:10
A 50mm diameter pipeline falls a vertical distance of 30m from an open
oil reservoir and discharges into an open tank. The head of oil above the
pipe entrance is 6m and the loss of head due to pipe friction is 3.6m.
Calculate the discharge in liters per second and in kg/hour.
Specific gravity of oil is 0.8. Specific weight of water is 9.8 KN /m3.
What is the loss of power due to friction in kilowatts

Solution

Total head available measured above exit B

H = head at entry + fall of pipe – friction head

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 59

 = 6 m + 3.0 - 3.6
= 32.4 m
V2
Velocity head at exit =
2g
The pressure at exit and at the free surface of reservoir is atmospheric.
Thus there is no change in pressure energy between A and B. Thus

Kinetic energy, KE at B = Potential energy (H) at A

v2
 32.4
2g

V= 2 x9.8 x32.4
= 25.2 m/s

This result may be obtained directly by applying Bernoulli’s equation

The flow rate, Q

Q = AV

= x0.052 x 25.2
4

= 0.0495m/s or 49.5litre/sec

The mass flow rate (m)

.
M = Q
= 0.8 x 1000 s 0.0495 Kg/s
= 0.8 x 49.5 x 3600
= 142.5 x 103 Kg/h

Or 142.05 Tonne/h

The friction loss is 3.6 m

i.e the loss =3.6 x 9.8 J/Kg
Since unit weight of oil (one Newton (N)) has a mass of 1/9.8 kg

Thus
Power loss = kg of oil per sec x energy loss/kg
= (49.5 x 0.8) x 3.6 x 9.8 J/S
= 1395 W
= 1.395 kW

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 60

 12.0 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM OF FLUID JET

When a jet of fluid impinges on a plate or vane or passes a bend in a pipe

the effect of the sudden change in the magnitude and/or direction of its
velocity is to cause a dynamic pressure or force to be set up.

The average force exerted on the vane is found by applying Newton’s 2nd
law which states that, the rate of change of momentum (or
momentum per second) is equal to the applied force and takes place in
the direction of the force

12.1 Impact of jet normal to a stationary flat vane

The jet moving with velocity V has a momentum MV where m is the mass
rate of discharge of fluid.
The momentum in the normal direction is destroyed by the vane

.
F = MV
=  a V (N) ...............................................................12.1
2

.
Since M =  aV (mass flow rate)

12.2 Impact of jet normal to a moving flat vane in the same direction

The jet is assumed to overtake the vane; only the fluid which actually
strikes the vane per second has its momentum affected. That is the
amount of fluid striking the vane per second depends on the relative
velocity between the jet and vane.

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 61

 Relative velocity, Vr = V-U ................................................12.2

Thus fluid overtaking (leaving) the blade per second

.
M o =  a (V-U) = M
. V  U  ...........................12.3
V
m
a=
V

.
Initial momentum per second, = M oV
.
Final momentum per second, = M oU

Hence the normal force on the vane is

. . .
F = M oV – M oU = M o (V-U)

F=  a (V-U)2 .......................................................12.4

This force moves a distance U in each second. Thus

Work done per second (Power) = F.U

Power =  a (V-U)2.U ...........................................12.5

1 . 2 1
The total energy available in the jet is = M V or  a V3
2 2

Thus the efficiency of operations

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 62

  = Work done per sec =  a (V-U)2U
Energy input per sec ½  aV3

2(V  U ) 2 U
 = ...............................................12.6
V3

For a given jet velocity V, the value of the jet speed U for maximum
efficiency is found by differentiating along the expression for efficiency
with respect to U and equating to zero

d
i.e. 0
du

d
du

(V  U ) 2 U  0 

i.e.
d
du

V 2  2UV  U 2 U  0 
d
du

UV 2  2U 2V  U 3  0 
V2 – 4UV + 3U2 = 0
Solving for U

4V  16V 2  4 x3V 2
U1,2 =
6

1
U1 = V, U2 = V
3

1
Efficiency is maximum when U = V or V
3
But U = V gives zero work done. Thus the velocity of the blade should be
one third that of the jet for efficiency.

1
Substituting this value ( V) in the efficiency expression
3

2
 V V
V   .
(V  U ) U
2
2
3 3
= 2 3
V V3

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 63

 Maximum Efficiency, = 29.6%

12.3 Impact of Jet inclined to a stationary vane

The jet strikes the plate at an angle  to the normal. If there is no friction
the jet divides into two streams to flow up and down the plate surface,
both streams moving with velocity V, but having different flow rates.
The component of the jet velocity normal to the plate is Vcos  and
the corresponding momentum, MVcos  is destroyed producing a normal
force on the plate. The component of the initial velocity parallel to
the plate Vsin  is unchanged and hence there is no change of momentum
parallel to the plate,. The only force therefore is the normal force. Thus ,

.
F = M Vcos  =  aV2cos 

The total thrust F may be resolved into two components,

Fp = Fcos  - parallel to the jet ...................................12.7

Fn = Fsin  - normal to the jet ....................................12.8

These components of force, F are shown in the figure below

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 64

 12.4 Impact of jet inclined to a moving vane

Suppose the blade to be moving away from the jet with velocity, U in the
same direction as the jet. The mass of fluid striking the vane per second
.
is M o =  a (V-U).

.
The momentum per second of the jet before impact is M oV and the
.
component of this normal to the plate is M oVcos  .
.
After impact the momentum normal to the plate is M oUcos  , hence the
normal (resultant) force on the plate is

. .
F= M oVcos  – M oUcos 

As it can be seen in the figure below

. .
F= M oVcos  – M oUcos 

.
= M o(V-U)cos 

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 65

 F=  a(V-U)2cos  ............................................................12.9

Since friction is neglected there is no force parallel to the plate.

The work done per second (power) is

Power = F Ucos  and the Kinetic energy of the jet per second initially is

1
K.E(Pi) =  aV3
2
Hence the efficiency (  ) is

FUCos 2(V  U ) 2 Cos 2

 = = ...................................12.10
1 V3
aV 3

2
Differentiating this expression with respect to U for a given value of V
and equating the result to zero gives the condition for maximum efficiency
as U = V/3 and hence substituting this value of U in the expression for
efficiency gives the value for maximum efficiency as

8
Efficiency maximum,  = Cos2  ........................................12.11
27

The example below shows the case where the plate is moving parallel to
itself.

Example.11
A flat plate is struck normal to its surface by a thin jet of oil of relative
density 0.82. The velocity of the jet is 20m/s and the flow rate is 5litres/s.
Find the force on the plate, the work done per second (power) and the
efficiency when the plate is moving in the same direction as the jet with a
velocity of 10m/s

Solution
Density of oil,  = 0.82 x 1000= 820kg/m3

Flow rate, Q = A.V = 0.005m3/s

.
Total mass flow rate, M = Q  = 820 x 0.005 = 4.1 kg/s
Oil striking plate per second
. .
(V  U )  20  10 
M o= M  4.1x   2.05kg / s
V  20 

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 66

 .
F = M o (V-U) = 2.05 x (20-10) = 20.5N

Work done per second (Power)

Power = FU
= 20.5 x 10
= 205 W

Initial energy of the jet

.
= ½ M V2
=1/2 x 4.1 x 202
=820J/S

Efficiency,  = Power output

Energy input
= 205 x 100
820

= 25%

Example.12
A jet of water of 40mm diameter, moving at 7m/s, impinges on a fixed flat
plate inclined at 60o to the axis of the jet as shown in the figure below
Find the mass of water per second flowing upwards along the plate.
Neglect all losses

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 67

 Solution


Q= av = x0.04 2 x7  0.0088m 3 / s
4

.
Total flow rate of mass M ,

.
M =  Q = 1000 x 0.0088 = 8.8 kg/s

No losses, so velocity remains constant (7m/s)

No change of momentum parallel to the plate, thus equating the
momentum per second before and after impact

. .
Let M u and M d be mass flow rates up and down the plate respectively,
then

. . .
M u + M d = M = 8.8 Kg/s ............i

. . .
F = M V Cos 60o = M uV- M dV

. .
8.8 x 7 x 0.5 = ( M u – M d) x 7

. .
M u – M d = 4.4kg/s .........................ii
. .
Solving i & ii simulteneously , to get M u = 6.6kg/s and M d = 2.2kg/s

.
Thus, mass flow rate upwards ( M u) = 6.6 kg/s

Example.13
A jet of water 60mm in diameter, moving with a velocity of 12m/s, strikes
a smooth flat plate inclined to the axis of the jet at an angle of 50o as
shown in the figure below. The plate is moving away from the jet with a
velocity of 3m/s parallel to itself and in the direction of the normal to its
surface. Find the work done per second and efficiency.

Solution

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 68

 The angle between the axis of the jet and the normal to the plate is  = 40o
.
Mass of water sticking plate per second ( M o)

. U
( M o) =  a(V- )
cos

Normal force, F

F = loss of momentum per sec normal to the plate

. .
= M o VCos  - M oU
U
=  a (V - ) (VCos  - U)
Cos

 x0.062 3
= 1000 x (12  ) (12 x 0.766 – 3)
4 0.766

= 141.5 N

Work done per second, (Power)

Power = F U
= 141.5 x 3
= 424.5 W

Initial Kinetic energy, KE of the jet

1
KE (Pi) =  av3
2

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 69

 1 
= x 1000 x x0.06 2 x12 2
2 4
= 2,444 W

Efficiency,  = Power output = 424.5

Energy input 2444

= 17.36%

12.5 The impact of Jet tangential to a curved stationary Vane

Neglecting friction and shock losses the velocity of the jet may be
assumed constant in magnitude passing over the bladed. The initial
momentum per second (in the horizontal direction) is in V as shown by
vector oa, and the final momentum per second is also MV but in a
direction tangential to the blade at exit shown by vector ob. The resultant
force F, on the blade is given by the vector ba since vector ab represents
the rate of change of momentum of the fluid.

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 70

 Alternatively,

Horizontal force on blade (Fh)

. .
Fh = M V - M VCos 
=  av2(1- cos  ) .................................................................12.12

Vertical force on blade (Fv)

.
Fv = 0 - M VSin 
= -  aV2Sin  ...........................................................12.13

The minus sign indicates that the force is opposite in direction to velocity V, i.e. F
is downwards.

The resultant force on blade, F

F = Fh 2  Fv 2

And the direction of this force is given by

Fv
tan   .....................................................................12.14
Fh

The effect of friction, shock at entry and turbulent flow along the blade is to
cause a reduction in the jet velocity at exit. If Ve is the actual velocity of the jet
at exit, equations 1 and 2 become

. .
Fh = M V – M Ve Cos  ...........................................................12.15

.
Fv = - M VeSin  .....................................................................12.16

.
And in the vector diagram, ob would represent M Ve

.
When  = 180o, Fv = 0, Fh = 2 M V

Thus, for a semi –circular (bucket) wheel the thrust is twice that which the same
jet can develop against a flat plate

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 71

12.6 The impact of Jet tangential to a curved moving vane

If the vane speed is U then the velocity of the jet relative to the vane at entry is
V-U. If there is no friction at entry the relative velocity of jet to the blade is
constant in magnitude as the jet flows across the vane but its direction changes
and becomes tangential to the vane and the relative velocity at exit is (V-U). Only
the fluid which actually overtakes the vane is deflected and its momentum is
affected. The amount of fluid overtaking (and leaving) the vane per second is

.
M o =  a(V-U)

.
And the corresponding momentum per send at entry is M oV.
To find the momentum per second of the fluid at exit we need absolute velocity
Ve to the fluid at exit. This is obtained from the vector or velocity diagram below

The velocity of the vane U, may be represented by vector ob and the jet velocity
relative to the vane (V-U) , by vector oc. The absolute velocity Ve of the fluid at
exit is then the vector sum of V-U and U i.e. Ve = oa

Horizontal component of absolute velocity, Ve

Ve(h) = U + (V-U) Cos 

Vertical component Ve(v) is

Ve(v) = (V-U) Sin 

At exit,
.
Momentum M h, per second in horizontal direction is

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 72

 . .
M h = M o (U+(V-U)Cos  )

.
and M v in vertical direction is

. .
M v = M o (V-U)Sin 

Thus,
Horizontal force on blade (Fh) is

U  V  U cos 
. .
Fh = M oV – M o

=  a(V-U) V  U  V  U cos 

=  a(V-U)2 (1-cos  ) .....................................................12.17

For example the force (Fh) becomes

. .
Fh = M oV – M o (U + k(V-U) cos  )

=  a (V-U)2 (1-kcos  )

If the blade is not moving in the same direction as the jet at entry but as shown in
the figure 34 below, the problem becomes more involved.

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 73

 At entry,

Vector oa = jet velocity V

Vector ob = blade velocity U
Vector difference ba = relative velocity Vr at entry

It is usually arranged that V is tangential to the blade at entry to minimize shock.

The component of the jet absolute velocity at entry in the direction of the blade
speed is Vcos  1 where  1 is nozzle angle. At exit oc is drawn to represent Vr
(assuming no friction) tangential to the blade and cd is drawn to represent U. The
absolute velocity of the jet at exit and vertical force on the blade (Fv) is

.
Fv = 0 - M o (V-U)Sin 
= -  a(V-U)2Sin  ................................................12.18

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 74

 The minus sign indicates that force is in the opposite direction to the relative
velocity, (V-U) at exit i.e. downwards.

Total force on blade F, is

Fh  Fv
2 2
F = ...................................................12.19

And its direction is obtained from

Fv
tan  =
Fh

Alternatively, the vector diagram can be drawn for the initial and final
momentum per second.

. .
Initial momentum per sec = M oV, vector ox, Final momentum per sec = M oVe,
vector oy. Force F, is given by vector yx

Work done per sec (Power) = Fh.U

Vertical force Fv, produces an end thrust but does no work since the blade has no
velocity in the vertical direction.

The relative velocity at exit is reduced due to friction.

Thus, if relative velocity at exit is reduced due to friction and relative velocity at
exit is k times that at entry, then
Vector ox = k (V-U) and thus the above equations are modified accordingly.

Ve is then given by vector od. The component of Ve in the direction of the blade
speed is VeCos  2.
Hence force F in the direction of motion of the blade is

. .
F= M oVcos  1 - M oVeCos  2

Where Mo is the mass of fluid striking the blade per second, i.e aVr

The sign of the 2nd term is determined by the direction of velocity Ve. If velocity
Ve is in the opposite direction to that of the blade as shown in the figure above,
the 2nd term is positive since the reaction from the leaving jet pushes the blade in
the direction of its motion. If Ve has its component velocity in the same direction
as the blade speed, then the 2nd term is negative since the reaction from the
leaving jet opposes the blade motion

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 75

 Work done per Sec (Power) = FxU

If friction reduces the relative velocity Vr by factor k, then the relative velocity
Vr at exit is kVe and vector oc is accordingly modified.

Having found the absolute velocity Ve, at exit the work done per second may be
found also from the change of kinetic energy per second of the fluid striking the
blade.

1 . 2 1 .
Thus, Work done per second = M V – M Ve2
2 2

And the efficiency is given by

1
M o V 2  Ve 2 
 2
1 2
2 MV

M   Ve  2 
= o 1    
M   V  

V   Ve  2 
 = r 1     ............................................................12.20
V   V  

Note:
It should be importantly remembered that the above work is on the basis of a jet
impinging on a single blades and the full discharge per second (in) would thus be
used in calculating the forces and the power.

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 76

 Example.14
A nozzle under a head of 40m directs a jet of water of 40mm diameter
horizontally onto a single curved fixed blade which deflects the jet through and
angle of 150o. The force of the jet is measured as 1.7 kN in the horizontal
direction. If the coefficient of velocity for the nozzle is 0.98, find the percentage
reduction in velocity of the jet caused by friction as the water passes over the
blade.

Solution
Refer to figure

Fh = 1700N
 = 1500
Cos  = Cos150o = -0.866

V= Cv 2 gh = 0.98 x 2 x9.8 x 40  27.44m / s

. 
M = aV  1000x x0.04 2 x 27.44  35.5kg / s
4

If the velocity of the jet leaving the blade is Ve then

. .
Fh = M V - M VeCos 

1700 = 34.5 (27.44 – 0.866Ve)

Ve = 25.2 m/s

 V  Ve 
Reduction in velocity =   x100%
 V 

27.44  25.2
= x100
27.44

= 8.2%

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 77

 Example .15

A 30 mm diameter jet of water is discharged from a nozzle under a head of 10m.

The jet is deflected through an angle of 135o by a stationary curved vane. When
the vane is moving at 5m/s in the same direction as the jet, find the work done per
second and the efficiency

Solution
Refer to figure

  135o

Cos  = Cos 135=-0.707

V = 2 gh  2 x9.8 x10 = 14m/s


A = x0.032  0.000707m 2
4

Force in the jet’s direction (Fh)

Fh = 1000 x x0.000707 (14-5)2 (1 + 0.707)

= 97.6N

Work done per second (Power) = Fh x U

= Fh x U
= 97.6 x 5
= 488W

Initial Kinetic energy (K.E) of the jet,

K.E = ½ MV2 = ½ av 2

= ½ X 1000 X 0.000707 X 143

= 970 W

Efficiency,  = Power out put = 488 x 100

Energy in put 970

= 50.5 %

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 78

 Alternatively by drawing the velocity diagram for exit conditions the absolute
velocity at exit Ve will be found to be 6.44 m/s.
Thus, the efficiency can be found using the expression

 V  U   Ve  
2 2
Efficiency,  =  1  
 V   V  

Vr   Ve  2 
 = 1    
V   V  

 14  5   6.44  
2

=  1     x100
 14   14  

= 50.5%

Example .16

The curved blade shown in figure has an exit angle of 30o to the horizontal and is
moving horizontally at 10m/s.
The nozzle angle at which the jet is directed on to the blade 15o and the jet flows
tangentially on to the blade without shock. The effect of friction is to reduce the
relative velocity of the water across the blade by 20 percent.
The total discharge from the nozzle is 20kg/s. Find the force on the blade in the
direction of its motion, the work done per second and the efficiency of a jet
of velocity of 25m/s

Solution
By drawing the relative velocity, Vr = 15.5m/s at entry

Relative velocity at exit is reduced by 20%

Thus is given by (100-20)% x 15.5

= 0.8 x 15.5
= 12.4 m/s

Total mass flow rate in M = 20kg/s

Mass of water striking the blade per second

. .
M oV = M Vr

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 79

 . Vr
M oV = xM
V

15.5
= x 20
25

= 12.4 kg/s

By drawing, various velocities are found as shown below

The force in the direction of motion of the loss of momentum in this direction
Thus,
. .
Fh = M oVCos15o – (- M oVeCos  ) , since Ve is opposed to vane direction

. .
= M o x 24.1 + M o x 0.75

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 80

 = 12.4 x 24.85
= 308 N

Work done per second (Power)

= Fh x U
= 308 x 10
= 3080 W

Initial energy per second (Pi)

.
Pi = ½ M V2= ½ x 20 x 252

KE= 6250W

Efficiency = Workdone per second (Power output)

Energy input (K.E) per second

= 3080 x 100
6250

= 49.3%

Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology By Munuo E.L. 81

13.0 READING LIST

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