Canadian Wood Frame House Construction PDF

CANADIAN WOOD-FRAME
HOUSE CONSTRUCTION
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CANADIAN WOOD-FRAME
HOUSE CONSTRUCTION
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Cette publication est aussi disponible en français sous le titre :

Construction de maison à ossature de bois – Canada (n° de produit 61199).
The information in this publication is based on the most current research results available to CMHC
and has been reviewed by housing industry experts. Readers are advised to evaluate the information,
materials and techniques carefully and to consult appropriate professional resources to determine
courses of action suitable for their situations. The figures and text are intended as general practice
guides only. Project and site-specific factors of climate, cost, esthetics and so on must be taken into
consideration. Any photographs in this book are for illustration purposes only and may not necessarily
represent currently accepted standards.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Burrows, John, 1948-
Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction—Rev. ed.
“Third Combined Imperial/Metric Edition”— T.p. verso
Updated to conform to the 2010 National Building Code of Canada and enhanced by John Burrows,
JF Burrows Consulting Inc., cf. Acknowledgements
Issued also in French under title: Construction de maison à ossature de bois – Canada.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-660-19535-6
Cat. no.: NH17-3/2005
1. Wood-frame houses—Canada—Design and construction.
2. Wood-frame buildings—Canada—Design and construction.
3. House construction—Canada. I. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation II. Title.
TH4818.W6B87 2005 694 C2005-980262-6
© 1967 Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation
Third combined metric/imperial edition
Revised 2014
This document, or any discrete portion of this document (such as a chapter or section) may be
reproduced for redistribution, without obtaining the permission of the copyright owner, provided
that no changes whatsoever (including translation) are made to the text; that the entire document or
discrete part is reproduced; that this copyright notice is included in its entirety in any and all copies
of the document or any discrete part of the document; and that no use is made of any part of the
document, or the name or logo of the owner of the copyright to endorse or promote any product or
service. For any use of this document other than reproduction or for the general reference purposes as
set out above, please contact: the Canadian Housing Information Centre (CHIC) at [email protected];
613-748-2367 or 1-800-668-2642. For permission, please provide CHIC with the following
information: Publication’s name, year and date of issue.
Printed in Canada
Produced by CMHC
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation CMHC also expresses its appreciation to
acknowledges the individuals and organizations John Burrows of JF Burrows Consulting Inc.,
that contributed to this latest edition of who updated this edition to conform to the
Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction. 2010 National Building Code of Canada (NBC)
and to the energy efficiency requirements in
The following people served as reviewers and
the 2012 Interim Changes to the 2010 NBC,
performed the important role of ensuring the
and who enhanced this edition significantly by
accuracy and usefulness of the publication for
adding new features.
homeowners, builders and educators.
CMHC gratefully acknowledges the National
■■ Richard Lind,
Research Council and the Canadian Wood
Everts Lind Enterprises, Lunenberg, N.S.
Council for the use of their information
■■ David Ricketts, included in the tables of this publication.
RDH Building Engineering Ltd.,
Vancouver, B.C.
■■ Jasmine Wang,
Canadian Wood Council
■■ Chris McLellan,
Natural Resources Canada
■■ Barry Craig,
CMHC Policy and Research Division
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiii
How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiv
Choosing the Size and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiv
Sustainable Housing Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiv
Metric and Imperial Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter 1—Important General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Advantages of Wood-Frame Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fire Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Space between Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sound Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Secondary Suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Room Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Energy Efficiency in Housing and Small Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Material Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Construction Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Protection against Moisture and Termites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Separation from Wet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Preservative Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Termites and Other Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sustainable Housing Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Related Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2—Planning, Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Approvals, Permits and Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Drawings, Financing and Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Site Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Protection and Care of Materials on the Building Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Excavation, Footings and Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Floor Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Wall Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Roof Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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Exterior Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Attics, Roof Spaces and Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Windows, Doors and Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Windows and Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Moisture, Air Leakage, Vapour Diffusion and Heat Transfer Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Water Penetration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Air Leakage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Vapour Diffusion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Heat Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Plumbing, Electrical, Heating and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Heating and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Interior Wall and Ceiling Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Floor Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Decks, Porches and Balconies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Garages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Stages of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Building Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Excavation and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Foundations, Drainage and Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Doors and Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Plumbing, Heating, Electrical and Ventilation Rough-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Insulation, Air Barrier System and Vapour Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Exterior Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Interior Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Paint, Cabinets and Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Landscaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Sustainable Housing Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter 3—Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Ready-Mix Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
On-Site Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Placing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Curing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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Chapter 4—Lumber and Other Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Grade Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Lumber Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Sheet or Panel Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Chapter 5—Functions of the Building Envelope:

Water, Air, Vapour and Heat Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Water Penetration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Basement Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Walls Below Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Walls Above Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Air Leakage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Air Barrier System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Location of the Air Barrier System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Air Barrier Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Basement Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Vapour Diffusion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Vapour Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Location of the Vapour Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Basement Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Heat Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Types of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Batt Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Loose-Fill Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Rigid Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Semi-rigid Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Foamed-in-place Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Amount of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Basement Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Exterior Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Interior Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Preserved Wood Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Insulating Concrete Form Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Floors over Unconditioned Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Roofs and Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Truss or Rafter-Type Roof Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Joist-Type Roof Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chapter 6—Location and Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Marking the Excavation Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Excavation Size and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Placement of the House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 7—Footings, Foundations and Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Wall Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Wood Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Column Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Stepped Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Formwork for Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Cast-in-place Foundation Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Floor-Wall Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Control Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Insulating Concrete Form Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Concrete Block Foundation Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Preserved Wood Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Basement Floor Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Slabs-on-ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Foundation Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Foundation Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Foundation Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
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Footings and Foundations for Crawl Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Crawl Space Ventilation and Ground Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Foundations for Decks and Concrete Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Garage Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Chapter 8—Framing the House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Platform Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Balloon Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Advanced Framing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Structural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Resistance to Lateral Loads Due to Wind and Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Low to Moderate Exposure Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
High Exposure Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Extreme Exposure Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter 9—Floor Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Sill Plates and Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Columns and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Beam and Joist Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Foundation Wall-Floor Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Sill-Plate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Joist-Embedded Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Floor Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Floor Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Subfloor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Floor Framing at Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Choosing the Sizes of Built-Up Wood Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Choosing the Sizes and Spacing of Floor Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Sustainable Housing Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Related Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Chapter 10—Wall Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Platform Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Braced Wall Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Balloon Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
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Highly Insulated Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Choosing the Size and Spacing of Wall Studs for Platform Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Chapter 11—Ceiling and Roof Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Pitched Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Prefabricated Roof Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Site Assembly of Pitched Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Gable-End Framing and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Low-Slope Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Roof Space Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Choosing the Size and Spacing of Ceiling Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Choosing the Size and Spacing of Roof Rafters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Choosing the Size and Spacing of Roof Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter 12—Roof Sheathing and Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Roof Sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Installing Roof Sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Roof Sheathing Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Eave Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Roof Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Asphalt Shingles on Slopes 1:3 or Greater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Asphalt Shingles on Low Slopes of 1:6 to 1:3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Wood Shingles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Shakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Finish at Ridge and Hips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Built-up Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Sheet Metal Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Concrete and Clay Tile Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Chapter 13—Wall Sheathing and Exterior Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Types and Installation of Sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Sheathing Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Exterior Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Metal and Vinyl Sidings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Horizontal Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Vertical Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
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Hardboard Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Lumber Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Horizontal Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Vertical Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Plywood Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Hardboard Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fibre Cement Board Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Corner Treatment for Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Wood Shingles and Shakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Stucco Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Reinforcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Masonry Veneer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Chapter 14—Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Designing for Factors that Influence Water Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Capillary Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Air Pressure and Pressure Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Types of Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Base Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Counter Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Through-Wall Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Cap Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Dampproof Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Valley Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Stepped Flashing or Shingled, Stepped Base Flashing for Shingled Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Drip Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Flashing Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Water Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Movement Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Terminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Buildability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
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Chapter 15—Windows, Exterior Doors and Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Light, View and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Airtightness, Water Resistance and Wind Load Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Energy Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Means of Egress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Window Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Window Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Multiple Glass Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Low-Emissivity Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Gas Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Edge Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Thermally-Efficient Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Window Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Window Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Exterior Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Resistance to Forced Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 16—Exterior Trim and Millwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Eave Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Eave and Gable-End Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Window and Door Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Chapter 17—Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Stair Rise and Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Stairway Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Basement Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Exterior Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Handrails and Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
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Chapter 18—Chimneys, Flues and Fireplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Chimneys and Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Masonry Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Factory-Built Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fireplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Masonry Fireplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Factory Built Fireplace Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Natural Gas Fireplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Chapter 19—Plumbing, Electrical and Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Cutting Framing Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Notching of Lumber Roof, Ceiling or Floor Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Drilled Holes in Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Notching and Drilling of Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Notching and Drilling of Top Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Roof Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Framing for Plumbing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Framing Details for Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Location of Switches and Outlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Smoke Alarms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Chapter 20—Space Conditioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Space Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Forced Air Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Ductwork and Grilles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Electric Baseboard Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Hot Water Space Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Space Heating System Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Air Conditioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Natural Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Mechanical Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
System Design Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Heat and Energy Recovery Ventilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Ventilation System Ductwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
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Chapter 21—Interior Wall and Ceiling Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Gypsum Board Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Nail Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Screw Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Finishing Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Nail and Screw Popping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Wall Tile Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Other Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Chapter 22—Floor Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Sub-Floor and Underlay Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Wood Strip Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Laminate and Engineered Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Parquet Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Resilient Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Carpet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Ceramic, Porcelain, Granite and Marble Tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Chapter 23—Interior Doors, Frames and Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Interior Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Door Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Hardware Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Trim and Mouldings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Millwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Kitchen Cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Chapter 24—Coating Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Composition of Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Types of Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Varnish and polyurethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Stain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
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Lacquer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Alkyd and Latex Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Comparison of Alkyd and Latex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Exterior Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Interior Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Chapter 25—Eavestroughs and Downspouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Chapter 26—Decks, Porches and Balconies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Loads and Sizing of Framing Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Chapter 27—Garages and Carports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Garages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Carports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Chapter 28—Surface Drainage, Driveways and Walkways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Surface Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Driveways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Walkways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Chapter 29—Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Appendix A—Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Appendix B—Cutaway View of a Wood-frame House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
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LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1—Important General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Figure 1 Principles of sustainable housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 2—Planning, Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Figure 2 Approval, permits and inspection processes for new houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 3 Site drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 4 Sample single house construction schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 4—Lumber and Other Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Figure 5 Examples of engineered wood products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Chapter 5—Functions Of The Building Envelope:

Water, Air, Vapour and Heat Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 6 Examples of air leakage locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 7 Carrying the air barrier around a rim joist at a floor intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 8 Placement of air barrier over joist headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Figure 9 Air barrier and moisture management details at window head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 10 Air barrier and moisture management details at window sill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 11 Window in highly insulated wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 12 Polyethylene strips at end of partition and over top wall plates to provide
continuity of the air barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 13 Installation of polyethylene sheet strips in interior wall framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 14 Combined air barrier/vapour barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 15 Concrete wall with rigid insulation on outer face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 16 Concrete wall insulated with rigid insulation and batts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 17 Insulated concrete form foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 18 Location of thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Figure 19 Double-wall framing construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 20 Typical 38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 21 Brick veneer cladding with insulation in the framing space and outboard . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 22 Siding with insulation in the framing space and outboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 23 Floor over unheated crawl space insulated with friction-fit batts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 24 Eave details to avoid blocking ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 25 Insulating joist-type roof ceiling between the ceiling and sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 26 Alternative method of insulating joist-type roof ceiling between the ceiling
and sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 27 Insulation of a flat joist-type roof ceiling above the sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xiii

LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 6—Location and Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Figure 28 Establishing the lines of the house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 29 Finish grade sloped for drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 30 Method of setting batter boards and establishing corners for excavation . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 7—Footings, Foundations and Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Figure 31 Size of footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 32 Steel column supported on steel bearing plate resting on footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 33 Wood column supported on concrete footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 34 Fabric form footing and ICF foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 35 Stepped footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 36 Adjusting foundation thickness to accommodate insulation and masonry veneer . . 70
Figure 37 Concrete formwork and combination form ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 38 Framing for a basement window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 39 Notches or beam pockets in foundation walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 40 Method of anchoring floor system to concrete walls, showing anchor bolt
for wood sill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 41 Typical floor slab/wall isolation joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 42 Control joint in basement wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 43 Insulating concrete form foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 44 Concrete blocks for foundation construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 45 Concrete block wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 46 Certification mark for preserved wood foundation wood and plywood . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 47 Preservative-treated wood foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 48 Location of control joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 49 Independent concrete floor slab and foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 50 Drain pipe at foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Figure 51 Window well at basement wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 9—Floor Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Figure 52 Built-up wood beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 53 Joists supported on top of wood beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 54 Joists supported on ledger strips nailed to beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 55 Joists framed into a steel beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 56 Sill-plate method used in platform construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 57 Floor joists supported on a ledge formed in the foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 58 Floor joists supported on a ledge formed in the foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 59 Floor joists embedded in the top of the foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 60 Masonry support using joist-embedded method of floor framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 61 Principles for wood I-joist installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 62 Load transfer requirements for wood I-joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 63 Floor framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xiv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 64 Framing for floor openings where double headers and double trimmers are used . 102
Figure 65 Floor framing at projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 66 Basement beam and first floor joist framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 67 Floor joists bearing on beam and foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Chapter 10—Wall Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Figure 68 Wall framing used with platform construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 69 Multiple stud arrangements at an exterior corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 70 Multiple stud arrangements at the intersection of an interior partition with
an exterior wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 71 Support for ceiling finish where ceiling joists run parallel to a partition . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 72 End-wall framing and nailing support for interior finish for
platform construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 73 Braced wall bands and panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 74 Wall framing using balloon construction method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Figure 75 Structural insulated panel system (SIPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 76 Platform framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Chapter 11—Ceiling and Roof Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Figure 77 L-shaped trussed roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 78 Raised heel truss roof provides depth for insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 79 Types of prefabricated roof trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 80 Temporary bracing of roof trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 81 Permanent bracing of roof trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 82 Types of pitched roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 83 Roof framing and attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 84 Rafter heel supported on a rafter plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 85 Doubled ceiling joists and stub joists used where a hip rafter reduces clear
span space near the end wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 86 Rafter heel supported on a load-bearing wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 87 Framing at a valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Figure 88 Typical dormer framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 89 Wide projection at gable end supported by “lookout” rafters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 90 Narrow projection at gable end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 91 Typical construction of a low-slope roof with overhang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 92 Soffit roof ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure 93 High-level roof ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 94 Ceiling joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 95 Roof rafters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure 96 Roof joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xv

LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 12—Roof Sheathing and Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Figure 97 Application of structural wood-panel roof sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 98 Installation of wood-board roof sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 99 Roof sheathing detail at a valley and at a chimney opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Figure 100 Eave protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 101 Application of asphalt shingles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 102 Installation of wood shingles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 103 Installation of hand-split shakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 104 Finish at ridge and hips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 105 Built-up roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 106 Sheet metal roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Chapter 13—Wall Sheathing and Exterior Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Figure 107 Vertical and horizontal application of panel-type sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 108 Lumber sheathing application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 109 Types of siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Figure 110 Horizontal siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Figure 111 Siding installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Figure 112 Outside-corner treatment of wood siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Figure 113 Masonry veneer support on foundation wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 114 Support of masonry veneer on an ICF foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 115 Basic exterior insulation and finish system (EIFS) components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 116 Components of an exterior insulation and finish system (EIFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Chapter 14—Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Figure 117 Base flashing at roof penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 118 Base flashing at roof-wall junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 119 Counter flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 120 Through-wall flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 121 Through-wall flashing at foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 122 Dampproof flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 123 Valley flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure 124 Stepped flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure 125 Flashing at wall intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 126 Chimney flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter 15—Windows, Exterior Doors and Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Figure 127 Minimum dimensions for egress windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Figure 128 Common window types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Figure 129 Window terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Figure 130 Sequence for window installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 131 Window sill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xvi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 132 Window attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Figure 133 Pre-hung manufactured door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figure 134 Door hardware requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Figure 135 Stepped flashing for skylight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 16—Exterior Trim and Millwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Figure 136 Roof projection at eaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Figure 137 Eave and gable-end intersections (viewed from below) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure 138 Section through doorframe at sill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Chapter 17—Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Figure 139 Stair detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Figure 140 Types of stair layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Figure 141 Stairway design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure 142 Stair components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Figure 143 Basement stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter 18—Chimneys, Flues and Fireplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Figure 144 Chimney height above the ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Figure 145 Installation of flue linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 146 Fireplace terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 147 Factory-built fireplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Chapter 19—Plumbing, Electrical and Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Figure 148 Example of notch limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 149 Maximum size of holes drilled in joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 150 Notching studs for plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 151 Kitchen and bathroom in proximity for minimum pipe length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 152 Washbasin and bathtub fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Figure 153 Toilet fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Figure 154 Venting for plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Figure 155 Sealing a plumbing vent below an attic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Figure 156 Framing for soil-stack pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Figure 157 Typical arrangement of service entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Figure 158 Service entrance equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Figure 159 Drilling of structural members for wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 160 Typical electrical equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Chapter 20—Space Conditioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Figure 161 Basement plan showing typical heating layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 162 Isometric view of forced-air heating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 163 Common types of heat recovery ventilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xvii

LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 21—Interior Wall and Ceiling Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Figure 164 Application of drywall finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Figure 165 Finishing of gypsum board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Chapter 22—Floor Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Figure 166 Application of strip flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure 167 Installation of ceramic tile floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Chapter 23—Interior Doors, Frames and Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Figure 168 Interior door frame showing typical connection between jamb and head . . . . . . . 239
Figure 169 Door frame and trim showing frame blind-nailed under doorstop . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 170 Suggested dimensions and location of hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 171 Door installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 172 Base moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Figure 173 Kitchen cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 174 Storage closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Chapter 26—Decks, Porches and Balconies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Figure 175 Wood deck detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Figure 176 Deck connection to house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Chapter 27—Garages and Carports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Figure 177 Essential features of attached garages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Appendix B—Cutaway View of a Wood-Frame House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Cutaway View of a Wood-frame House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xviii

PREFACE
Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction by house construction, but it is an introductory

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation book for understanding and applying
(CMHC) has been a popular publication for wood-frame house construction principles.
builders, homeowners (current and prospective)
Though Canadian Wood-Frame House
and students of housing technology since its
Construction is based on the requirements
first edition appeared in 1967. It continues
of the 2010 edition of the National Building
to be a widely used reference for numerous
Code (NBC), it is not a substitute for the
college and university courses and is one of
NBC. Readers are encouraged to refer to
many continuing efforts by CMHC to provide
the housing-related codes and standards
accessible, affordable and sustainable housing
in their jurisdictions for a complete set of
for Canadians.
requirements. The book also provides some
recommendations that go beyond the
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK requirements of the NBC.
Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction is
The organization of Canadian Wood-Frame
a concise description of Canadian wood-frame
House Construction generally corresponds
house construction and references several
to the construction sequence for a typical
other publications that provide additional
house. In this updated version, information
information. This book is not intended to
about the functions of the building envelope
be a complete reference on wood-frame
has been moved close to the front (see Chapter 5)
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xix

PREFACE
to reflect the importance of this topic Please send any feedback and suggestions on
and the need to consider it early in the new or improved content, which are highly
planning process. valued, to:
The chapters are based on major aspects of Canadian Housing Information Centre
wood-frame house construction and reflect Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation
typical practices, some of which vary across 700 Montreal Road
Canada. Readers are urged to consult local Ottawa ON K1A 0P7
building departments, trades and suppliers [email protected]
for additional direction.
Ideally, users of this book should read the NEW FEATURES
book from start to finish. However, if specific This edition of Canadian Wood-Frame House
information is required, each chapter has Construction has been updated to reflect the
been developed as a stand-alone reference. residential requirements of the 2010 edition of
the National Building Code of Canada (NBC),
In order to keep this book to a manageable
including new energy efficiency requirements
size, a glossary of the numerous housing
in the 2012 Interim Changes to the 2010
terms used in this book is not included.
NBC. Many other changes have been made
Readers should consult CMHC’s Glossary
to bring the book in line with current building
of Housing Terms.
science research, construction methods and
construction materials.
CHOOSING THE SIZE AND SPACING
This edition also includes “Choosing the components of a house based on the tables
Size and Spacing” text boxes that provide in the Appendices. For situations not covered
examples for sizing the typical wood structural by the tables, consult a structural engineer.
SUSTAINABLE HOUSING INSIGHT
CMHC is committed to providing the Canadian have been included in “Sustainable Housing
housing industry with reliable information Insight” text boxes like this one. These include
on appropriate housing technology that technologies, building methods and products
responds to people and the environment. that would make a house more sustainable
In this edition, practical considerations derived or improve performance beyond industry
from CMHC’s sustainable housing initiatives standard practice.
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xx

PREFACE
METRIC AND
IMPERIAL DIMENSIONS
Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction
provides both metric (SI) and imperial units.
The National Building Code of Canada
uses metric units and these govern whenever
strict interpretations of Code requirements
are required. Imperial units of measure
(feet and inches) are still commonly used
for wood-framing materials and house
construction technology.
Imperial sizes for lumber are nominal sizes
(the rough sawn sizes before planing and
dimensional changes resulting from drying).
For example, a wood member with a nominal
size of 2 × 4 in. has a finished size of about
11⁄2 × 31⁄2 in. The metric dimensions for lumber
are actual sizes (for example, 38 × 89 mm).
Every reasonable effort has been made to
provide accurate conversions of metric
dimensions to imperial equivalents; however,
it remains the responsibility of designers
and builders to comply with building code
requirements. Some conversion factors are
given in Table 1 (Appendix A).
Consult the local building department to
determine the units measurement required
for house plans.
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xxi

CHAPTER 1
Important General Information
Wood-frame construction has been the option Like any other building system, wood-frame
chosen for millions of houses in North America construction requires reasonable care in its
and provides some of the world’s most affordable design and construction to provide lasting
and comfortable housing. From the days when shelter, comfort and safety. When well-designed
early settlers used abundant forest resources for and constructed, wood-frame construction is:
housing materials, wood-frame construction has
■■ fast and easy to build and renovate;
since become a sophisticated technology supported
by a wealth of research and is capable of meeting ■■ durable;
or exceeding all building science challenges. ■■ built from a renewable resource;
ADVANTAGES OF ■■ a natural insulator that is easy to insulate to

minimize heating and cooling costs;
WOOD-FRAME
strong, light and flexible using basic tools
CONSTRUCTION ■■
and fasteners;
Wood-frame construction can incorporate
■■ easily tailored to the range of wind and snow
dimension lumber, engineered wood products
loads found throughout Canada;
and structural wood panel sheathing into
wall, floor and roof assemblies that are robust, ■■ easily reinforced to withstand extreme wind
economical and fast to build. Current wood-frame and earthquake loads;
technology is the result of many years of ■■ adaptable to all climates ranging from hot and
development and improvement and extensive humid to extremely cold climates; and
research by the National Research Council,
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, ■■ able to meet or exceed code-established levels
industry and others. of fire safety and sound control.
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation 1

CHAPTER 1
BUILDING DESIGN continuous horizontally and vertically throughout

the building and that extend from the top of the
Wood-frame housing may be built to
supporting foundation, slab or subfloor to the
various designs and specifications. Whether
underside of the floor or ceiling above. There is
a standard design is used or a custom design
also the option of designing in accordance with
is created, building code provisions and good
NBC Part 4 or good engineering practice such as
design principles must be observed to provide
that provided in the Canadian Wood Council’s
a durable house; to maximize occupant health,
Engineering Guide for Wood-Frame Construction
comfort and safety; and to reduce a building’s
2009. Refer to Chapter 10 for more information.
environmental footprint. Building design
should provide easy access for people of diverse In the few Canadian locations where risk is
physical capabilities and adapt to occupants’ extreme, bracing to resist lateral load must be
changing needs. Obtain professional design designed in accordance with NBC Part 4 or
assistance for special requirements such as good engineering practice such as that provided
barrier-free access for people with disabilities. in the Engineering Guide for Wood-Frame
Construction 2009.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
To agree with the National Building Code,
FIRE SAFETY
the metric spacing of wood framing members The NBC does not explicitly require fire-rated
is expressed as ‘soft’ conversions from the actual floor or wall assemblies in single-family houses.
imperial dimensions. For example, spacing of Wood-frame construction is considered to
12, 16 and 24 inches on centre are converted provide an acceptable level of fire safety,
to 300, 400 and 600 mm on centre, respectively. dependent to a degree on gypsum board
In order to suit the imperial sizes of common finishes, which provide essential fire protection
1220 × 2440 mm (4 × 8 ft.) panel products, such of structural components for a certain period
as gypsum board, OSB and plywood, the actual of time. In addition, occupants are considered
spacing of framing members has been adjusted to be familiar with hazards and safety features
to approximately 305, 406 and 610 mm on of such buildings and to know how to safely
centre, respectively. exit the house.
The NBC contains provisions for bracing Wood-frame construction can satisfy the fire
to resist lateral loads from earthquakes and safety provisions of the National Building Code.
high winds. The provisions are based on a Fire safety is a combination of many factors,
three-level risk-based approach developed some of which can be minimized by building
from environmental load data. There are no requirements, and others that can only be
special requirements for areas where the risk controlled by the occupants. Examples of
is low to moderate. This means that normal building code fire safety measures include:
sheathing, cladding and finishes provide adequate ■■ limiting the area of unprotected openings
resistance. Most of the new requirements apply
(windows and doors) in buildings close to
to areas of high risk, mainly the coastal area of
property lines to reduce the chance of a fire
British Columbia. For these areas, builders can
spreading from one house to another;
incorporate adequate lateral load resistance
without the need for further structural engineering ■■ requiring smoke alarms on every floor and
design. The measures include providing “braced in sleeping areas;
wall panels” in “braced wall bands” that are

CHAPTER 1
■■ setting minimum door and exit route widths The location of a house in relation to a property
and requiring window egress routes from line can affect the area of openings (windows),
bedrooms to help occupants escape in the the design and construction of overhangs, and
event of fire; and the types of exterior cladding materials that
are permitted. Restrictions generally apply for
■■ providing clearances around heating
houses situated within 2 m (6 ft. 7 in.) of a
and cooking appliances to prevent fires
property line. Consultation with local building
from starting.
officials is recommended before applying for a
Occupants can minimize their exposure to fire building permit.
risk by:
■■ maintaining smoke alarms in working order;
SOUND CONTROL
Sound control between rooms of a house
■■ ensuring all occupants are aware of escape
is provided by means of the materials used
routes and of the outdoor gathering point in
in the floor and wall assemblies and by
the event of fire; and
reducing flanking paths so that noise is not
■■ exercising care when using cooking and transferred around assemblies. There are no
heating appliances. code requirements for additional sound control
measures in single-family houses because house
The requirements for attached housing such occupants can take measures to reduce noise.
as duplexes, houses with a secondary suite,
townhouses and apartments are often more When a higher level of sound privacy is needed,
complex because a fire in one unit could spread acoustical insulation can be installed or other
to an adjacent unit without the occupants in the measures taken with respect to floors and
affected unit being aware of a problem. partition walls.
Houses with a secondary suite are required to
Space between Houses have a higher level of sound privacy because
there could be two separate groups of occupants
Fire spreads from one building to another
in one house. Walls and floors between adjacent
principally by thermal radiation through
dwellings must have sound-absorbing materials,
windows and other unprotected openings.
resilient channels on one side, and 12.7 mm
Many things contribute to radiation intensity,
(1⁄2 in.) thick drywall on ceilings and both sides
and several are more significant than cladding.
of walls.
At any given distance, radiation intensity will
primarily depend on the total area of windows If a house is to be built in an area with a high
radiating heat. level of traffic or airport noise, an acoustic
engineer should be consulted to devise a means
The intensity varies inversely as the square of to reduce external noise.
the distance from the source—if the distance
is doubled, the radiation intensity will be only In multi-family buildings (such as semi-detached
25 per cent that of the original spacing. For this or row houses or apartments), sound control
reason, the closer one building is to a property measures are required between all dwellings to
line or an assumed line between two buildings improve occupant comfort.
on the same property, the smaller the area of For more information, refer to the 2010 National
windows and other unprotected openings Building Code of Canada published by the
(such as non-fire-rated doors) is permitted. National Research Council of Canada.

CHAPTER 1
SECONDARY SUITES ■■ Some additional protection against sound

transmission between a dwelling unit and
A secondary suite is located in a house, townhouse
a secondary suite must be provided.
or semi-detached houses (two side-by-side
dwelling units) and used, for example, as a rental ■■ Heating and ventilating ductwork can spread
unit or to accommodate family members in an smoke and/or fire from one suite to another.
independent area of a house. A secondary suite, For this reason, separate and independent
which may also be referred to as an accessory forced-air furnaces and ductwork must be
suite or secondary unit in some jurisdictions, provided for the house and the suite, or,
may occupy more than one storey or be on the an alternate heating system such as hot
same level as or above/below the principal suite water or electrical heating must be provided.
in the house. If the house has a forced-air heating system,
the easiest way of meeting this requirement
Some special building requirements apply to
is to heat the secondary suite electrically.
secondary suites because the occupants’ activities
in one suite can affect the health and safety of
those in the adjoining suite. These requirements
ROOM HEIGHT
are simpler and less costly than those pertaining Building codes establish minimum ceiling heights
to apartment buildings, for example, and strike for living area rooms. In general, the minimum
a balance between practicality and cost, and the ceiling height is 2.1 m (6 ft. 11 in.). Unfinished
health and safety of the occupants. Consultation basement areas must have ceilings at least 2.0 m
with local building officials is required before (6 ft. 7 in.) high in any location that would be
a secondary suite is built. Some of the used for passage.
considerations are as follows:
■■ A secondary suite is a living space and the RADON
ceiling height must be at least 1.95 m (6 ft. Radon is a colourless, odourless, radioactive
5 in.) and not less than 1.85 m (6 ft. 3⁄4 in.) gas that occurs naturally in the environment.
under beams and ducting. Outdoors, its concentration is negligible, but it
■■ Occupants of both the principal and the can accumulate in buildings to levels that pose
secondary suite must be provided with a health risk. Radon can seep from the ground
adequate escape routes for use in the event into buildings through cracks and unsealed
of fire. This means adequate stair, ramp and penetrations in the floor and walls abutting
door widths and adequate handrails and the ground.
guards must be provided. Although there are regions in Canada with
■■ A continuous smoke-tight barrier consisting of high radon levels, all new residential buildings
not less than 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board are now required to provide measures for radon
must be provided between the suites. mitigation because (a) there are no reliable
maps showing where radon is present; (b) high
■■ Smoke alarms must be interconnected so that radon concentrations can be found in one
residents in one suite are alerted by a fire in building and not in neighbouring buildings;
the adjoining suite. and (c) it is very difficult to detect problematic

CHAPTER 1
radon concentrations during construction. ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Because mitigating high radon concentrations IN HOUSING AND
after construction could be expensive, taking
measures during construction can increase safety SMALL BUILDINGS
and reduce the cost of future mitigation. Once adopted by the provinces and territories,
changes to NBC Part 9 will require that
The basement can be protected against radon
building envelopes, heating, ventilating and
if an air barrier connecting the basement slab to
air conditioning systems and service-water
the walls is installed to keep radon from entering
heating systems meet or exceed minimum
the living space. A roughed-in, capped pipe
energy efficiency performance requirements.
extending under the floor slab should also be
Where adopted, the new provisions will have
provided, as it could be used to ventilate the
an impact on the design and construction
space below a basement floor later, if radon
of houses, so builders should stay alert for
were to become a problem.
building code amendments in their areas.
Unheated crawl spaces do not need to be
protected against the ingress of radon MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY
because required ventilation can prevent radon
accumulation. Rough-ins for a future radon Many types of building materials are used in
extraction system are not needed for heated a house. Experience has shown that materials
crawl spaces if they do not have a concrete floor such as sealants and metals can adversely affect
slab and if they remain accessible. This way, an adjacent material at times, resulting in
a person could easily install a connection to premature degradation.
the sub-air barrier space to be used for the Many sealant products are suited to a wide range
radon extraction system. of applications, and there is no simple and
The building owner can easily test the house universal product labelling system. Improper
for radon. The test equipment is relatively selection can lead to problems such as paint
inexpensive, and test kits can be ordered failure or damage to window frame finishes.
over the Internet. If test results indicate an Connecting different metals can cause galvanic
annual average concentration exceeding corrosion, leading to premature failure.
200 Bq/m3, it may be necessary to complete Premature failure can also result from job
the subfloor depressurization system to reduce site-imposed conditions or deadlines. For example,
radon concentration. This requires that the in the rush to apply paint in unheated conditions,
roughed-in pipe be uncapped and connected a painter might ignore the temperature range
to a ventilation system exhausting to the recommended by the product manufacturer,
outside. The building should be retested for resulting in a costly recall.
radon once the depressurization system has
been completed and activated. CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
For further information on how to measure Care should be taken during construction to
and remediate existing houses, refer to avoid injuries, and the following require attention:
Health Canada’s publications Guide for Radon
Measurements in Residential Dwellings (Homes) ■■ Site work—Chainsaws and other mechanical
and Reducing Radon Levels in Existing Homes: equipment must be used with care, and
A Canadian Guide for Professional Contractors. appropriate safety equipment should be worn.

CHAPTER 1
■■ Excavation—Cave-ins are dangerous and and construction, proper material storage and
common. Ensure that excavations are handling, and the use of materials suited to
adequately back-sloped or shored to service conditions.
prevent slope failure.
Many of the chapters in this book cover, to some
■■ Foundation—Concrete formwork must be extent, the building materials and principles
strong enough to resist the weight of the intended to reduce damage from moisture
concrete while it is being poured. such as:
■■ Framing—Care is required for the placement ■■ Chapter 3—Concrete: Good concrete
and temporary bracing of wall sections. mix design, placement and curing is
Wood trusses are unstable until they have essential for preventing water leakage
been braced. in foundations.
■■ Exterior finishes and roofing—Since this ■■ Chapter 5—Functions of the Building Envelope:
involves working at heights well above ground, Water, Air, Vapour and Heat Control:
those doing this work must take proper care The building envelope must prevent the
and wear fall protection devices. movement of water and vapour.
■■ Electrical and mechanical—Wiring, gas piping ■■ Chapter 7—Footings, Foundations and
and heating and electrical appliances must be Slabs: Foundation dampproofing and,
installed by qualified personnel to ensure safety where high water tables occur, waterproofing
during construction and over the lifespan of are essential for keeping basements dry.
the house.
In addition, roofing, cladding, flashing, vapour
■■ General—Follow the manufacturer’s barriers, air barriers, ventilated roof spaces,
instructions for the use of all equipment windows and doors all play a role in keeping
and tools and obtain practice and experience. building materials dry, and they must all work
Use eye, breathing and hearing protection. together as a system.
Fall protection and the securing of ladders
and scaffolding are important steps to ensuring Separation from Wet Conditions
safe construction.
Wood can be used in exposed locations
without having to be preservative-treated if it is
PROTECTION AGAINST kept off the ground and installed so that drying
MOISTURE AND TERMITES is possible between wettings. Here are some
Wood-frame construction has a record of examples of separation:
long-lasting performance. Like all materials, ■■ Foundation walls should be kept at least
wood has advantages and disadvantages, and 200 mm (8 in.) from the ground where wood
some precautions are needed to ensure long sidings or wood-base sidings are used.
service life.
■■ The ground level in a crawl space should
Wood will not decay in conditions where it is be at least 300 mm (12 in.) below joists
kept dry or, if wetted, has an opportunity to and beams.
dry. Protection is ensured through good design

CHAPTER 1
■■ Untreated wood supported on a concrete slab wood. Regular nails or screws should not be
or footing (such as the sole plate in interior used and electric galvanized fasteners should
basement walls or basement columns) must be avoided because the protective coating is
be separated by a moisture barrier or the wood too thin for long-term service.
must be treated.
If preservative-treated lumber must be cut on
■■ Where the bottom of a beam is below ground the job site, the cut ends should be coated with
level, it must be surrounded by an air space a brush-on preservative until it is no longer
to prevent contact with concrete or treated absorbed into the wood.
to prevent decay. The space around the beam
must be left open to allow air to circulate Wear gloves when handling treated wood and
and must not be filled with insulation, a mask when cutting it (as for the cutting of
vapour barriers or airtight materials. many materials). Treated wood should be
discarded in accordance with local regulations
■■ Where untreated framing members are less and should never be burned.
than 150 mm (6 in.) above the surface of the
ground, the framing must be separated from Termites and Other Insects
the supporting base by a moisture barrier.
In some areas, wood is subject to attack by
Preservative Treatment termites, carpenter ants and powder post beetles.
The map of known termite locations in Canada
In applications where wood cannot be kept indicates that they are present only in a few
dry, other measures such as the use of
localized areas in the southernmost parts of
preservative-treated wood must be taken
British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan,
to provide reasonable service life.
Manitoba and Ontario.
Alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ) and copper
In these areas, the clearance between structural
azole (CA) are the most common preservatives
wood elements and the ground must be at least
used for residential wood products and are
distinguished by the green colour of the 450 mm (18 in.) unless the wood is treated with
finished product. a chemical that is toxic to termites (for example,
ACQ and CA). In addition, foundation walls
Borate, another chemical used to treat wood must extend at least 150 mm (6 in.) above
against termites and decay, is usually colourless the ground.
and results in a much deeper penetration of the
chemical into the wood than other methods. Structural supports must be visible for inspection
However, borate tends to leach out of wood and the detection of mud tubes that termites build
that is exposed to rain, so it is approved only to travel to a food source. Where the foundations
for uses where the wood is protected from are insulated or otherwise constructed in a way
direct exposure to moisture. that could conceal termite activity, a metal or
plastic barrier must be installed through the
Corrosion-resistant fasteners such as those insulation above finished ground level to control
that are hot-dip galvanized or made of termite passage.
stainless steel should be used with treated

CHAPTER 1
Principles of Sustainable Housing for insulation levels intended to make

Canadian houses more energy efficient.
A growing awareness of the relationship
However, it might be cost effective to
between human health, the environment
provide higher levels of insulation and
and the economy has given rise to the concept
reduce heating and cooling costs over
of sustainable housing in Canada. For the
the service life of a house.
purpose of this publication, sustainable housing
means implementing design, construction and Sustainable housing is founded on five
operation principles that maximize occupant fundamental principles shown in Figure 1.
health and safety, minimize the consumption of These principles should be considered at
resources and energy, have a minimal negative the design stage when options can be easily
effect on the environment, and make housing assessed and revised. Examples of how this
durable and affordable. It is also important can be achieved are provided below.
that house designs are compatible with
local climate. Healthy Indoor Environment
In some cases, Sustainable Housing Insights ■■ Indoor air quality—Reduce the level
in this book reflect code requirements of contaminants built into the building
and in others, introduce concepts or (material selection), provide measures
recommendations that exceed code to prevent carbon monoxide or radon
requirements. For example, the 2012 ingress, remove any contaminants at the
Interim Changes to the 2010 National source and provide adequate ventilation
Building Code have minimum requirements and humidity control.
1 Principles of sustainable housing
Healthy Indoor Environment
Resource Energy
Efficiency Efficiency
Sustainable
Environmental
Responsibility Housing Affordability

CHAPTER 1
Continued
■■ Water quality—Connect to a safe supply of ■■ peak periods, such as mornings and early
potable water, or where this is not possible, evenings, and select efficient domestic
provide appropriate home treatment to appliances and lights.
remove bacteria, chemical contaminants
and unpleasant tastes or odours. Resource Efficiency
■■ Light and sound—Provide adequate natural ■■ Use renewable, recycled or reused materials
light throughout the house and isolate where possible and avoid the use of
internal and external noise sources. materials that might have a damaging
effect on the environment.
■■ Fire safety—Provide sufficient doors to the
outside and operable windows, which could ■■ Management of construction waste—Use
serve as means of egress in the event of a materials carefully to reduce waste,
fire or other danger. reuse materials where possible and
recycle waste materials.
Energy Efficiency ■■ Water—Install water-efficient plumbing
■■ Building thermal performance—Minimize the fixtures and appliances indoors and carefully
building volume by using a compact design, plan landscaping and natural drainage to
improve the building envelope by using minimize water consumption outdoors.
better insulated and more airtight assemblies, Consider using grey water or rainwater
and install high-performance windows for irrigation.
and doors.
■■ Durability and longevity—Construct a
■■ Energy for heating, cooling and ventilation— durable building structure, envelope and
Select appropriate energy sources and finishes that resist the effects of climate,
provide high-efficiency equipment having use and abuse.
the appropriate capacity.
Environmental Responsibility
■■ Renewable energy technologies—Incorporate
wind, solar, biomass (for example, pellet ■■ Manufacturing—Select appropriate materials
stoves) and geothermal energy sources made from environmentally responsible
to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and manufacturing processes, and avoid the
grid electricity. use of materials that might have a damaging
effect on the environment.
■■ Building orientation—Orient the building
and locate the windows to capture solar ■■ Emissions and combustion by-products—Select
gains during cold months and to enhance high-efficiency, low-emission equipment
natural (passive) ventilation and cooling of and appliances.
the house during hot months.
■■ Wastewater and sewage—Reduce
■■ Electrical consumption and peak demand— wastewater through water conservation
Provide controls to avoid or minimize and the provision of appropriate treatment
electrical power consumption during for private wastewater treatment systems.

CHAPTER 1
Continued
■■ Community and site planning issues—Design Affordability

houses and developments and choose
■■ Cost—Design housing with an affordable
materials to minimize damage to
purchase price and low maintenance
the environment.
and operating costs. Affordability means
■■ Hazardous materials: landfill and disposal— finding the right balance between initial
Avoid the use of hazardous materials. (construction) cost and ongoing maintenance
When recycling is not feasible, dispose and operational costs.
of materials in appropriate facilities.
■■ Adaptability—Build housing that serves
current needs and can easily be adapted
for changing needs.
■■ Suitability—Build housing that meets the
needs and expectations of homebuyers.
RELATED PUBLICATIONS
2010 National Building Code of Canada,

National Research Council of Canada
Collecting and Using Rainwater at Home: A Guide for Homeowners,
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (product no. 67925)
Engineering Guide for Wood Frame Construction 2009,
Canadian Wood Council (reference no. EGWF-09-E)
Guide for Radon Measurements in Residential Dwellings (Homes),
Health Canada (catalogue no. H128-1/08-543E)
Household Guide to Water Efficiency,
Reducing Radon Levels in Existing Homes: A Canadian Guide for Professional Contractors,
Health Canada (catalogue no. H128-1/11-653-1E)

CHAPTER 2
Planning, Design and Construction
This chapter provides a summary of the (Chapter 5), service water heating systems
planning, design and construction essentials for (Chapter 19), and heating, ventilation and
each aspect of wood-frame house construction air conditioning systems (Chapter 20).
described herein.
The book has been updated to incorporate the APPROVALS, PERMITS
requirements of the 2010 National Building AND INSPECTIONS
Code (NBC) and the 2012 Interim Changes The system of approvals, permits and inspections
to the 2010 NBC for energy efficiency. However, for house construction can be quite complex.
it is not meant to replace the NBC. Consultations It is important to ensure that the property is
with municipal building officials during the zoned for the intended use before proceeding
design, plan approval and construction stages with house planning. Some properties may have
are strongly recommended to ensure that development regulations, covenants or restrictions
problems are avoided. governing the size, location and exterior finishes
Building codes generally describe the minimum of the house.
measures required for building performance and Requirements for drawings, permits and
safety. Some builders and consumers may wish inspections vary across Canada, and special
to add features that exceed code requirements, provisions may apply to suit local climatic and
such as additional insulation to reduce heating geological conditions. For example, the wet
and cooling costs. climates of both the east and west coasts require
Recent changes to the NBC require that houses a drainage cavity in walls to resist rain penetration;
have a minimum level of energy efficiency varying snow loads across Canada result in the
that affects building envelope construction different structural capacities for roof members;

CHAPTER 2
and houses in areas subject to earthquake risk 2 Approval, permits and inspection
or high winds require additional strengthening. processes for new houses
Most municipalities will require that the
construction documents comply with the Zoning and
basic requirements of the applicable provincial Environmental Approvals
PRE-CONSTRUCTION
or territorial building code, and some have Site Plan, Working Drawings
additional requirements. and Specifications
STAGE
Drawings should be to scale and provide Building Permit
sufficient detail to enable a plans examiner Plumbing Permit
to determine whether the proposed house Heating Permit
is Code compliant. Building departments Electrical Permit
will indicate their preferred format for house Utility Permit (Gas/Propane)
drawings and the minimum information needed
Health Unit Permit
to obtain a building permit. Good drawings also (Wells/Septic Systems)
enable suppliers and trades to furnish and install
materials and equipment correctly. A competent Excavation and
designer should prepare a complete set of drawings Footings Inspection
and specifications. Pre-Backfill Inspection
Framing Inspection
The 2010 NBC includes prescriptive Sewers, Drains, Water

CONSTRUCTION
Service and Underground

requirements and performance functional Plumbing Inspection
statements that form the basis for an
STAGE
objective-based code, which states the Electrical Service Inspection

outcome that must be achieved and provides Plumbing, Heating and
latitude for users to determine the solution. Electrical Rough-In Inspection
For example, while a prescriptive code might
Insulation and Air/
dictate how thick a concrete foundation Vapour Barrier Inspection
wall must be, the performance requirements
explain the need for the wall to resist forces Pre-Occupancy Inspection
and allow the user to submit an alternate Final Plumbing, Heating
design that will work at least as well as and Electrical Inspection
the prescribed wall. The performance
CONSTRUCTION
requirements of the Code enable engineers,

architects and other design professionals
Completion Inspection
STAGE
POST-
to propose alternative solutions to (Interior and Exterior)

building officials.
Certificate of Occupancy
Figure 2 shows the process of approvals, permits

and inspections that may apply to a new house.
Municipalities may not inspect the work at every electrical, insulation and exterior finishes are
stage of construction; however, most will inspect complete. In some areas, it may be necessary to
when the foundations, framing, plumbing and observe additional registration and inspection

CHAPTER 2
requirements by warranty programs for new Drawings, Financing and Permits

houses. Readers should consult their local building ■■ Plan for the time required to complete
departments about requirements and procedures.
the design and drawings; and to estimate
It is important to schedule inspections to avoid costs, arrange for financing and obtain a
lengthy delays. Determine exactly what work building permit.
must be completed and how much notice
■■ Arrange for access to the site and temporary
is required prior to calling for a particular
power during this stage.
inspection. Understand the local requirements
and plan ahead so that administrative aspects
and delays do not interfere with construction. Site Planning
■■ Carefully plan to ensure the house is well
PLANNING AND DESIGN situated in relation to property lines, road
access, sunshine and shading, trees and other
A house is best designed for a specific building
natural features.
site. House size, the number and height of floors,
the location and size of rooms and the type of ■■ Establish the house elevation to accommodate
heating system are planned early in the design storm and wastewater disposal and site
process. These initial plans can be revised as drainage (Figure 3).
more information is obtained and as the design ■■ Check with the building department for
becomes more detailed. The project cost should
requirements for foundation drainage and
be checked as the design evolves to ensure that
basement plumbing.
the desired features fit the budget.
■■ Avoid leading water from roofs and driveways
This section provides a brief overview of the
into the foundation drainage system or onto
planning and design of a house and things that
neighbouring properties. Drain this water
should be considered and perhaps adjusted as
away from the house to a storm drain or,
the design progresses. Frequent communication
where none is provided, to a drainage ditch.
with the local building department will help to
ensure the evolving design meets building code ■■ Use gravity drainage for foundations,
and local requirements. waste water and sewage wherever possible.
3 Site drainage
catch basin
perimeter drain tile
storm sewer
Surface drainage to the street Surface drainage to the street and catch basin

CHAPTER 2
Where a well and site disposal of wastewater Hardwood flooring, interior trim and millwork
are required, ensure adequate separation should not be stored in the house until the
between them. building moisture resulting from concrete curing,
drywall finishing and any rain that was admitted
Consult Chapters 6 and 28 for more information
during construction has had time to dissipate.
on site planning.
Distribute heavy materials stored on framing
Protection and Care of Materials members, such as gypsum wallboard or asphalt
on the Building Site shingles, to avoid overloading.
Materials stored on site must be protected. Excavation, Footings and

Failure to do so can result in waste or construction Foundation
defects. When possible, material should be
delivered to the site just before it is used. A good foundation is essential for structural
support and controlling ground water and forms
The moisture content of framing lumber at the part of the soil-gas control system (see Chapter 7
time of installation must not exceed 19 per cent. for more information).
S-DRY lumber meets the 19 per cent moisture ■■ Determine the water conditions on the
limit but can re-absorb water if it is left
property, how water will be drained away
unprotected on the site. Store wood products
from the foundation, and whether basement
in a dry, well-drained area. Lumber and dampproofing will be adequate for the
sheathing materials should be stored 200 to water conditions.
250 mm (8 to 10 in.) above the ground on
flat supports. Keep the products covered
■■ Establish the foundation wall thickness based
until ready for use. on the backfill height, the number of storeys
to be supported and the height of the wall.
Vertical wood members exposed to the weather ■■ Consider the space required for beams,
during construction can dry relatively quickly
ductwork and plumbing in determining
after wetting but horizontal components need the basement ceiling height.
more time to dry. After rain, wood members
must be allowed to air dry before being
■■ Consider using a higher basement ceiling
enclosed. Allow sufficient time and ventilation height if it is likely the basement will
for the materials inside wall cavities to dry be finished.
to an acceptable level before installing the ■■ Determine whether the basement insulation
vapour barrier. will be on the inside or outside of the
foundation walls.
Asphalt shingles should be stored so that the
bundles can lie flat without bending. Using curved ■■ Plan for the foundation to support a masonry
or buckled shingles will result in an unattractive chimney, if there will be one.
roof and a shortened service life. ■■ Plan for pipes and services that pass through
the foundation.
If windows and doors are delivered before they
can be installed, they should be protected from ■■ Provide the required pipe stub connection for
weather and damage. future radon removal, should radon prove to
be a problem after the house is occupied.
Batt insulation and drywall are very susceptible
■■ Determine the location of anchor bolts in
to water damage and must be protected.
the top of the foundation wall to secure the
framing to the foundation.

CHAPTER 2
■■ Ensure the concrete has cured and the first Roof Framing
floor framing is in place to provide lateral ■■ Design the roof system to support local snow
support before backfilling. and wind loads and the weight of the roofing
materials that will be used.
Framing
■■ Consider designing the roof structure to
Wood-frame construction is comprised of
support future solar thermal and photovoltaic
main structural members (the framing) and
panels. Consult an engineer to ensure that the
sheathing (oriented strand board or plywood
roof design addresses loading and electrical
that provides stiffness). The combination of
requirements.
framing members and sheathing provides
rigidity, space for insulation and a framework ■■ Use raised-heel trusses or deep rafters so there
for supporting interior finishes and exterior is room for adequate ceiling insulation where
components. See Chapters 8 to 11 for the roof meets the wall.
more information. ■■ Provide adequate ventilation in the roof space
to prevent moisture from accumulating in
Floor Framing
the attic.
■■ Use span tables to select the joist size for
the lumber species and grade, joist spacing, Exterior Finishes
span and loads. Where in-floor heating
requires concrete topping, floor joists should In addition to enhancing appearance, exterior
be deeper or more closely spaced. finishes serve as a barrier to the elements.
The cladding is the first plane of protection
■■ Consider how plumbing and ductwork will be for water penetration control. Exterior finishes
installed without disrupting the floor system. include a wide variety of cladding materials
■■ Use floor sheathing and sub-flooring (wood siding, brick veneer, vinyl siding,
appropriate for the joist spacing and the cementitious siding) as well as flashing, trim
type of floor finish. boards and sealant. Windows and doors and
the roof covering are also part of the exterior
Wall Framing finishes. See Chapters 5, 12 and 13 for more
■■ Wood panel wall sheathing provides significant information on exterior finishes.
resistance to lateral loads from high winds and
earthquakes. In areas with a risk of high winds Flashing
and earthquake loads, thicker sheathing, closer The purpose of flashing is to prevent water from
nailing patterns and the provision of “braced entering the building envelope and to intercept
panels” may be required to strengthen walls. any that passes the first plane of protection and
■■ Select appropriate sheathing thickness and direct it to the exterior. Flashing is usually
nailing patterns to provide adequate resistance required wherever there is a discontinuity on
to lateral loads. exterior surfaces (for example, above windows),
■■ Select a wall arrangement that will where there is a change in cladding materials
accommodate the necessary amount of (for example, vinyl siding above brick cladding),
insulation for your climate zone. and at roof valleys. Carefully plan the location of
flashing to fit with roofing materials, brick joints,
■■ Provide wall framing deep enough for the
sheathing membranes, windows, skylights and
required insulation and locate pipes or ducts
doors. See Chapter 14 for more information.
in interior walls.

CHAPTER 2
Attics, Roof Spaces and Roofing ■■ Windows are much less thermally efficient
than insulated walls. Consider the area,
Unconditioned attics must be separated from
arrangement and placement of windows
the conditioned environment by insulation,
carefully to balance views, ventilation and
an air barrier system and a vapour barrier.
appearance with thermal efficiency.
They should be vented to remove any moisture
that has entered from the conditioned interior
Doors
environment or the exterior environment.
The roof shape must effectively shed water ■■ Exterior doors must meet most of the same
and be covered with roofing materials and performance requirements as windows for
flashing that will prevent water from entering. heat, air and moisture control. Doors should
See Chapter 12 for more information. be located under overhang protection (roof
eaves, recessed under floors above, or canopies),
Windows, Doors and Skylights whenever possible.
Windows, doors and skylights separate the indoor ■■ Choose doors that are insulated to reduce
and outdoor environments, provide security heat loss and that have durable seals and
and natural light, and must also provide a weatherstripping.
degree of thermal insulation. See Chapter 15 ■■ Manufactured exterior doors, frames, locks,
for more information. latches and hinges meet a standard for
resistance to forced entry. Any site-built
Windows and Skylights exterior doors must also resist forced entry.
■■ Choose windows and skylights to bring in ■■ Consider installing wide or double doors if
light and fresh air, and to reduce winter heat you have exceptionally large appliances or
loss (thereby minimizing heating costs) and furniture (such as a piano), or to make a
summer solar heat gain (to keep cooling house accessible to wheelchairs.
costs down).
■■ Doors for wheelchair access should have
■■ Manufactured windows are classified
special thresholds of 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) or less
according to key performance attributes
in height.
such as insulating value (thermal conductance
or ER value) and their resistance to solar
heat gain, water penetration and wind and
Stairs
air leakage. Stairs provide access for people, furniture and
■■ Windows near the ground must provide appliances; and must be wide enough and
resistance to forced entry. have sufficient headroom to provide safe passage.
Falls on stairs are a major source of accidents,
■■ Consider the location, type and mode of and risk is reduced by strict adherence to code
operation, and the size of the rough openings requirements for the width, rise and run of stairs.
required for framing. Some types of windows See Chapter 17 for more information.
are easier to open for children and people
with disabilities. ■■ Open stairs must be surrounded by guards and
railings that meet code requirements for height
■■ Carefully design how windows will be flashed and lateral load resistance. Guards must be
and drained to prevent water from entering high enough to keep adults from falling over
the interior space and the adjacent wall them and balusters must be closely spaced to
assemblies, and how they will be connected prevent children from falling through them.
to the air barrier system.

CHAPTER 2
■■ Straight stairs make it easier to move large ■■ The sheathing membrane is a second plane of
objects, and can be fitted with lifts when protection that prevents water from entering
persons with disabilities need access to another the building envelope and allows water vapour
floor level. to drain and diffuse out of a wall assembly.
■■ Stairs can be built on site in rough form for ■■ Several materials can be used as sheathing
use during construction, then finished when membrane including asphalt-impregnated
the house is nearing completion. Alternatively, paper (tar paper), spun-bonded polyolefin
a temporary stair or ladder can be used during (housewrap) and self-adhering or liquid
construction and replaced with a finished stair waterproof membranes.
when the house is complete. In the latter case,
■■ A rainscreen (a drained and vented air
the stair design must account for the thickness
space acting as a capillary break between the
of the floor finishes and the stair opening must
cladding and sheathing membrane) is required
provide extra room in which to manoeuvre the
in wet climates, to allow water that gets past
finished stair.
the cladding to drain to the exterior and to
allow the space to dry. A rainscreen design is
Moisture, Air Leakage, recommended for all walls that will frequently
Vapour Diffusion and Heat be wet.
Transfer Control
Air Leakage Control
In modern wood-frame houses, continuous
insulation is needed to provide energy efficiency ■■ The air barrier system must be continuous
and comfort. A continuous air barrier system will around the entire surface that separates the
restrict air movement into and out of a house, conditioned (heated or cooled) environment
help provide thermal comfort, reduce heat loss from the unconditioned (outdoor)
and avoid moisture condensation in the walls and environment. Therefore, the components
ceilings that can cause damage. A vapour barrier that make up this “environmental separator”
prevents water vapour from migrating into the (such as walls, windows, doors and membranes)
framing and insulation. A sheathing membrane must be sealed to each other to make the air
is installed over the exterior sheathing to prevent barrier system airtight. Consideration must
inward migration of water that penetrates beyond be given to how the connections are made,
the cladding. The membrane should also allow for example, around rim joists between floors
vapour that has migrated from the conditioned during the design. The air barrier system must
space to dissipate to the exterior. The functions be capable of resisting wind loads.
performed by various materials in the building
■■ For house construction in Canada, the primary
envelope are described in the following sections.
material used in the air barrier system is most
See Chapter 5 for more information on this topic.
often 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene installed
Water Penetration Control on the interior (warm side) of the insulation
with all joints and penetrations taped or sealed.
■■ Cladding (wood siding, brick, vinyl siding, In this case, the polyethylene also serves as the
stone, stucco, etc.) forms a first plane of vapour barrier. It resists wind loads by being
protection and is detailed to limit the amount supported by the insulation and the drywall.
of water that gets past it.

CHAPTER 2
Vapour Diffusion Control the mid-efficiency equipment used previously

The vapour barrier should be relatively continuous and are now required by the building code.
but can be interrupted by penetrations such as Plan plumbing and ductwork in conjunction
floor joists. It does not need to be sealed unless with floor framing to avoid conflicts. Avoid
it is also part of the air barrier system. penetrating the air barrier system with plumbing,
electrical or other components. When fixtures
Heat Flow Control such as dryer vents, water pipes or electrical
conduit must penetrate the air barrier system,
■■ All assemblies that separate the conditioned take special care to seal around the penetrations.
environment from the unconditioned See Chapters 19 and 20 for more information.
environment, including attached garages,
must be insulated. This includes roofs, walls, Plumbing
foundations, windows and doors.
■■ Plan for all pipes, conduits and drains that
■■ The 2012 Interim Changes to the 2010 NBC must be installed in the basement floor.
regulate the “effective” insulation value for
each assembly or component of the building ■■ For radon control, install an inverted ‘T’
envelope for six different Canadian climate shaped PVC pipe in a convenient location
zones. More than one type of insulation may below the basement floor slab, with the vertical
be used to provide the effective insulation leg extending up through the slab and capped.
value. For example, batt insulation may be A fan and exhaust duct can be attached at a
used between wall studs in combination with later date to depressurize the gravel below the
rigid insulation installed on the exterior. slab if radon gas is detected.
■■ The effective insulation value is the ■■ If a sump pump is required, a sump pit must
combined insulation value of the studs, be incorporated into the basement floor.
sheathing, drywall and the insulation itself. Locate the pit so that it can be sealed from
Framing members, ducts and pipes reduce the the conditioned space to prevent soil gas
space available for insulation materials and and radon from entering the house.
reduce the insulating value of the assemblies;
therefore, the effective value is usually lower
■■ Consider how to finish the basement in
than the “nominal” value (the value of the the future and install roughed-in drains
insulation itself). below the floor slab for a future toilet, shower,
bathtub and/or sink. Install roughed-in piping
■■ Different types of insulation are needed for in the wall or ceiling to the nearest vent.
different parts of the building. For example,
only water-resistant insulation can be used on Electrical
the exterior of the foundation below grade.
■■ Locate the electrical meter where it can be
Plumbing, Electrical, Heating easily serviced by the electric utility provider
and not detract from the appearance of the
and Ventilation
house. Consider burying a conduit from the
Determine the type of domestic hot water hydro service to the meter to avoid having
heating systems to be used early in the design overhead wires. The electric service panel
process, considering system efficiencies, local should be installed inside the house near
practice and the availability and cost of fuel and the meter.
energy. High-efficiency appliances have replaced

CHAPTER 2
■■ Choose the size of the electrical service so assemblies. Painted gypsum board tightly fitted
that it has sufficient capacity for future and sealed to other air barrier materials can also
electrical needs, such as air conditioners, be part of the air barrier system. For more
exterior lighting and electrical appliances. information, consult Chapters 21 and 23.
■■ Consider burying a conduit from the
electrical panel to special landscape features Floor Coverings
or structures where you might need power Floors are subject to wear and tear. Higher-quality
or lighting. finish flooring can often be cost effective because
■■ Consider installing cable and telephone wiring it will likely last longer than less expensive
to the unfinished basement should you opt to flooring. The sub-flooring must be adequate
finish the basement in future. to support the finished flooring, especially
ceramic tile. Planning the type of finished
■■ Consider providing electrical rough-ins for flooring to be used can minimize elevation
future solar thermal and photovoltaic panels. differences (tripping hazards) between different
flooring materials. See Chapter 22 for more
Heating and Ventilation information. Consider polished concrete as a
■■ Plan where heating and ventilation ductwork finished floor, especially in areas where concrete
will be located and how it might affect floor can capture and radiate solar heat.
joists and wall insulation values.
■■ Use low-noise source exhaust fans. Decks, Porches and Balconies
■■ Consider the use of heat recovery ventilation Decks, porches and balconies are considered
as an energy efficient means of providing structures in the building code and when
required ventilation. over 600 mm (24 in.) above ground, must
be supported by frost-resistant foundations,
■■ Consider installing additional heating be laterally braced, be designed to accommodate
ducts close to the floor in parts of an the weight of people and snow, and have stairs
unfinished basement that might be finished and railings that meet code requirements.
in future. If planning to build a deck, porch or balcony
■■ Consider installing an exhaust duct to an in the future, provide for later attachment to
exterior wall cap for a future basement the house in a way that does not allow water to
bathroom. enter the wall cavity to which the structure is
attached. Any roof over a deck must be designed
Interior Wall and Ceiling Finishes to support the snow load. See Chapter 26 for
more information.
Gypsum board (drywall) is the most common
interior finish in Canadian houses. In addition to
Garages
providing a smooth, paintable surface, gypsum
board provides a degree of fire resistance to Attached garages are popular and common in
lightweight structural framing, allowing walls and Canadian houses. Because of the risk of carbon
floors to remain in place to provide some time monoxide getting into the house and the likely
for occupants to become aware of a fire and exit storage of paints, gasoline and other chemicals
the building. Interior partitions also play a role in the garage, it must be separated from the
in reducing sound transmission. Gypsum board house by an effective air barrier system. If there
also provides a degree of lateral resistance to wall is a connecting door, it must be tightly fitted

CHAPTER 2
and weatherstripped and provided with a closure. to the introduction of panel products such as
Ensure that the ventilation system for the house plywood, oriented strand board (OSB) and
is isolated from the garage to prevent fumes gypsum board; factory-built components,
from entering the living space. Even heated such as roof trusses, wood I-joists, windows and
garages are considered by the building code to cabinets; and improved power tools.
be unconditioned spaces (when the garage door
Construction time depends on many factors,
is open) and therefore any wall or ceiling that
especially the size and complexity of the house.
separates the garage from living space must be
For average-sized houses, about 16 weeks are
insulated. See Chapter 27 for more information.
required from start to finish. For more complex
houses, 18 or more weeks may be needed.
STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION This does not account for delays due to
Due to the wide variety of house styles and inclement weather, inspections, material
sizes, house construction may differ, but certain shortages, custom-ordered items or the scarcity
basic principles apply. The description of the of tradespersons during busy construction
house construction process in this book is based periods. Prior to construction, delays may be
on common wood-frame house construction incurred while obtaining financing and a building
techniques for a typical one-, two- or three-storey permit. While late spring, summer and early fall
house. Special features such as sunrooms or are the best times for construction in Canada,
swimming pools are not included in year-round activity is possible if precautions are
this description. taken to protect materials.
Canadian wood-frame house construction There are a number of stages in constructing a
continues to evolve. The time required for house that must be properly planned, coordinated
construction has decreased due in large part and executed (Figure 4).
4 Sample single house construction schedule
Stage of construction Minimum of 16 weeks for a average house

Drawings, Financing and Permits*
Layout of Building
Excavation and Footings
Foundations and Drainage
Framing and Backfill (includes roofing and flashing)
Doors and Windows
Plumbing, Heating and Electrical Rough-In
Insulation, Air and Vapour Barriers
Exterior Finishes Building
Interior Finishes closed,
secure
Paint, Cabinets and Fixtures
Landscaping
* Drawings, financing and permits as well as any other aspects of the pre-construction
stage will have a variable duration depending on site and house characteristics.

CHAPTER 2
Building Layout Framing

The first construction step is to position the About two weeks is needed to complete
building on the property. The services of a the framing and install roofing to provide
land surveyor may be required to establish the weather protection during subsequent stages
distances from the foundation to property lines, of construction. Built-in bathtubs and shower
locate the municipal services and establish the enclosures are usually installed at this time.
layout and the depth of the excavation. Framing dimensions must be appropriate for
these components. Once installed, they should
Excavation and Footings be protected from damage until the house is
finished. Chimney installation and the building
Excavation for the foundations may proceed once
of stairs or the installation of pre-manufactured
the building layout has been completed. This can
stairs is usually considered part of the framing
often be completed in one day depending on
stage. Deck framing is usually performed while
the type of equipment used and site conditions.
the landscaping is being done.
Another few days are needed to trench for and
install services, form and place footings, remove
footing formwork and lay out the foundation
Doors and Windows
walls and columns. Placement of the granular Installing doors and windows requires a few
layer and basement floor slab usually occurs days to complete and includes the installation
later when the basement plumbing rough-in of sub-sill membrane, flashing, locks and other
is completed. Storing topsoil and good quality hardware. Jamb extensions are usually part of
excavated material suitable for backfilling can the finishing carpentry work, and exterior trim
reduce the amount of imported fill and topsoil is usually installed by the trade installing the
for landscaping. exterior finishes. The air sealing of gaps around
window and door openings is usually performed
Foundations, Drainage as part of the insulation, vapour barrier and air
and Backfill barrier system work. Contact your building
official to inspect the completed house framing,
Foundations can be placed in one day by a including windows, doors and skylights.
skilled contractor and require at least one week
for concrete to cure before formwork can be Plumbing, Heating, Electrical and
removed. Dampproofing, foundation drainage
systems and backfill requires another day or two.
Ventilation Rough-in
Additional measures for foundation drainage The water-heating piping is installed. Plumbing
such as waterproofing, sump pumps, ditching or is installed to connect from the water service to
dry wells may be required. Backfilling should the water heater and fixtures. The electrical panel
not begin before the first floor framing has is installed. Electrical wiring, smoke and carbon
been anchored to the foundation and the first monoxide alarms, telephone and computer lines,
floor sub-floor has been installed because the and cable TV are roughed in. The furnace
floor framing helps to resist the soil pressure. ductwork or piping are installed, along with
Contact your building official to inspect the ductwork for exhaust fans and mechanical
footings and foundation and municipal ventilation equipment such as heat recovery
service connections. ventilators (HRVs). This work takes about two

CHAPTER 2
weeks to complete. Contact your building official Paint, Cabinets and Fixtures
to inspect completed plumbing, electrical and
Painting is performed at the beginning of
mechanical systems.
this stage followed by the installation of items
such as ceramic tile backsplashes. Next up for
Insulation, Air Barrier System installation are electrical receptacles, light fixtures
and Vapour Barrier and smoke alarms and equipment such as
Insulation, vapour barriers and air barrier furnaces, water heaters, mechanical ventilation
systems may be installed at the same time as systems, stoves and clothes dryers. The heating
exterior finishes, provided the insulated assembly contractor will install all grilles and registers for
is protected against moisture damage such as forced-air systems and radiators for hydronic
that caused by wind-driven rain. This stage or electric baseboard systems. Ensure that all
requires a few days to complete and requires installations have been inspected and function
careful fitting and sealing around mechanical properly and that operating instructions and
penetrations, fixtures and electrical boxes. warranties are provided. A final clean-up of the
Contact your building official to inspect the dwelling concludes the work. About two weeks
completed insulation, vapour barrier and air are normally required to complete this stage
barrier system. of construction.
Exterior Finishes Landscaping

One to two weeks are needed to complete this This final stage includes finished grading,
stage. If an exterior air barrier material such as a driveways, steps, walkways, ground cover,
sheathing membrane is being used, it is usually shrubs and trees. Carpentry work associated
applied at the same time as the exterior finishes with decks and fences, and plumbing work for
(however, it may also have been installed during items such as irrigation systems may also be done
the framing stage). Masonry, siding and stucco, at this time. Approximately one week is needed
soffit, fascia, eavestroughing, downspouts and the for this final stage; however, the time will vary
caulking and flashing of windows and doors are depending on the nature of the landscaping.
all part of the exterior finishes stage. Exterior trim Additional time is required for special features
and millwork, staining and painting may also be such as decks and pools. If a house is completed
included during this stage. in the fall or winter, landscaping will be delayed
until warm weather arrives.
Interior Finishes
This stage includes the installation of ceiling,
wall and floor finishes, shelving and cabinets.
Finishing carpentry for interior doors, frames
and trim along with stair balusters and handrails
is usually done immediately after the floor,
wall and ceiling finishes have been prepared
for painting and varnishing. The interior
finishing stage normally requires about two
weeks to complete.

CHAPTER 2
■■ The house can be seen as a system in which ■■ Construction is a necessary human

the building, the environment and the endeavour and one that consumes large
occupants interact. All the components, amounts of energy and resources. All stages
systems, materials and assemblies of a of construction affect, to varying degrees,
house need to balance one another and the five principles of sustainable housing:
work together to provide affordable healthy indoor environment, energy
shelter, health and safety for the occupants, efficiency, resource efficiency, environmental
consume as little energy as possible and responsibility and affordability.
have minimal impact on the environment. ■■ Sustainable houses are designed to last for
■■ Sustainable houses incorporate materials generations, and when they are no longer
that (a) do not adversely affect occupant useful, they can be easily dismantled and
health; (b) are highly insulated and airtight recycled for other uses.
to reduce energy use; (c) are planned to ■■ Energy is required to extract raw materials
use materials and space efficiently and
for the production of construction products
can adapt to occupants’ changing needs;
and to manufacture, transport and install
(d) are adapted to the local climate and
them (their embodied energy). Careful
cause minimal damage to the environment;
storage and protection of materials reduces
and (e) are designed to minimize capital
waste and therefore helps to reduce the
and operating costs.
effects of construction on the environment.
■■ Building with wet materials can lead to
■■ Sustainable houses should provide only as
future moisture problems, mold and
much living volume as is needed.
related indoor air quality problems.
About Your House: Canada’s Housing Construction System,

About Your House: Photovoltaics (PV) Systems,

CHAPTER 3
Concrete
Concrete, both non-reinforced and reinforced, Aggregates used in the manufacturing of concrete
is often used for footings, foundation walls, should not contain sulphides such as pyrite,
basement floor slabs and garage slabs-on-grade. pyrrhotite and marcasite as these compounds
Concrete for columns, fireplaces, chimneys and may oxidize and hydrate, leading to volume
foundation walls must have a minimum strength increases within the concrete material causing
of 15 MPa (2,200 psi). Basement floors must the concrete to crack and spall, or the release
have a minimum strength of 20 MPa (3,000 psi). of sulphate which produces sulphate attack
Garage and carport floors, exterior steps and upon the cement paste.
driveways must have a minimum strength of
Whether concrete is delivered from a plant or
32 MPa (4,600 psi), and air-entrained concrete
mixed on site, additional water should not be
must be used for exterior applications.
added at the construction site to make concrete
Air entrainment is required to reduce degradation easier to place. Additional water will lower
caused by de-icing salts and exposure to freezing strength, increase permeability and decrease
temperatures. The tiny air bubbles also make freeze-thaw resistance. If more workability is
concrete more workable and easier to place than required, the concrete supplier should be asked
plain concrete. Air entrainment for exterior to adjust the mix, possibly by adding a plasticizer
applications must be between 5 and 8 per cent. or other concrete admixture to improve
In areas where soils are sulphate reactive, cement workability and placement, while conforming
types 20, 40, 50 or equivalent must be used to to the appropriate concrete standards.
protect the concrete.

CHAPTER 3
Concrete
For site-batched concrete and concrete for garage water to produce a mixture that will work
floors, a slump test may be used to gauge the readily into angles and corners without causing
consistency and the workability of the concrete. free water to collect on the surface.
Slump is determined by filling a standard
The concrete mixes in Table 2 (Appendix A) are
cone-shaped form with concrete and measuring
considered acceptable for site-mixed concrete
the amount of settlement or slump that the
if the water to cement ratio is: 0.70 for walls,
concrete exhibits when the cone is removed.
columns, fireplaces, chimneys, footings,
foundation walls, and grade beams and piers;
READY-MIX CONCRETE 0.65 for floors other than those in garages and
Ready-mix concrete is available in most carports; and 0.45 for garage and carport floors
urban areas. Manufactured in plants to and exterior steps. Aggregate used in these mixes
established mix designs, the quality of must not be larger than one-fifth the distance
ready-mix concrete can be tailored to between vertical forms or one-third the thickness
meet strength, durability, and workability of the flatwork.
requirements of a particular application.
Workability is attained by the ready-mix PLACING CONCRETE
provider meeting the water-cement ratios
Place concrete into forms continuously in
set out in CSA Standard A23.1-09: Concrete
horizontal lifts not exceeding 1.2 m (4 ft.) in
materials and methods of concrete construction.
depth. Do not allow concrete to fall into the
forms from a height of more than 2.4 m (8 ft.)
ON-SITE MIXING as this causes the concrete to segregate. For higher
When mixing must be done on site, the water drops, use a pipe to deposit the concrete. Buggies,
and aggregate should be clean and free of wheelbarrows, chutes or pumping can be used
organic material or other substances that might to move the concrete to locations not accessible
damage the concrete. The aggregates should to ready-mix trucks. The chutes should be
also be well-graded, in other words, with the metal or metal-lined with round bottoms
correct proportion and size of fine and and sloped with a rise-to-run inclination
course aggregates. between 1:2 and 1:3.
The air-entraining admixtures must be added Do not deposit the concrete in a pile. Spread
according to manufacturer’s recommendations— and level it by raking or shovelling. Use vibrators
adding too much will decrease concrete strength. to consolidate the concrete but not to move it
Air-entraining admixtures should be used only horizontally. Compact the concrete uniformly by
in concrete mixed in a motorized mixer. means of tamping hand tools (puddling sticks)
or, preferably, by a vibrator.
On-site mixing can use premixed bags of
cement and aggregate. In such cases, follow the If it is necessary to interrupt concrete placement,
manufacturer’s instructions to obtain the desired the surface of the concrete placed in the forms
strength and durability. If site-mixed concrete is should be levelled. If partial setting has started
to be proportioned on site, determine the correct by the time concrete placement is ready to
ratios of fine and coarse aggregates, cement and resume, roughen and dampen the surface to

CHAPTER 3
Concrete
provide good bonding between lifts. For a surface Maintain moist conditions by placing a soaker
that has set, spread a bonding agent comprised hose around the top of the wall and allowing
of grout (1 part cement to 2 parts sand) about water to run down the wall. When water curing
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) thick over the roughened surface is not practical, spray-on curing compounds
between the two lifts. Place the new lift that inhibit evaporation can be used. If a
immediately after the grout has been applied. dampproofing compound is applied to the
wall, curing can progress without the need
When mixing and placing concrete (in all
for spraying.
temperature conditions), maintain its temperature
between 10°C (50°F) and 25°C (77°F). Do not In hot weather, concrete should be protected
place concrete against frozen soil and always from rapid drying. Wood forms should be
remove any ice and snow from the formwork. sprinkled with water while they are in place
to deter concrete drying.
CURING CONCRETE In freezing weather, freshly placed concrete
Newly placed concrete must be cured for a footings should be protected with a thick
set period of time to allow the concrete to layer of straw or other insulating material.
achieve its potential strength, water tightness For walls, it may be necessary to insulate the
and durability, and to minimize cracking. forms or to erect an enclosure and use space
To cure, concrete must be kept damp and heating appliances.
within a limited temperature range. Wall forms
Cure concrete slab-on-grade by spraying with
should be left in place for at least three days
water, covering with burlap kept continuously
to retain moisture for proper curing, and longer
moist, polyethylene sheeting or other means
if possible. After the forms have been removed,
to prevent moisture loss.
the curing should continue at least another
day if the concrete temperature is kept above Allowing concrete to cure properly is an important
21°C (70°F), and for another three days if step in the construction process. Attention to this
the concrete temperature is kept between step will help avoid costly problems.
10°C (50°F) and 21°C (70°F).

CHAPTER 3
Concrete
Environmental Responsibility ■■ Ensure formwork is adequate to retain

and Affordability the concrete after placement to avoid
swelled or failed forms that may result
■■ Consider using concrete with high fly-ash in wastage.
content to improve workability and reduce
the amount of cement and aggregate needed
■■ Use concrete with the required
in the mix. strength for the application and allow
it to cure so that it develops its full
■■ The cement in concrete is made by cooking potential strength and can have a long,
limestone at a very high temperature, satisfactory service life.
which means it takes a lot of energy to ■■ For sloped sites, use a stepped foundation
manufacture. To reduce environmental to reduce the quantity of wall and
impact and material costs: footing concrete.
■■ Estimate concrete quantities carefully ■■ Consider using fabric-type forms for
when ordering. footings to reduce formwork and protect
footings from rising damp.
CSA Standard A23.1-09/A23.2-09: Concrete materials and methods of concrete

construction/Test methods and standard practices for concrete,
Canadian Standards Association

CHAPTER 4
Lumber and Other Wood Products
Many types of wood components can be used GRADE MARKS

in wood-frame construction. The framing forms
Lumber used for construction in Canada is
the structural shell that encloses and divides
grade-stamped to show that it conforms to the
spaces, to which finishes are applied.
National Lumber Grades Authority (NLGA)
Lumber is commonly referred to by its grading rules for Canadian lumber. The grading
nominal dimensions (size before planing and grade marking of lumber must also conform
and drying), which are larger than its actual, to CSA Standard O141-05 (R2009): Softwood
finished dimensions. For example nominal Lumber. A grade stamp indicates the grading
2 by 4 in. lumber is actually about 11⁄2 by 31⁄2 agency, the species or species combination
in. Timber is lumber 114 mm or more (5 in. designation, the grade, the moisture content
nominal) thick in its smaller dimension. Table 7 at the time of manufacture and the mill number.
(Appendix A) shows the grades, common grade Facsimiles of Canadian grade marks are shown
mixes, principal uses and grade categories for the in Table 9 (Appendix A).
various sizes of dimension lumber. There are also
“S-GRN” in the grade mark signifies that the
decking, board and finish lumber groupings.
lumber was surfaced at a moisture content
Metric sizes of softwood lumber are expressed higher than 19 per cent to a size that would
in millimetres of actual thickness and width allow for natural shrinkage during seasoning.
after surfacing. The concept of “nominal size” “S-DRY” in the mark indicates the lumber was
is not used with metric dimensions; therefore, surfaced at a moisture content not exceeding
metric lumber dimensions are actual sizes. 19 per cent. KD (kiln-dried) indicates that
Table 8 (Appendix A) relates the current lumber has been dried in a kiln to a moisture
metric dimensions to the imperial equivalents content of 19 per cent or less. The moisture
(actual and nominal). content of framing lumber at the time of

CHAPTER 4
installation is not to exceed 19 per cent. Stud grade is 38 to 89 mm (2 to 4 in. nominal)

This means S-GRN lumber must dry thick and 38 to 140 mm (2 to 6 in. nominal)
before installation. The best way to limit deep lumber used for wall studs.
moisture in new construction is to use
Finger-jointed structural lumber manufactured
S-DRY lumber.
to the requirements of NLGA SPS 1 is
interchangeable with non-finger-jointed
LUMBER GRADES lumber of the same species, grade and length,
Each piece of construction lumber is examined and can be used for joists, rafters and other
and assigned a grade depending on its physical applications. Finger-jointed stud lumber
characteristics such as the size and location of manufactured to the requirements of NLGA
knots and the slope of the grain. The assigned SPS 3 can only be used as vertical, end-loaded
grade is an estimate of its strength. members in compression (such as wall studs).
Softwood lumber species having similar Construction and Standard grades are used
strength properties may be combined into for structural purposes. Construction grade
a single-species combination and marketed lumber has strength properties similar to
under a group designation. The most common No. 3 grade, and Standard grade is lower.
group is spruce-pine-fir (SPF). The Canadian Utility and Economy grades are not used for
commercial species combinations and their structural purposes.
characteristics are shown in Table 10
The National Building Code lists the
(Appendix A).
minimum grades for various uses of lumber
Select Structural grade is used where in wood-frame construction. Tables giving
high-strength, stiffness and good appearance maximum allowable spans for visually graded
are required. No. 1 grade may contain some lumber and for MSR lumber, when used as
percentage of Select Structural material, but joists and rafters, are available from the
permitted knots are slightly larger. Tests have Canadian Wood Council.
shown that No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber
have the same strength and therefore, No. 2 ENGINEERED WOOD
and better is a typical grade category for most PRODUCTS
general construction uses.
Several types of engineered wood products
There are two types of machine-graded lumber: (EWPs) are routinely used in wood-frame
machine-stress-rated (MSR) lumber; and house construction. These products can provide
machine-evaluated lumber (MEL). Both MSR equivalent or superior strength compared with
and MEL are produced using non-destructive dimension lumber and are typically manufactured
stiffness measuring machines. using less wood fibre and available in long
The grade stamp on MSR and MEL lengths. They include: wood I-joists, glulam,
indicates strength properties. MSR and MEL plywood, oriented strand board (OSB),
are most often used in applications where laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and others.
strength is crucial, such as for manufacturing Dimension lumber and other wood products
wood trusses. are often combined in the manufacture of EWPs

CHAPTER 4
using glue or mechanical fasteners (for example, to LVL. Members are available in a variety of
prefabricated trusses). See Figure 5. Wood I-joists widths, depths and lengths, and are primarily
consist of lumber or LVL flanges and OSB webs. used as beams, columns and headers.
Laminated strand lumber and oriented
5 Examples of engineered strand lumber are manufactured using wood
wood products strands combined with an adhesive and are
oriented and formed into a large mat and
pressed. LSL and OSL are commonly used
as beams, headers and studs.
SHEET OR PANEL PRODUCTS

metal web
Panel products such as plywood and oriented
strand board (OSB) are used in wood-frame
construction to add rigidity to roof, wall and
floor framing, and to provide a uniform surface
wood web for the application of roofing, cladding and floor
finish materials.
Plywood is made of thin layers or plies of
wood I-joist
wood glued together with the grain direction
of adjacent plies perpendicular to each other.
Common thicknesses range from 6.0 to 18.5 mm
(1⁄4 to 3⁄4 in.). Like dimension lumber, plywood is
graded for particular uses. Douglas fir plywood
All these products provide design flexibility by (DFP) and Canadian softwood plywood (CSP)
virtue of their longer span capabilities and higher are the most common types of sheathing
strength compared to dimension lumber. plywood. All sheathing-grade plywood is made
Structural composite lumber (SCL) includes with exterior-grade glue. Overlaid plywood is
laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallel-strand plywood that is sealed with paper and resin and
lumber (PSL), laminated strand lumber (LSL) used for concrete formwork.
and oriented strand lumber (OSL). Oriented strand board (OSB) is a structural
Laminated veneer lumber consists of thin panel made from wood strands mechanically
veneer panels laid parallel to the longitudinal oriented in layers, with the outer layers running
direction, coated with a waterproof adhesive, parallel to the long dimension of the sheet,
and bonded by heat and pressure. Available in and the inner layers having a random alignment.
a wide variety of sizes and strengths, LVL may OSB is made with exterior-grade glue and is
be cut into desired lengths for use as beams, structurally equivalent to plywood. It is primarily
columns, headers (lintels), joists and as flanges used for roof or wall sheathing, sub-flooring,
for wood I-joists. siding and the webs of wood I-joists.
Parallel-strand lumber is manufactured using Waferboard is made of wood wafers that, unlike
thin veneer panels cut into narrow strips and OSB, are not oriented. It has been replaced by
then bonded together using a process similar OSB and its availability in Canada is very limited.

CHAPTER 4
Fibreboard is made of wood fibres bonded 1.523 × 1.523 m (5 × 5 ft.) in size. It is generally
together under pressure. It is available both plain used as floor underlay or interior finishing such
and asphalt-impregnated, which is used primarily as shelving and other cabinetry. It is also used as
for wall sheathing. Medium-density fibreboard a substrate for plastic laminate counter tops.
is often used for interior mouldings, trims and
Hardboard is made of wood fibre, like
casings.
fibreboard, but is denser and harder. It is used
Particleboard is composed of fine wood particles for furniture and cabinetry products. Hardboard
held together with phenolic glue and pressed siding is prefinished and is an alternative to
into panels usually 1.22 × 2.44 m (4 × 8 ft.) or wood, vinyl or aluminum.
Healthy Indoor Environment overall insulating value of a wall, roof or

floor assembly. NBC insulation requirements
■■ Glued wood products made for structural
are based on effective RSI-values, which take
uses such as for floor joists or sheathing
into account the lower insulation value of
(plywood and OSB) must be made from
studs and other thermal bridges.
water-resistant adhesives so that wetting
during storage and construction will not ■■ Wood framing provides space for insulation,
weaken them. Such adhesives have very which can result in highly insulated structural
low volatile organic compound (VOC) components that take up very little space.
emission rates. Where higher insulation levels are required,
consider using wood-framing materials
■■ Glued wood products made for interior
such as “I” joists that allow more space
uses such as particleboard and other
for insulation, yet use minimal amounts
wood products often used for furniture
of dimensional wood.
and cabinetry use more economical glues
that have higher emission rates. Sealing the
Resource Efficiency
faces and edges of a panel with a laminate
drastically reduces emissions. Low-emission ■■ The use of engineered wood products such
boards are available. as wood I-joists is common because of their
span and performance capabilities and their
Energy Efficiency efficient use of wood fibre. Finger-jointed
lumber makes use of short lengths of lumber.
■■ Though a fairly good insulator, wood is
not as effective as non-structural materials ■■ Advanced framing, or optimum value
made specifically for thermal insulation. engineering, uses design restrictions to
The wood structural members have a reduce the amount of wood framing in a
lower insulating value than the surrounding building. This can lead to a 15–20 per cent
insulation. These “thermal bridges” conduct reduction in the quantity of wood used.
heat towards the cold and reduce the

CHAPTER 4
Continued
Environmental Responsibility Affordability

■■ Attention is needed to reduce wood waste. ■■ Part of the cost of wood products is the
Order carefully, use off-cuts, and choose energy used to dry and transport them to
framing spacings that minimize usage. the site. Careful planning, proper storage
and handling, and good construction
practices will minimize waste and cost.
Wood Products,
Canadian Wood Council (web content available at www.cwc.ca)
CSA Standard O141-05 (R2009): Softwood Lumber,

CHAPTER 5
Functions of the Building Envelope:
Water, Air,Vapour and Heat Control
This chapter contains information about

important functions that impact all parts of the Important: The building envelope performs
building envelope and influence the design of several functions (such as structural support,
construction elements covered in Chapters 7 fire protection and noise control), which are
to 15. They are introduced early in this book to discussed in later chapters. This chapter
help ensure the design of the building envelope focuses on the building envelope’s functions
is considered from the outset and at each stage as an environmental separator: the control
of house design. of water, air, vapour and heat, because these
physical processes have a crucial effect on
The building envelope is the outer “skin” of building performance:
the building that acts as a barrier or separator
between the exterior and interior environments ■■ they affect comfort, durability and cost
of a building. It is comprised of the foundation of operation;
walls and basement floor, the above-grade ■■ they require careful planning and
exterior walls, attic, ceiling and roof, as well as construction; and
openings including windows, doors, skylights
and mechanical and electrical penetrations.
■■ if inadequately controlled, they can
lead to problems that are difficult or
Every building envelope is a system and many expensive to correct.
inter-related issues affect its performance and
durability. The designer and the builder must
carefully consider the interaction between the The durability of the building envelope of
interior and exterior environments as well as wood-frame structures is directly affected by
the materials and components that comprise four inter-related physical processes of moisture,
the building envelope to provide a durable, air, vapour and heat moving through the various
long-lasting building.

CHAPTER 5
Functions of the Building Envelope: Water, Air, Vapour and Heat Control
assemblies. These processes act on the building WATER PENETRATION

envelope in different ways and with different CONTROL
intensities. The assemblies and materials that
comprise the building envelope are selected The building envelope for a wood-frame house
and arranged to effectively control these controls exterior precipitation (usually water
four processes: from rain, snow and ice melt) by deflecting
moisture away from a wall, draining any moisture
■■ Water penetration control prevents water
that penetrates into the building envelope back
from entering the interior space or building
to the exterior, and allowing any accumulated
envelope assemblies and causing premature
moisture to dry over time. See Chapters 12 to 15
deterioration of materials. This is the most
for specific construction details.
important function because water potentially
causes the most rapid and destructive All walls are required to have a primary and a
deterioration of the building envelope. secondary line of defence against rain penetration.
■■ Air leakage control through the materials, The first plane of protection is typically the
interfaces and joints of the building envelope cladding (for example, siding, masonry or
provides occupant comfort, minimizes heating stucco). It includes accessories such as trim
and cooling energy use; and limits the or caps that are part of the cladding system.
potential for condensation. Uncontrolled air The second plane of protection ordinarily
leakage allows moisture to move through consists of a sheathing membrane or insulating
the building envelope, which can also result sheathing, flashing, sealants and other materials,
in severe deterioration of the building and is intended to:
envelope assemblies. ■■ intercept any water that has penetrated the
■■ Vapour diffusion control through the first plane; and
materials that comprise the building ■■ drain those relatively small quantities of
envelope limits the potential for condensation. incidental water to the exterior.
Water vapour diffusion through the building
envelope is a very slow and uniform physical Both the first and second planes of protection
process. As a result, the accumulation of must provide adequate protection of the wall
condensation-related moisture occurs slowly assembly where penetrations have been made
and is less likely to lead to damage. for windows, doors, ventilation ducts, piping,
wiring and electrical outlets; and at the interface
■■ Heat flow control through the materials
with other wall assemblies. These penetrations
that comprise the building envelope provides
and interfaces at openings are where most
occupant comfort, minimizes heating and
wall assemblies develop problems over
cooling energy use; and limits the potential
for condensation. their lifetime.
The designer must choose appropriate assemblies Deflection: components and features of the
of materials and develop appropriate interface building envelope (such as overhangs) that limit
and penetration details to address all of these the exposure of assemblies and details to water
control functions. The following sections describe running along surfaces of the building envelope
how design and construction of wood-frame and divert it from the assembly (shingle lapping
houses can control water penetration, air leakage, materials and drip edges and flashings).
vapour diffusion and heat loss.

CHAPTER 5
Drainage: surfaces (such as the back side of the site is wet with some probability of hydrostatic
cladding, or the sheathing membrane) within pressure occurring, additional measures must
assemblies that redirect any water that enters be taken to provide adequate water penetration
the envelope downwards and out to the exterior. control (such as using a waterproof membrane,
Drying: features that encourage vapour diffusion and crack and control joint waterproofing
and air movement to transport water vapour, details). See Chapter 7 for more information.
and evaporate moisture from surfaces. These
features include vapour permeable materials Walls Above Grade
(which allow water to diffuse to the surface Cladding such as wood siding, stucco or brick
of materials), and in some cases, vented or veneer provides a first plane of protection
ventilated air cavities located on the interior against precipitation ingress in above-grade
side of the cladding. wall assemblies. In geographic locations where
The following sections describe the water the probability of wetting due to precipitation is
penetration control aspects of some common high and the drying potential of the walls is low,
building envelope assemblies: basement floors, a capillary break (an air space) must be provided
below- or above-grade walls and roofs. between the first and second plane of protection
in exterior walls. This configuration is commonly
Basement Floors called a rainscreen. The need for a rainscreen
is determined by the Moisture Index (MI) for
Basement floors are usually constructed on dry a particular geographic location. MI values are
sites or have sufficient drainage such that water provided for many locations in Canada as part
penetration control is not a primary concern. of the climatic data tabulated in building codes.
Polyethylene sheet dampproofing is normally
placed over granular material before the concrete The capillary break, or air space, allows
slab is poured to reduce the amount of moisture precipitation that penetrates past the cladding
entering the basement from below the slab. to readily drain on the backside of the cladding,
When bulk water penetration is a concern, or alternately on the sheathing membrane,
a waterproof membrane is applied over a slab which provides a second plane of protection
at least 75 mm (3 in.) thick, and a second slab against precipitation ingress. The air space also
at least 75 mm (3 in.) thick is poured over the allows materials to dry by means of evaporation
membrane. The waterproof membrane must and exchange of air.
be connected to the wall membrane to form a Capillary breaks can be provided by:
complete seal.
■■ a 10 mm (7⁄16 in.) gap between the sheathing
Walls Below Grade membrane and the cladding (usually furring
strips are used) so that water droplets do
Dampproofing (usually a bituminous coating) not infiltrate between the cladding and the
acts as the primary barrier (the first plane of sheathing and can drain back to the exterior;
protection) against water penetration from the
exterior side of the foundation wall. The concrete ■■ a mesh material not less than 10 mm (7⁄16 in.)
foundation wall can be considered a second plane thick and at least 80 per cent open;
of protection. The use of a drainage composite ■■ common horizontal metal and vinyl siding,
product can also provide improved drainage at without contoured insulated backing, that
the exterior surface of the wall. Neither of these is loosely fastened to the sheathing and is
planes of protection will address water penetration designed with a 10 mm (7⁄16 in.) space at the
control at joints or cracks in the concrete. So if bottom of each horizontal strip; or

CHAPTER 5
■■ the air space in masonry cavity walls allowing The sheathing membrane should be installed so
moisture to drain to the exterior. that it intercepts any moisture that gets behind
the cladding (the first plane of protection) and
In order to be effective, a capillary break must be
directs it outward over flashings, at openings,
provided over the full height and width of a wall,
at changes in cladding materials and at the base
except where openings (such as windows and
of walls. The sheathing membrane must be
doors), service penetrations (such as pipes, ducts
permeable enough to permit water vapour to
and electrical outlets) or flashings are present.
diffuse from a wall assembly to the exterior.
Where furring is used to provide the gap, it must
One layer of sheathing membrane is generally
not cover more than 20 per cent of the wall area.
used and may be applied horizontally or vertically
A screen should be installed at the bottom of
with 100 mm (4 in.) or greater laps at the joints.
the capillary break or air space at foundations,
A second layer may be required for added
windows and doors to prevent insects from
moisture protection.
getting in. The top of the capillary break should
not vent into the attic space as this can lead to Common breather-type sheathing membranes
condensation on surfaces in the attic. Although on walls are asphalt-saturated felt, building
blocking at the top of the capillary break restricts paper and spun-bonded polyolefin (housewrap).
ventilation, it does not impede drainage, which is Vapour permeable liquid membranes and
the more important aspect of water penetration self-adhered sheet products are also used
control for rainscreen construction. for sheathing membranes. Some sheathing
membrane materials (such as spun-bonded
In conventional wood-frame construction, polyolefin) can also be utilized as part of the
sheathing membranes are applied over the air barrier system, where they are required to
OSB or plywood sheathing in horizontal be structurally supported. Self-adhered vapour
strips, shingle-lapped at the joints and stapled. permeable sheet membranes are desirable in these
When rigid or semi-rigid insulation is applied situations because the adhesion helps to provide
over the exterior of wall sheathing, the sheathing the necessary structural support.
membrane may be applied over the outside
face of the insulation (when the outboard Where wall sheathing is not used, two layers
insulation type must be protected from of sheathing membrane are needed unless
wetting) and fastened through to the frame large panel siding such as plywood is used.
wall. Alternatively, the sheathing membrane Apply both layers vertically with 100 mm (4 in.)
may be applied over the wall sheathing and or greater laps at the studs. Staple both layers
on the inside face of the insulation (when the to the framing members, the top layer with
outboard insulation type does not need to be staples spaced 150 mm (6 in.) or less along the
protected from wetting). Some rigid insulation edges of the sheet to hold it securely in place.
products such as extruded polystyrene are also See Chapter 10 for more information.
relatively vapour impermeable. If used, care must
be taken in the selection of cladding material and Roofs
detailing to ensure that no significant amounts On pitched roofs with slopes where the rise
of water reach the interface between the extruded and run are equal to or greater than 1:6,
polystyrene insulation and the vapour permeable asphalt-saturated sheathing paper is applied
sheathing membrane. This risk may dictate the over the roof sheathing to provide a secondary
use of insulation products with high vapour plane of protection to water that may penetrate
permeability and low water retention, such as beyond the primary plane of protection—the
mineral fibre. shingles, tiles or metal roofing.

CHAPTER 5
Pitched roofs with slopes less than 1:6 require a When the air pressure is greater inside than
waterproof membrane, usually consisting of one outside, air will flow outwards through any holes
or more layers of bituminous membrane with or cracks in the building envelope, carrying with
joints shingle-lapped and welded, self-adhering it any water vapour it contains. This is called
“peel-and-stick”membrane, reinforced liquid “exfiltration.” The reverse, called “infiltration,”
applied membranes, or an EPDM (ethylene is true when the air pressure outside is greater
propylene diene monomer) rubber membrane. than inside, and air will flow in through holes
The lower pitch of these roofs does not shed and cracks.
or drain water as readily as a steeper pitch,
and therefore requires a more robust and Air Barrier System
completely waterproof membrane.
The NBC stipulates that the building envelope
must be designed and constructed with a
AIR LEAKAGE CONTROL continuous air barrier system comprised of
Water vapour can be driven through the air barrier assemblies to control air leakage into
building envelope by air movement (which or out of the conditioned space. Air leakage
can be controlled by an air barrier system) control requires a continuous air barrier system
and vapour diffusion (which can be controlled carried through the basement floor and walls,
by the use of low-vapour-permeable materials above-grade exterior walls and ceilings adjacent
placed at appropriate locations relative to the to roofs. Air leakage control within building
insulating materials). This section describes envelope assemblies can be accomplished by
how the air barrier in the building envelope incorporating materials with low air permeability,
controls air movement. Vapour diffusion is which are fairly common in house construction.
discussed in the “Vapour Diffusion Control”. However, joints and penetrations must also be
sealed to stop air leakage, and the air barrier must
Wood-frame houses should be constructed as be supported to prevent deformation or tearing.
airtight as possible. In addition to protecting Polyethylene sheets are commonly used as an
the building envelope, airtightness promotes air barrier in wood-frame construction and are
energy efficiency, eliminates thermal comfort relatively easy to secure, seal and support on
issues related to drafts, allows for better control wood framing.
of natural and mechanical ventilation, reduces
the transmission of outdoor noise and controls In addition to polyethylene sheets, other
odours. Air leakage through the building materials such as spun-bonded polyolefin,
envelope can also result in water vapour gypsum board, sealants, gaskets, spray-applied
condensing on cold surfaces, and this moisture foam, rigid insulation, concrete, plywood or
can lead to deterioration of materials within the OSB sheathing, metal and glass can be used as
building envelope if allowed to accumulate for part of the air barrier. All joints, connections and
sufficient time. Airtightness is cumulative—good penetrations must be sealed using tapes, gaskets,
workmanship in the construction of each element foams, sealants and membranes in order for the
of the entire building envelope is essential to its building envelope to be airtight.
proper performance.
Location of the Air Barrier System
Air leakage through the building envelope
occurs as a result of differences in air pressure Because air movement through holes and cracks
from inside to outside the building caused by in the building envelope plays a much greater
the operation of fans or the action of wind. role in transporting water vapour than vapour

CHAPTER 5
diffusion through materials (in the order The concrete basement wall can form part of
of 30 times more), the air barrier system is the air barrier system and should be sealed to
more important than the vapour barrier in the concrete floor and to the air barrier for the
preventing moisture from moving through upper floors. If radon or soil gases are present,
the building envelope. they can be controlled by sealing the concrete
floor to the walls, and by sealing at drains,
The air barrier system can be located anywhere
cracks and penetrations.
in the assembly. However, in Canadian
wood-frame house construction, a combined
Air Barrier Details
air barrier and vapour barrier is often provided
by 0.15 mm (6 mil) sheet polyethylene under Many places in the building envelope such as
the gypsum board wall and ceiling finish rim joists, tops and ends of partition walls,
that is sealed at joints, penetrations and openings, services, vent stacks, chimneys,
interruptions, such as windows and floor unusual framing details and electrical, plumbing
junctions. When combined in this manner, and mechanical penetrations are prone to air
the air and vapour barrier must be located leakage (Figure 6) and must be carefully sealed in
on the warm side of the insulation to minimize a durable manner (that is for the life of the
the possibility of condensation in a wall or building). Durability is important because the air
roof cavity due to vapour diffusion. barrier is seldom accessible for maintenance or
repairs once the building envelope construction
There may be reason for separating the has been completed.
air barrier system from the vapour barrier.
For example, it may be beneficial to locate
an air barrier on the exterior side when 6 Examples of air leakage locations
insulation is added outside the wall framing.
Typical air leakage
However, when an air barrier membrane is paths into an attic
placed outside the insulation (for example, through ceiling
penetrations
housewrap), it must be permeable to vapour
in order for the assembly to dry towards the
exterior. This is explained in more detail in
the “Vapour Diffusion Control” section.
Polyethylene is commonly used for the
air barrier in roofs and attics. It is usually
attached to the roof framing on the warm
side of the attic insulation and to the wall
air barrier. For the polyethylene to perform
as an air barrier, it must be structurally
supported. In typical house construction,
this is accomplished by having the sealed
polyethylene layer supported on one side
by drywall and on the other by framing
and insulation.

CHAPTER 5
It is important to reiterate that the air barriers (housewrap) from the inside of the lower wall,
described for the following areas of a house must around the outside of the rim joist, to the inside
be connected and sealed in order to provide a of the wall above (Figure 7). The housewrap
continuous air barrier system. is then sealed to the polyethylene air barriers
on the inside of the walls above and below.
Basement Floors Because it is vapour-permeable, the housewrap
will not impede vapour flow at the rim joist.
A concrete floor or polyethylene sheet can
Similarly, the junction between foundation
serve an air barrier. The floor air barrier must
walls and sill plates, the sill plate and joist
be sealed to the air barrier in the below-grade
headers and the rim joists and the subfloor
walls. This can be done by caulking the joint
material must be made airtight by installing
between the floor and basement walls.
sealants and gaskets between adjoining elements,
or by wrapping the outside of the header with
Walls Below Grade a sheet material capable of making the
Concrete walls or polyethylene sheet can serve header airtight.
as an air barrier. The below-grade wall air
barrier must be sealed to those of both the 7 Carrying the air barrier around
basement floor and the walls above grade; a rim joist at a floor intersection
and should be caulked or sealed to the air
barrier at the floor framing (for example,
by wrapping the joist header with spun-bonded
polyolefin as described in the next section)
to make the air barrier continuous. If the
sealant
basement walls are insulated on the interior,
it is important to restrict the movement of air
to the face of the concrete foundation wall
because it will be cold, significantly increasing
the potential for condensation. This can best
be accomplished by placing rigid insulation
directly onto the concrete and sealing
insulation board joints.
Walls Above Grade

When the air barrier is on the interior of air tight rim wrap
sealed to interior
the wall framing, it can be easily sealed to
air barrier system
the polyethylene attached to the underside
of the roof framing. However, it is difficult
to install a polyethylene air barrier where the
floor joists meet an exterior wall because the If the plane of airtightness is located on the
joists interrupt the continuity of the air barrier. interior of the building envelope, the electrical
It is good practice to wrap vapour-permeable wiring, outlets and switches and recessed
(and air-impermeable) spun-bonded polyolefin light fixtures penetrating through the plane

CHAPTER 5
of airtightness must be constructed airtight. unless it also forms part of the air barrier. It is
Airtight electrical boxes are recommended for more difficult to achieve an effective air barrier
fixtures, outlets and switches located in the at this location because the materials must be
building envelope. When polyethylene serves cut and fitted between the joists (Figure 8).
as an interior air barrier component, it should Sprayed closed-cell foam is commonly used
be lapped over and sealed to the electrical in this location because it fills the space tightly
boxes. Alternatively, wrap electrical boxes with and acts as both insulation and air barrier.
0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene, then lap over When also serving as an air barrier, the edges
the polyethylene on the wall and tape or caulk of the polyethylene covering the fitted insulation
the polyethylene wrapper to it. The lap should
should be caulked to the framing, in order to
be at least 100 mm (4 in.) and occur over a
seal the joints and prevent exfiltration. Rigid
framing member. All wires should be caulked
insulation is suitable in this location, and some
where they enter the box to prevent air leakage.
semi-rigid or soft insulation materials that come
It is preferable to avoid locating electrical outlets
with a reinforced aluminum backing can also
on exterior walls when possible.
be used effectively.
A vapour barrier is required for insulation
Make the interfaces between windows,
installed between the ends of floor joists in
doors and skylights and wall/ceiling assemblies
the rim joist space but does not need to be
airtight by sealing all junctions between the
carefully sealed to the joists and floor sheathing
8 Placement of air barrier over joist headers
corner wall joint
air barrier header wrap wall studs
bottom wall plate

insulation along joist (second floor)
parallel to exterior wall
floor joist
vapour barrier and batt
or spray foam insulation
Note: Polyethylene is not to be used as a header wrap.

CHAPTER 5
polyethylene air barrier and the window, unheated spaces or the exterior and ducts,
door, or skylight frame (Figures 9 and 10). chimney flue and pipe penetrations must
Overhangs and cantilevered floors over also be made airtight.
9 Air barrier and moisture management details at window head
drainage space
wood siding
weather resistive barrier (WRB)
over flashing
head flashing extends min. 100 mm

(4 in.) window beyond both sides
WRB over top of window frame
window frame
double glazing
trim around window
foam insulation
backer rod and interior sealant
10 Air barrier and moisture management details at window sill
wood stud wall framing
OSB sheathing
weather resistive barrier (WRB)
wood furring
drainage space between siding and WRB

foam insulation
siding
sill flashing with end dam extends

out over trim below window
sub-sill flashing directs moisture

out from under window to
drainage space
metal angle backdam with caulking seal

CHAPTER 5
Windows can be installed in line with either rain but relies more on flashings to deflect water.
the exterior or the interior surface, or in the Installing the window in the middle of the wall,
middle of the rough opening, as shown in as shown, requires less exterior flashing and trim,
Figure 11, in walls, including highly insulated and provides space for an interior window sill.
wall assemblies that may be dimensionally
Garage doors that separate heated garages
thicker than conventional walls because of
from unheated space or the exterior must be
added insulation. Installing the window in line
weatherstripped. Fireplaces must be equipped
with the interior wall will help to reduce the
with doors or enclosures to restrict air movement
potential for condensation on the glass as it
in the chimney when the fireplace is not in
is in a warmer location but may require deep
use. These improvements are not air barriers,
sill flashings and window trims on the exterior.
but should help to reduce air leakage.
This reduces window exposure to wind-driven
11 Window in highly insulated wall
drainage space
wood furring
trim
backer rod and sealant

(or spray foam) to connect the
wall air barrier to the window
window shims
foil-faced, self-adhered membrane

sill flashing complete with end-dams
exterior trim
sheathing membrane (air and water barrier)
sheathing
cavity insulation
cladding (any type)
exterior insulation
drainage space

CHAPTER 5
Roofs partitions are built before the ceiling air barrier

is installed, the top and ends of the interior
It is common to install the ceiling air barrier
partitions should be covered with strips of
before the interior partitions are built, because it
polyethylene or polyolefin at least 450 mm
is easier to make an airtight connection between
(18 in.) wide (Figure 12), which are subsequently
the wall top plates and unconditioned spaces
lapped and sealed to the wall and ceiling air
(such as attics). Alternatively, when the interior
barrier materials.
12 Polyethylene strips at end of partition and over wall top plates to provide
continuity of the air barrier
top plate of stud

partition keyed into
exterior wall
‘house-wrap’ AB tab
over top plates of
interior and exterior
stud walls below roof
polyethylene VB tab
between interior and
exterior stud walls

CHAPTER 5
The strips can be installed between the two top Vapour Barrier
plates to avoid damage during construction
(Figure 13). In the winter, the air inside the house may
contain more water vapour than the outside air.
The air barrier can be lapped under and taped This causes a difference in vapour pressure and
to the strip of polyethylene at the top of the wall. creates a driving force that can lead to water
This is sealed to the polyethylene attached to the vapour diffusing through materials into the
underside of the roof framing to ensure that the building envelope. Many building materials
air barrier system is continuous at the junction are permeable to the passage of water vapour,
between the walls and roof. but those classified as vapour barriers, such as
polyethylene sheet, have very low permeability
To reduce air leakage through the attic hatch,
and are very resistant to diffusion.
install a compressible gasket between the
opening portion and the frame and latches
Location of the Vapour Barrier
to keep the hatch closed.
To prevent condensation from forming
VAPOUR DIFFUSION within building envelope assemblies, materials
CONTROL that act as vapour barriers (vapour retarders),
including certain types of insulation, must be
Water vapour can migrate through building located within the assembly so that moisture
envelope assemblies by penetrating through moving from the inside to the outside does not
materials by ‘diffusion’. Many activities such condense and accumulate within the assembly.
as cooking, dishwashing, laundering and This means that vapour barriers should be
bathing release considerable amounts of located on the warm side of insulating materials
water vapour into the air and increase its (Figure 14). An exception to this rule is permitted
humidity. As water vapour diffuses through for walls where no more than one third of the
assemblies, it can condense on cold surfaces total thermal resistance or RSI-value (R-value) is
such as the inside face of the exterior sheathing located on the interior side of the vapour barrier.
and cause deterioration.
13 Installation of polyethylene sheet strips in interior wall framing
double top plate
polyethylene or polyolefin
air barrier tab
stud

CHAPTER 5
This is common in double-wall construction Basement Floors

that maintains a sufficiently warm temperature
Dampproofing and air barrier protection against
at the vapour barrier to prevent condensation
radon leakage into conditioned spaces is usually
from vapour diffusion in most Canadian
provided by a sealed polyethylene barrier under
climate zones.
the basement slab. This arrangement also
Polyethylene film is the most common constitutes a vapour barrier.
vapour barrier used in Canadian houses.
Other materials serve as vapour barriers such Walls Below Grade
as metal foil, polystyrene insulation, sprayed
Dampproofing on the exterior wall is required
polyurethane foam, polyisocyanurate insulation,
to keep moisture out (see “Water Penetration
metal and glass.
Control: Walls Below Grade”). If insulation is
A vapour barrier must be continuous but does located on the exterior (see Figure 15), a vapour
not need to be sealed. (An air barrier needs to barrier is not required. If there is insulation on
be continuous and must be sealed). As a result, the interior wall (see Figure 16), an interior
sheet polyethylene can only serve as both vapour dampproofing membrane may be required,
barrier and air barrier if it is sealed to form a if moisture-sensitive materials (for example,
continuous airtight assembly around the framing and batt insulation) are situated close
perimeter of the house. to the concrete foundation walls. In this case,
14 Combined air barrier/vapour barrier
staple polyethylene to studs and plate

and lap all seams by at least 100 mm (4 in.)
0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene
plate
stud
place a bead of acoustical sealant around
perimeter and over top of polyethylene
at seam ensuring that the sealant
is continuous and in line with
the stud and plate.
A B

CHAPTER 5
a vapour barrier is required to prevent vapour and finishes have some resistance to the flow of
from entering the space between the wall finish heat, insulation materials are required to provide
and the concrete wall. The vapour barrier is sufficient levels of thermal resistance. Insulating
typically sheet polyethylene. materials have nominal thermal resistance values
determined by laboratory testing. Construction
Walls Above Grade assemblies have effective thermal resistance values,
which usually are lower than nominal values
For wood-frame residential construction, the
because they take into account thermal bridging
most common vapour barrier for above-grade
through materials caused by framing members
walls is sheet polyethylene. Vapour barrier paint
and fasteners that have less insulating value than
on gypsum board or plaster can also be used.
the insulation material itself.
Spaces between floor joists at floor/wall junctions
also require a vapour barrier. The most common Wherever one component of a building envelope
are sheet polyethylene as shown in Figure 16 meets another part and the planes of insulation
or rigid insulation. The vapour barrier must do not physically join, the insulation must be
be tightly fitted into these spaces, but does overlapped for a distance of at least four times the
not need to be sealed. distance separating the insulation. For example,
where above-grade walls with insulation on the
Roofs exterior meet a foundation wall with insulation
on the interior, the insulation is separated by the
Sheet polyethylene is usually used as a vapour
thickness of the foundation wall. In this situation,
barrier in ceilings separating conditioned space
interior insulation must overlap the exterior
from attic space.
insulation by four times the thickness of the
foundation wall.
HEAT FLOW CONTROL
The National Building Code has requirements Types of Insulation
for minimum insulating values in building Insulation is manufactured from a variety
assemblies. The building envelope must be of materials and in various forms. The most
designed to ensure adequate performance of common types of insulation used in wood-frame
the insulation by preventing the decrease of the housing are described below.
effective thermal resistance due to air leakage,
convective loop heat flow, thermal bridging or Batt Insulation
moisture. The required levels of insulation are
determined by the number of heating-degree Batt insulation is made from fibres of glass,
days (NBC Appendix C) where the building mineral or steel-mill slag spun together with
is located. a binding agent. The product comes in lengths
and widths to fit standard framing spaces and
Insulation in a range of thicknesses that provide different
RSI-values (R-values). Most batt insulation is
The effectiveness of a building assembly such as called “friction fit” because it is made slightly
a wall or ceiling in resisting the flow of heat is wider than the standard framing space and
measured as its thermal resistance or RSI-value held in place by friction. Batts should not be
in metric units (R-value in imperial units). compressed to fit a smaller space because this
Although materials used for structure, cladding reduces the insulation value.

CHAPTER 5
Loose-Fill Insulation Amount of Insulation

Loose-fill insulation is made of materials The NBC (9.36) has requirements for
such as cellulose fibre and mineral wool minimum effective levels of thermal insulation
fibre and is installed by pouring or blowing for houses. Compliance can be assured by
it into spaces between the framing. In attics, following prescriptive requirements, or by
the loose fill extends above the top of the demonstrating that the calculated performance
ceiling joists to raise the insulating level and meets or exceeds the performance of a reference
reduce thermal bridging caused by the framing house. For buildings other than housing and
members. Loose fill insulation in walls must small buildings, the insulation requirements
be installed behind a membrane that permits are contained in the National Energy Code
visual inspection to ensure there are no gaps
for Buildings.
or voids before the interior finish is applied.
The prescribed amount of insulation is based
Rigid Insulation on climate severity as determined by heating
Rigid insulation is manufactured in sheets or degree-days (HDDs). The HDD value is the
boards using materials such as polyisocyanurate cumulative sum of the differences between
and expanded or extruded foamed plastic 18°C (64°F) and the mean temperature for
and is usually applied to flat surfaces such as every hour of every day in the year when the
walls. Extruded polystyrene has low moisture mean temperature is below 18°C (64°F)
permeability and can be used in damp conditions (NBC Appendix C).
such as on below-grade walls.
As shown in Tables 11 to 13 (Appendix A),
Semi-rigid Insulation the NBC prescribes minimum insulation
values for each part of the building envelope
Semi-rigid insulation boards are made of glass or depending on climate zone. Compliance can
mineral fibres and usually applied to flat surfaces also be demonstrated by modeling the proposed
such as walls. They are more flexible than rigid house and showing that it uses no more energy
insulation products and not as easily damaged by than a similar “reference” house that meets
impact or bending. Some semi-rigid insulation the prescribed minimum requirements in the
has good drainage properties and can be used on building code.
below-grade walls.
All walls, floors and ceilings that separate heated
Foamed-in-place Insulation space from unheated space or the outside air
Specially formulated polyurethane and must be insulated to at least the levels required
isocyanurate insulations can be installed in the NBC for those locations, unless the house
by spraying or injecting under pressure. is intended for seasonal use only. Trade-offs are
The liquid sets into a rigid mass within minutes permitted between some building assemblies.
of installation. Some products develop heat or For example, the thermal resistance of a wall
expand during the curing process. Ensure that the could be less than the minimum required if
products being installed are approved for use in additional insulation is provided elsewhere,
houses, and have a qualified contractor perform so that the overall insulation value is maintained
the installation under well-ventilated conditions. on an area-weighted average basis.

CHAPTER 5
When a house has a heat recovery ventilator Wall assemblies inclined less than 60° from
(HRV) and complies with minimum air-tightness horizontal are considered to be roof assemblies,
requirements, the insulating values can be and roof assemblies inclined 60° or more
reduced in most cases. Refer to the NBC for from horizontal are considered to be wall
insulation requirements for building assemblies assemblies for the purposes of determining
when HRVs are installed. the effective thermal resistance. In calculating
The NBC requires the building envelope to the effective thermal resistance of roof assemblies,
have a minimum effective thermal resistance all related structural framing must be taken
but allows some minor penetrations such as into account.
pipes, ducts, equipment with through-the-wall It is relatively easy and economical to insulate
venting, packaged terminal air-conditioners or wood-frame construction by filling the spaces
heat pumps, shelf angles, anchors and ties and between the framing members with interior
associated fasteners, and minor structural insulation, which usually costs less than insulation
members, as permitted thermal bridging intended for exterior use. Typically, insulated
elements. Unheated and unventilated enclosed wood frame walls use 38 × 140 mm (2 × 6 in.)
spaces, such as porches and garages, are not studs with wood sheathing and batt insulation.
required to be insulated. However, in colder Canadian climate zones,
Major structural penetrations through the additional insulation is required either in the
building envelope such as floor and roof exterior or interior side of the framing members
decks, balcony slabs, beams, columns and (see Table 11 Effective thermal resistance of
ornamentation or appendages must be taken assemblies in buildings with a heat recovery
into account in determining effective thermal ventilator in Appendix A).
resistance when the sum of their areas is greater
Methods of insulating these different areas are
than 2 per cent of the penetrated gross wall area.
explained in the following sections. The figures
Except for a balcony or canopy, any ornament show a number of possible methods of insulating
that penetrates an exterior wall or insulated building elements, but there are other
roof or ceiling and breaks the continuity of the acceptable methods.
insulation must be insulated (a) on both of
its sides inward or outward from the building Basement Floors
envelope for a distance equal to 4 times the
thickness of the penetrated wall insulation; Insulation is generally not required under
and (b) to an effective thermal resistance no basement floors that do not contain heating
less than that required for the exterior wall. elements. RSI 2.32 (R13) insulation must
be placed under heated floor slabs in climate
Mechanical ducts, chases and electrical zones up to 4999 HDD, and RSI 2.85 (R17)
system components such as pipes, conduits, is required in colder climates. Extruded
cabinets, panels or recessed heaters located in polystyrene is commonly used under basement
the building envelope must have an effective floors because it is resistant to damage from
thermal resistance not less than that of abutting water and is strong enough to support most
assemblies. Expansion or construction joints, floor loads.
or joints between walls and doors or fenestration,
must be insulated to provide thermal continuity
across the joints.

CHAPTER 5
Walls Below Grade conditioned spaces must be insulated around their

perimeters to reduce heat loss from the slab to the
Exterior Insulation foundation wall, or wall insulation must be placed
on the outside of the foundation wall and extend
When foundation walls enclosing conditioned
down to the level of the bottom of the floor.
space are insulated on the exterior, the insulation
must extend at least to the bottom of the floor of When insulation is applied on the outer
the conditioned space. If the top of a footing is surface of a wall or a slab perimeter, it must
less than 0.6 m (2 ft.) below the exterior ground be a type not susceptible to water damage such
level, wall insulation must extend down to the as expanded or extruded polystyrene. It may
top of the footing and the same level of insulation also be a type designed to drain water, such as
must be placed on the top or bottom surface high-density, rigid glass fibre or mineral fibre
of the floor and extend at least 1 m (3 ft. 3 in.) insulation. The portion of the insulation above
from the perimeter. A floor-on-ground with grade must be protected by 12 mm (1⁄2 in.)
imbedded heating ducts, cables or pipes must cement parging on wire lath applied to the
have insulation placed under its entire bottom exposed face and edge, cement board or
surface. All floors-on-ground enclosing preservative-treated plywood (Figure 15).
15 Concrete wall with rigid insulation on outer face
base flashing
batt insulation
vapour barrier tightly fitted to framing
sill plate barrier
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) cement parging on
wire lath nailed to sill plate
and concrete
type 4 extruded polystyrene,

or type 2 expanded polystyrene,
or rigid glass fibre insulation
bonded to concrete
granular backfill around insulation

to protect against damage due to
frost heave
concrete wall

CHAPTER 5
Interior Insulation batt insulation and vapour barrier (Figure 16).

If adhered to the concrete and sealed around
Foundation walls may be insulated on their
the board perimeters, it can effectively isolate
interior surfaces. Framing materials should be
the cold interior concrete surface from interior
separated from a concrete wall by dampproofing
air and reduce the potential for condensation.
materials. Polyethylene should not be used for
this purpose with new concrete walls because it Rigid insulation should be bonded to the wall
does not allow the drying of moisture escaping with cement grout or synthetic adhesive applied
from the concrete. Building paper protects the in bands forming a grid pattern. This pattern of
framing and insulation from moisture damage bonding is recommended to limit warm moist air
by conducting the moisture to the bottom of movement behind the insulation since this can
the wall. Alternatively, expanded or extruded cause condensation and moisture accumulation
polystyrene insulation may be installed against between the wall and the insulation.
the concrete foundation wall prior to the framing,
16 Concrete wall insulated with rigid insulation and batts
vapour-permeable sheathing
membrane sealed to upper and
lower air barrier materials
air barrier
batt insulation between joists
vapour barrier
batt insulation
25 mm (1 in.) expanded polystyrene

insulation continuous over concrete
12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board
38 x 89 mm (2 in. x 4 in.) studs

at 600 mm (24 in.) on centre
vapour barrier
caulking
concrete wall

CHAPTER 5
For fire safety reasons, polystyrene insulation Insulating Concrete Form

on the inside of house must be covered by an Foundations
acceptable finish, such as drywall.
Insulating concrete form (ICF) walls are concrete
Preserved Wood Foundations walls cast in polystyrene forms that remain in
place after the concrete has cured (Figure 17).
Insulation is normally placed between the studs Most ICF walls are “flat” ICF walls, which means
in preserved wood foundations. The stud cavity that the concrete is of uniform thickness over the
should be filled to prevent air pockets and the width and height of the wall. The NBC requires
possibility of convection loops within the cavity, that any exposed polystyrene be protected by a
as they would cause heat loss. fire-retardant material, such as gypsum board.
17 Insulated concrete form foundation wall
insulated stud wall
OSB sheathing
spray insulation
insulating concrete form (ICF)
additional insulation
sub-slab insulation
fabric footing-forming system

CHAPTER 5
Walls Above Grade (Figure 18a). In climate zones where required

effective insulating values cannot be provided
Figure 18 shows three different approaches for
within the framing space alone or where higher
insulating within and beyond the stud space
insulation levels are desired, additional insulation
and foundation wall. In warmer climate zones,
must be provided on either the inside or the
the required level of thermal resistance can be
outside of the framing (Figure 18: b and c).
achieved using batt insulation in the stud space
18 Location of thermal insulation
2 Story stud insulation 2 Story inside insulation 2 Story outside insulation

(a) Insulation within (b) Insulation inboard of (c) Insulation outboard of
framing space framing space framing space

CHAPTER 5
Double wall framing can be used to provide and erected as a single unit, or erected separately.
more space for insulation (see Figure 19). Polyethylene film or mesh is attached to the
The interior stud wall should be kept apart interior stud face to contain loose fill insulation,
from the exterior load-bearing stud wall to allow when it is used to fill the stud cavity.
for continuous insulation and prevent thermal
Figure 20 shows an example of a wall with
bridges. The interior and exterior wall sections
insulation contained in the framing space.
can be connected with OSB or plywood spacers
19 Double-wall framing construction
sheathing
membrane
air/vapour barrier
between joists
siding
polyolefin joist header
wrap sealed to
interior air barrier
loose-fill insulation
sheathing
20 Typical 38 × 140 mm (2 × 6 in.) wall
polyethylene sheet
insulation
wood framing
sheathing membrane (air barrier)
sheathing
horizontal siding

CHAPTER 5
Figures 21 and 22 show examples of walls if the joints between the sheets are taped and
insulated within the framing members and if the air barrier system is continuous and
have insulation outboard of the framing. sealed at doors, windows and other penetrations.
If the air barrier is provided on the interior of the
Some types of semi-rigid insulation come with
building envelope, the exterior rigid insulation
a spun-bonded polyolefin sheet attached to one
does not need to be sealed unless it is also part
surface. This material is vapour permeable but air
of the second plane of protection resisting
impermeable, and may serve as an air barrier
water ingress.
21 Brick veneer cladding with insulation in the framing space and outboard

polyethylene sheet
batt insulation
38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) framing
rigid insulation sheathing

100 mm (4 in.) clay brick
25 mm (1 in.) air space
22 Siding with insulation in the framing space and outboard

polyethylene sheet
batt insulation
38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) framing
expanded polystyrene nailed to studs

horizontal siding attached to furring
Note: Bracing required in walls at corners.

CHAPTER 5
Electrical and mechanical features such as Where there is no finished ceiling on the
boxes, pipes and ducts should not be installed underside of the floor, the insulation must
in exterior walls. Where this cannot be avoided, be supported (to prevent the insulation from
the NBC allows slightly reduced insulation levels falling through). For friction-fit batts or rigid
at these locations provided the plane of insulation insulation (Figure 23), attach wire lath, “chicken
is continuous. Air barrier continuity at these wire”, wood furring or a vapour permeable
penetrations is still important. sheet material to the bottom of the joists.
Small spaces at intersections in corners and For loose fill-type insulation, provide solid
around openings must contain insulation that support with a vapour-permeable material
is not compressed. (to avoid creating a vapour barrier on the
cold side of the insulation).
Walls between dwelling units and garages must
be insulated to the same level as exterior walls, Fit insulation around cross-bridging or blocking
whether the garage is heated or not, because between joists and insulate small spaces such
garages may be left open for extended periods as those between blocked double joists or joist
of time. spaces below a wall. The NBC requires that a
vapour barrier be installed on the warm side
Floors over Unconditioned Spaces of the insulation, which is usually the upper
Floors over unheated crawl spaces or over garages side in a floor over an unconditioned space.
must be insulated. It is common to fill the space A plywood or OSB subfloor with tight-fitting
between the floor sheathing and a gypsum board or sealed joints can serve as the vapour barrier.
ceiling under the floor with insulation.
23 Floor over unheated crawl space insulated with friction-fit batts
finish flooring
polyethylene
vapour barrier
friction fit or
loose fill insulation
wood floor joists
vapour-permeable
air barrier material
wire lath (or other

suitable material)

CHAPTER 5
To provide the required insulating value, where the roof meets an exterior wall must be
additional insulation may have to be installed equal to or greater than the insulation level in
below the insulated framing space. Install wood the wall.
framing perpendicular to and underneath the
Thick batts are made for insulating roofs in
floor framing. Fill the framing cavity with
widths equal to the full centre-to-centre distance
insulation, which will cover the underside
of standard roof framing. The lower portion
of the floor framing and thus prevent
is slightly compressed when installed between
thermal bridging.
the framing, but the upper portion retains
its width and covers the tops of the framing,
Roofs and Ceilings thus reducing thermal bridging (heat loss)
through the framing.
Truss or Rafter-Type Roof Ceilings
Before the 1970s, conventional roof trusses were Loose fill insulation can also be used to cover
usually about 150 mm (6 in.) deep where they the framing. Use insulation baffles to prevent
rested on exterior walls, which didn’t leave much loose fill insulation from spilling onto eave
space for attic insulation. Since the oil crisis of vents (Figure 24) and from being displaced
the 1970s, roof trusses have a “raised heel” design by wind entering the vents. Where loose fill
at the plane of the exterior wall, which makes insulation is installed in a roof space over a
them 250 mm (10 in.) deep or more at this sloped ceiling, the slope of the surface must
location and provides more space for insulation. not exceed 4.5:12 for mineral fibre or cellulose
The NBC requires that the level of insulation fibre insulation, and 2.5:12 for other types of
loose fill insulation.
24 Eave details to avoid blocking ventilation
Ordinary truss heel joint

25 mm (1 in.) minimum
continuous air space
air ventilation baffle
perforated soffit

CHAPTER 5
Joist-Type Roof Ceilings vented to prevent the accumulation of moisture,

or the space must be filled with insulation (such
When roofing is attached directly to the top of
as sprayed closed-cell foam) that prevents air
ceiling joists as is the case for cathedral or sloped
vapour from condensing within the insulation or
ceilings, the space above the insulation must be
on other surfaces in the roof (Figures 25 and 26).
25 Insulating joist-type roof ceiling between the ceiling and sheathing
roof sheathing
89 mm (31⁄2 in.) recommended

ventilation space
cross members
prefinished fascia
perforated soffit
insulation batts
air barrier system
and vapour barrier
gypsum board
roof joists
26 Alternative method of insulating joist-type roof ceiling between the ceiling

and sheathing
holes in web to cross
ventilate between joists
63 mm (21⁄2 in.) minimum
ventilation space
roof sheathing
wood I-joist
baffle
prefinished fascia
perforated soffit
insulation
air barrier system
and vapour barrier
ceiling

CHAPTER 5
Another approach is to place the insulation Polystyrene insulation is commonly used on

above the sheathing, as is commonly done with the outside of roof sheathing and protected
low-slope roofs (Figure 27). Insulation exposed by the roofing membrane.
to the weather must be impermeable to moisture.
27 Insulation of a flat joist-type roof ceiling above the sheathing
40 mm (11⁄2 in.) crushed stone or gravel
built-up roofing membrane
type 4 expanded polystyrene insulation
vapour barrier (only required

for vapour permeable insulation)
9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) plywood sheathing

(roof not used as a walking deck)
roof joist
12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board ceiling
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Controlled mechanical ventilation can

provide better quality air to the house than
■■ Batt and loose fill insulations release
uncontrolled ventilation through air leakage.
airborne particles. As a result, masks and
gloves should be worn when handling or
Energy Efficiency
disturbing these materials.
■■ Reducing air leakage and using high levels of
■■ Polystyrene and polyisocyanurate insulation
insulation save heating and cooling energy.
must be protected against exposure to fire.
■■ Consider providing insulation levels higher
■■ Controlling the movement and condensation
than those required by the building code
of water vapour with a vapour barrier and
to increase the overall energy efficiency
sufficient insulation reduces the likelihood
of the house.
of mold problems.
■■ Reducing air leakage with an air barrier Resource Efficiency
system also reduces the likelihood of ■■ Where possible, use insulation materials
moisture condensing in the walls or roof
made from industrial by-products or recycled
and causing decay and mold growth.
waste such as most glass, mineral fibre and
cellulose insulations.

CHAPTER 5
Continued
Affordability ■■ Vapour and air leakage control is

crucial for prolonging service life
■■ The payback period for the cost of installing
and avoiding expensive repairs to
additional insulation may likely become
building assemblies.
shorter with the passage of time should
energy costs rise.
2010 National Building Code of Canada (Part 9.36 and Appendix C),
2011 National Energy Code for Buildings,
Building Enclosure Design Guide, Homeowners Protection Office (HPO),
British Columbia
Building Envelope Guide for Houses, Homeowners Protection Office (HPO),
British Columbia
Canadian Home Builders’ Association Builders’ Manual,
Canadian Home Builders’ Association

CHAPTER 6
Location and Excavation
MARKING THE Additional markings are needed because

EXCAVATION AREA these stakes will eventually be lost during
excavation. Offset markings may be located
Check with the municipality or township for by extending the lines of the foundation walls
minimum setback and side yard requirements from the established corners, and fixing these
before deciding the exact location of the house offset markings either with stakes or marks on
on the site. The proximity of the house to a surrounding permanent objects. These markings
property line can also affect such things as the are used after excavation to erect batter
size of window openings, soffits and exterior boards (Figure 28).
cladding so that the house does not pose a fire
risk to a neighbouring house. The area to be excavated is staked out, usually
600 to 700 mm (24 to 28 in.) wider than the
Always check with local utility companies prior corners of the house. This extra width is needed
to digging to ensure that the excavation will not for easy handling and erection of the formwork,
interfere with buried services. Inadvertently placement of the drain pipe, application of
cutting telephone, gas or power lines can prove dampproofing and placement of the exterior
costly and result in injury. After the site is insulation, if this is intended. Fluorescent paint
cleared, mark the perimeter of the house using may be applied to the ground to mark the
the exact location of the corners of the lot as a perimeter of the excavation.
reference. The latter are usually determined by
a certified surveyor, marked by small wooden Excavations more than 1.2 m (4 ft.) deep must
stakes accurately located at each corner, with have a back slope to ensure the safety of those
nails driven into their tops indicating the outside working near the edge of the excavation.
line of the foundation walls.

CHAPTER 6
28 Establishing the lines of a house
if corners are square

diagonals are equal
outside line of
foundation wall
saw kerf
batter board B
taut line
plumb bob
nail
1.2 m (4 ft.) minimum

3m
t.)
outside line of (12f (9
ft.)
foundation wall 4m
5 m (15 ft.)
EXCAVATION SIZE The basement headroom and the elevation of the

AND DEPTH floor above grade also affect the depth of the
excavation. Basement headroom for finished
Before excavating begins, topsoil should be basements must be at least 2 m (6 ft. 7 in.) to the
stripped and stored for reuse. Some excavated underside of beams or joists. If the basement is to
material suitable for backfill may be stored on be used as a living space, however, the headroom
site and surplus material removed from the site. must be at least 2.1 m (6 ft. 11 in.), the same
The depth of the excavation is established during minimum height as the other finished floor
the planning stage, depending on the access to areas. The elevation of the first floor should allow
the street, sewer and water services, the profile for a minimum distance from finished grade to
of the lot, the level of finished grade around the beginning of exterior finishing (normally
the perimeter of the house and the elevation starting at the top of the foundation)
of adjoining properties.

CHAPTER 6
of 150 mm (6 in.) for masonry and metal sufficient for accommodating the thickness of
siding, and 200 mm (8 in.) for wood siding, the footings. If a site is well drained and only a
plywood, hardboard and stucco (Figure 29). dampproofing membrane is used without the
This is intended to minimize damage to framing granular base underneath, the main excavation
and cladding from melting snow and rainwater need only extend to the elevation of the top
deflected from the ground and to protect the surface of the footings. When this is done, the
wood from insects and pests. footings are formed by trenching. Adequate space
must be provided for the drainage pipe outside
Poor soil conditions may require the excavation
the footing.
to be deepened until suitable soil is encountered.
The foundation depth can also be affected by Insulate the excavation in the winter to prevent
the water table or bedrock elevation. Ensure that frost penetration. Building on frozen soils can
excavation does not affect the foundations cause problems that are difficult and costly
of adjacent buildings. Contact your local to remedy.
building department when these situations
The rough grade around the house should
are encountered.
be kept at least 100 mm (4 in.) below the
Ensure the excavation is deep enough to line established for the finished grade to
accommodate the granular base under the allow for subsequent placing of topsoil or
basement floor slab. This depth is usually paving material.
29 Finish grade sloped for drainage
200 mm (8 in.) minimum for

wood-based siding and stucco

for masonry or metal siding
slope for drainage
finish grade
foundation

CHAPTER 6
PLACEMENT OF THE HOUSE (1⁄4 to 3⁄8 in.) deep or install nails where the lines
touch the boards to mark the position of the
After the excavation has been completed, the next
lines so that they can be replaced if needed.
step is to establish the lines and elevation for the
footings and foundation walls. Figure 30 shows Two methods are commonly used to determine
a convenient arrangement of batter boards for whether the building corners are square. The first
this purpose. is to measure the diagonals. If the diagonals
between building corners are equal, the building
Using the previously established location of the
corners are square (Figure 28). Another method
foundation walls, place three stakes of suitable
known as triangulation calls for measurements
length at each corner at least 1.2 m (4 ft.) beyond
along one side of the corner a distance in
the lines of the excavation. Nail horizontal boards
multiples of 300 mm (12 in.) and along the
as shown in Figure 30 so that the tops of all
adjacent side the same number in multiples of
the boards are level and at the same elevation.
400 mm (16 in.). The diagonal, or hypotenuse,
Wire or stout string is stretched across the tops
will have an equal number of multiples of
of opposite boards at two corners and adjusted
500 mm (20 in.) when the corner is square
exactly to follow the line of the outside edge of
(Figure 28).
the foundation wall. Cut saw kerfs 6 to 8 mm
30 Method of setting batter boards and establishing corners for excavation
batter board
dryline
plumb line which

represents the
foundation wall
corner line
back slope
workspace for
tradespeople
wall-footing junction
footing on
undisturbed soil
using formboards
subsoil

CHAPTER 6
The location of a house on a building lot Resource Efficiency

must meet local zoning requirements for ■■ Set foundation elevations so that excavated
height, size and setbacks from property
fill can be used for rough site-grading.
lines. The lot must also have access to the
The builder should choose the proper
street and, if necessary, provide space for
elevation to avoid having to dispose of
parking. Once these criteria have been met,
surplus fill or to import new fill.
there may be opportunities to situate the
house to take advantage of some sustainable
housing principles.
■■ Protect existing trees and landscaping
Healthy Indoor Environment where possible. Protect drainage ditches
and sewers from silt, soil or chemical
■■ Schedule noisy activities during normal contamination resulting from
work hours to avoid disturbance. construction activities.
■■ Design surface drainage so that it is ■■ Remove, protect and re-use topsoil and
conducted away from the foundation to clean fill.
swales, ditches and sewers.
■■ Maintain natural runoff patterns.
■■ Build waterproof foundations and floor Avoid having surface water flowing
slabs in locations with high water tables. onto neighbouring properties.
Design site grading to convey storm water
Energy Efficiency
■■
to areas where it may infiltrate the soil and

■■ House orientation affects solar heat replenish groundwater.
gain through windows, which can lower ■■ Keep excavations clear of chemical
winter heating costs and increase summer
contaminants, refuse or degradable matter
cooling costs. Consider locating large
such as branches, stumps and roots.
windows facing south, with shading
devices to maximize winter solar gain
Affordability
and minimize summer heating. In addition,
consider locating smaller windows facing ■■ Establish the footing elevation to minimize
north to reduce winter heat loss. rock excavation and facilitate connection to
water and sewer service or on-site systems.
■■ Unshaded south-facing roofs and walls are
potential sites for collecting solar energy ■■ Avoid excessive foundation height or
(with solar panels for example). changes in direction and elevation that
would increase the cost of the foundation.
■■ Set the elevation so that exterior stairs are
not needed. In addition to reducing cost,
a level-entry makes a home more adaptable
to persons with limited mobility.

CHAPTER 6

About Your House: Photovoltaic (PV) Systems,
Glossary of Housing Terms,
Landscape Guide for Canadian Homes,
Collecting and Using Rainwater at Home: A Guide for Homeowners,

CHAPTER 7
Footings, Foundations and Slabs
FOOTINGS Table 3 (Appendix A) shows the minimum

depths for several soil conditions. A foundation
Footings receive house loads through foundation
built on fill should extend down to undisturbed
walls or columns and transmit these loads to
earth or be designed to suit the ability of the fill
the soil. The type and size of footings must
to support the building loads.
be suitable for soil conditions and be located
below the frost level. Alternatively, they must
Wall Footings
be placed on material that is not susceptible to
frost action or otherwise protected by exterior The size of wall footings should comply
insulation. Insulation may be used to protect with building code requirements. Table 4
shallow foundations from frost, but this requires (Appendix A) shows minimum concrete sizes
a professional design. Because water must be for average, stable soil and the number of stories
present for frost to occur, frost action can be supported. If the distance to the water table
further minimized by providing good drainage from the bearing surface is less than the width
around the foundation to direct water away of the footings, the footing sizes in Table 4 must
from the building. be doubled.
Footings should rest on undisturbed soil, rock Footings should project beyond each side of
or compacted granular material. The latter must the wall by at least 100 mm (4 in.), and the
not contain pyritic shale, a material found in the thickness of unreinforced footings should be
St. Lawrence lowlands and prone to swelling. no less than their projection beyond the wall.

CHAPTER 7
Footings must never be less than 100 mm If the footing excavation is uneven and too
(4 in.) thick (Figure 31). If the soil has low deep in places, compacted granular material,
load-bearing capacity, wider reinforced not excavated material, should be used to
footings may be required. Local building level the excavation. Pipe trenches directly
officials can provide advice on local conditions under wall footings should be encased
affecting footings. with concrete.
Forming a key on the top of the footings
(Figure 31) is a good practice that helps the
Wood Footings
foundation wall resist earth pressure at the Continuous preserved wood footings are often
bottom of the wall. It is good practice to place used instead of concrete footings for preserved
a polyethylene sheet over the footing for the wood foundations. Wood footings and the
width of the foundation wall. This will act as required granular drainage layer act together to
a capillary break, preventing moisture in the distribute loads from the structure to undisturbed
footing from wicking up into the foundation soil. The sizes of interior and exterior footings
wall. The polyethylene can also be connected are provided in the Canadian Wood Council
to the air barrier system in the basement floor publication entitled Permanent Wood Foundations.
and walls.
31 Size of footings
wall thickness
projection
key
polyethylene
capillary break
depth not less than

projection and never
less than 100 mm (4 in.)
width

CHAPTER 7
Column Footings least 100 mm (4 in.) and must never be less

than the column footing’s projection measured
Locate footings for posts or columns (Figures 32
from the edge of the column base plate to the
and 33) so that the members they will support
edge of the footing. Footings for fireplaces and
are centred. Footings vary in size depending on
chimneys are usually placed at the same time
the allowable soil pressure and the load they
as other footings.
support. On average stable soil, common sizes
are 0.4 m2 (4.3 sq. ft.)—about 640 × 640 mm Fabric form footings are an innovative way to
(25 × 25 in.)—for one-storey houses and 0.75 m2 cast and form concrete footings using non-woven
(8 sq. ft.)—870 × 870 mm (34 × 34 in.)—for polypropylene, woven polyethylene or other
two-storey houses. The thickness of column similar materials, with the fabric supplied in a bag
footings without reinforcement must be at format to form pads for columns or a continuous
32 Steel column supported on steel bearing plate resting on footings
steel column
layer of sheathing membrane or concrete floor
polyethylene around steel column dampproofing
to break bond of concrete to slab
granular fill
steel bearing plate
grout to level bearing plate
thickness
projection
concrete footing
The thickness of the footing must not
be less than the projection and never
less than 100 mm (4 in.).
33 Wood column supported on concrete footings
wood column
concrete floor
dampproofing
granular fill
layer of polyethylene
around wood column
thickness
projection
concrete footing

CHAPTER 7
format to form strip footings. The fabric is laid in split-level houses and walk-out basements.
on the ground and, when filled with concrete, Unless placed on rock, the bottom of each
conforms to the uneven ground surfaces. The run level of the footing should be placed on
fabric is left in place preventing rapid drying of undisturbed soil or compacted granular fill.
the concrete and eliminating the need to strip The vertical part of the step should be placed
away the formwork. When integrated into at the same time as the footing.
foundation forms such as ICF formwork shown
The vertical connection between footings at
in Figure 34, concrete footings and foundation
the step should be concrete at least 150 mm
walls can be cast in one continuous concrete pour.
(6 in.) thick and the same width as the footings
(Figure 35). On steep slopes, more than one step
Stepped Footings may be required. Except in rock, the vertical
Stepped footings may be required on sloping distance between steps should not exceed 600 mm
sites or where there is an unstable soil pocket (24 in.), and the horizontal distance between
under a footing. They may also be required steps should not be less than 600 mm (24 in.).
34 Fabric form footing and ICF foundation wall
Sub-slab insulation extruded polystyrene foam board

provides RSI 3.5 (R20) insulation minimizing heat
loss through floor slab
made using non-ozone-depleting expanding agent
Footing utilizing fabric forming system

easy leveling
prevents concrete water from entering water table
produces a stronger footing
single concrete pour for walls and footing
eliminates ground water entry
35 Stepped footings
grade entrance
finished grade
footing on undisturbed soil below frost line
600 mm (24 in.)

minimum step length 600 mm (24 in.) max.

CHAPTER 7
For sand or gravel, a vertical distance The required wall thickness of concrete and
between steps of no more than 400 mm concrete block walls varies from 150 to 300 mm
(16 in.) is recommended. For very steep (6 to 12 in.) depending on their height and depth
slopes, or where these limitations cannot be below grade and the lateral support provided by
maintained, special footings may be required. the floor-framing system. Table 5 (Appendix A)
shows minimum foundation wall thicknesses for
FOUNDATIONS solid concrete and concrete masonry units in
stable soils. Wall thicknesses may have to be
A foundation wall transfers the floor, wall, increased to support brick veneer and exterior
roof and other building loads (including insulation, as shown in Figure 36.
snow and occupant loads) down to the footings.
The four most common types of foundations In unstable soils, foundation walls should be
are cast-in-place concrete, concrete blocks, built to proven local practices or be designed
insulating concrete forms (ICF) and preserved by an engineer.
wood. Precast concrete may also be used.
36 Adjusting foundation thickness to accommodate insulation and

masonry veneer
brick veneer
air space
exterior insulation
offset stud wall
minimum thickness
required in Table 1A
minimum thickness required to

accommodate insulation and
support brick veneer above

CHAPTER 7
Formwork for Foundations the wall, are placed between the faces of the form
and removed as the concrete reaches their level.
Formwork for concrete walls must be tight,
Wire ties hold the forms firmly against the
well-braced and tied to withstand the pressure of
spacer blocks.
the concrete. Reusable forms are made of plywood
or steel. Steel form ties are used to hold the two Formwork can also be made with lumber
sides of the formwork together and to serve as (tongue-and-groove or shiplap), supporting
spreaders to maintain the necessary width members and form ties. It can be built in sections
between the formwork (Figure 37). The ends and erected on site. Where the forms are higher
of the ties are usually broken off after the than the top of the concrete pour, mark the
concrete has cured and the holes are patched. desired elevation on the forms with chalk lines,
Where wire ties are used, wood spacer blocks, pour strips or nails to indicate the desired
whose length equals the finished thickness of concrete elevation.
37 Concrete formwork and combination form ties
wall thickness
break point
reusable forms —
plywood or other facing
waler
horizontal bracing
diagonal brace
if required
form tie
stake
block
anchor bolt
cast-in-place concrete wall
strip footing

CHAPTER 7
The rough framing for basement windows, Boxes that will form notches for the ends of
doors and other openings, as show in Figure 38, floor beams would also be inserted into the
may be installed at the time the foundation wall foundation formwork prior to pouring the
formwork is erected. Measure and check the concrete (Figure 39). Treat wood beams
diagonals of the frames to ensure that the frames abutting concrete below grade with preservative
are square. The framing should be properly to prevent decay, or leave at least 12 mm (1⁄2 in.)
braced to keep the forms vertical and in place of clearance at the sides and ends of the beam
until the concrete has set. for air circulation.
38 Framing for a basement window
sill plate
opening for window installation

caulking
preservative-treated
wood blocking
slope to exterior
39 Notches or beam pockets in foundation walls
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) clearance if beam is untreated

and the beam bottom is at or below grade
foundation wall
notch or pocket for beam
wood beam raised
38 mm (11⁄2 in.) to be
level with sill plate
90 mm (31⁄2 in.)
minimum bearing
steel bearing plate
separate wood beams installed less than 150 mm (6 in.)
above grade from concrete with dampproofing material,
such as 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene.

CHAPTER 7
Forms should not be removed until the concrete apart (Figure 40) and embedded at least 100 mm
has acquired sufficient strength to support loads (4 in.) into the foundation wall. The ends
imposed during early construction. At least should be deformed or bent to provide secure
three days are required, but a week is preferable, anchoring. The bolts themselves should be free
particularly in cold weather. of oil, and the concrete should be cured before
the bolts are tightened.
After the forms have been removed, seal all holes
and recesses from the form ties with cement Wood-frame buildings with two or more
mortar prior to the application of dampproofing floors situated in areas of high exposure to
or waterproofing material. wind or earthquake require additional anchorage,
specifically 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) bolts spaced not
Cast-in-place Foundation Walls more than 1.7 m (5 ft. 6 in.) on centre or
15.9 mm (5⁄8 in.) bolts spaced not more than
Place concrete continuously without interruption.
2.4 m (8 ft.) on centre. In both cases, the first
Tamp or vibrate the concrete to remove air
anchor bolt must be located within 0.5 m
pockets and to work the material around and
(1 ft. 8 in.) of the end of the foundation and
beneath window frames and other blocking.
there must be at least two anchors per braced
Anchor bolts for sill plates should be placed wall panel. Engineering design is required for
while the concrete is in an unhardened condition. the anchorage in areas with extreme earthquake
Such bolts are at least 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) in or wind loads.
diameter, spaced no more than 2.4 m (8 ft.)
40 Method of anchoring floor system to concrete walls, showing anchor bolt for
wood sill
rim joist
foundation
joist
38 mm (11⁄2 in.) minimum

joist bearing
anchor bolt, nut and washer
sill plate
mortar bed or foam gasket

CHAPTER 7
Floor-Wall Intersections Control Joints

A good seal is necessary between foundation walls Cracking in concrete slabs and walls can be
and floor slabs to prevent radon gas from entering minimized by using steel reinforcing rods or
the basement (Figure 41). The polyethylene control joints (Figure 42) formed by nailing
moisture barrier underneath the slab should bevelled wood strips to the inside of both
extend at least 100 mm (4 in.) up the inside interior and exterior wall forms. Their purpose
of the foundation walls and be sealed to is to create a weakness in the wall that will
the foundation. predetermine the location of shrinkage cracks.
41 Typical floor slab/wall isolation joint
polyethylene sheet
joint filler
42 Control joint in basement wall
caulk outside face of wall at joint
control crack
12 mm
(1⁄2 in.) 19 mm (3⁄4 in.)
19 mm (3⁄4 in.)
bevelled 19 mm (3⁄4 in.) strip

nailed to inside and outside form
face to make grooves
Note: The combined thickness of inner and outer strips should equal approximately one-fifth of the wall
thickness. This example is for an 200 mm (8 in.) thick foundation wall.

CHAPTER 7
Control joints are necessary in walls longer than When concrete is poured into the space
25 m (82 ft.) and at intervals not greater than between the polystyrene faces, they provide
15 m (49 ft.). Locate control joints first at both permanent formwork and insulation for
natural planes of weakness such as window and the concrete wall. The polystyrene eliminates
door edges. Control joints are not mandatory but the need for form stripping and promotes curing.
recommended for short walls. After removal of
For housing applications—foundations
the wall forms, the groove in the exterior face of
not supporting more than two floors with
the wall should be caulked with a good-quality
a maximum floor-to-ceiling height of 3 m
joint sealer. The dampproofing material, applied
(10 ft.)—typical concrete thicknesses range from
after the caulking operation, must be compatible
140 to 240 mm (51⁄2 to 91⁄2 in.). The reinforcing
with the sealant.
required is dependent on the wall thickness and
the height of the backfill supported by the wall.
Insulating Concrete The connection of the ICF foundation wall to
Form Foundations the wood-frame floor (Figure 43) is similar to
Insulating concrete form (ICF) foundations that of the cast-in-place concrete wall without
are made up of two polystyrene faces held polystyrene forms. Where an ICF foundation
apart by permanent plastic or metal spacers supports a masonry wall, the top of the ICF
and are being used increasingly in Canada. may be flared and reinforced to accommodate
the masonry.
43 Insulating concrete form foundation
gypsum board
exterior finish
vapour barrier and
air barrier system
subfloor
vapour-permeable
floor joist air-barrier material
rim joist lap building paper
over flashing
sill plate rigid insulation
flashing
form tie parging finish

above grade
gypsum board

CHAPTER 7
ICF foundation walls can be designed by an (16 in.) long, and 150, 200, 250 or 300 mm
engineer or built according to simplified, (6, 8, 10 or 12 in.) wide. The actual size is
prescriptive requirements that apply to flat 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) less than the modular size to
ICF walls—solid ICF walls where the concrete allow for the mortar joint.
is of uniform thickness over the height and width
Block courses (rows) start at the footings and are
of the wall. In addition, several manufacturers
laid up with 9.5 to 12 mm (3⁄8 to 1⁄2 in.) mortar
of ICFs have obtained evaluation reports from
joints. No joint should exceed 20 mm (3⁄4 in.).
the Canadian Construction Materials Centre
Tool all joints smooth to resist water seepage.
or another evaluation agency or testing lab
Use full bed and head joints in the bottom
describing the specific system, its usage and
course. Succeeding courses may be laid with
limitations and performance.
mortar applied to the contact surfaces of the
Flat ICF foundation walls are required to have block. For a higher wall, it may be necessary
one 10M—9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.)—reinforcing bar to add steel reinforcement to a concrete block
placed within 300 mm (12 in.) of the top and foundation wall. Pilasters are column-like
other horizontal bars spaced not more than projections that normally protrude into the
600 mm (24 in.). The bars must be located in basement space. They are sometimes required
the middle third of the wall and have at least to strengthen a wall or support a beam, in which
30 mm (13⁄16 in.) of concrete cover from the case they need to be placed to a set height,
face of the concrete. Vertical reinforcing is also usually lower than the top of the foundation.
required, with size and spacing determined by
wall thickness and height. Reinforcing is also Use special concrete blocks, such as universal,
required around large openings. pier or sash blocks to frame the sides of openings
for basement doors and windows. Sash blocks
Concrete Block Foundation Walls (Figure 44) have a keyed face or recess into which
Concrete blocks are available in various sizes the frames are connected, thus providing rigidity
and shapes, but the most common ones are and helping to control air infiltration. Use proper
modular sizes 200 mm (8 in.) high, 400 mm sill and lintel details to achieve the same effect.
44 Concrete blocks for foundation construction
190 mm (8 in.) 190 mm 190 mm
390 mm (16 in.) 390 mm 390 mm

190 mm (8 in.) 190 mm 190 mm
Stretcher Corner Beam or lintel
390 mm (16 in.)
190 mm (8 in.) 190 mm
190 mm
100 mm 390 mm
100 mm (4 in.) 50 mm (2 in.) 190 mm 190 mm 190 mm
Sash Solid top Beam or lintel
Note: All dimensions are nominal dimensions.

CHAPTER 7
Cap block walls with either 50 mm (2 in.) of Protect freshly laid block walls from
solid masonry or concrete, or with a mortar below-freezing temperatures to prevent low
filling in the top block course. Where termites adhesion, low strength and joint failures.
are not a problem, a preservative-treated wood Mortar mix proportions should conform to
plank 38 mm (2 in. nominal) thick and the those shown in Table 6 (Appendix A).
same width as the wall may be used. Separate
Parge the outside face of concrete block
the block courses at grade to prevent convection
walls with at least 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) of Portland
currents in the cores of hollow masonry walls
cement plaster, forming a cove on the outside
by filling the upper course with mortar, or using
perimeter joint between the footings and the
a solid masonry unit.
wall (Figure 45). Dampproof the wall by
Siding must overlap the foundation wall by at applying at least one heavy coat of bituminous
least 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) so that rainwater cannot material over the parging up to the proposed
enter the top of the foundation. Cap pilasters ground level. For added protection where large
supporting beams with 200 mm (8 in.) of quantities of water accumulate in the soil,
solid masonry. waterproof the wall by mopping on two layers
45 Concrete block wall
solid cap
pilaster for support

of beams
sill
concrete block
blocking for
window frame
parging
dampproofing
footing
cove

CHAPTER 7
of bitumen-saturated membrane and cover it All wood framing and plywood used in a
with a heavy coating of bituminous material. preserved wood foundation system must be
This covering will help prevent leaks if minor pressure treated with chemical preservatives
cracks develop in the blocks or joints between in accordance with Canadian Standards
the blocks. Association (CSA) Standard O80 Series 08:
Wood Preservation. The chemicals permanently
Preserved Wood Foundations impregnate the wood cells to levels of penetration
and concentration that make the wood highly
Preserved wood foundations are constructed
resistant to attack by decay organisms and insects
according to typical framing methods. Some
such as termites. The dried wood is odourless
additional bracing requirements must be met
and is only slightly coloured. Lumber and
and special fasteners used. The foundations
plywood are identified by a certification mark
consist of a pressure-treated wood footing
showing that the material has been treated by
plate resting on a granular drainage layer,
a plant certified according to CSA Standard
with pressure-treated bottom and top plates,
O322-02 (R2007) (Figure 46).
studs and blocking and pressure-treated plywood
sheathing covered with a polyethylene sheet for Wood foundations can be built with a
dampproofing. The space between the studs may conventional concrete slab floor, a wood
be filled with insulation and the interior finished floor on sleepers resting on a granular drainage
to provide a warm living space either partly layer, or a suspended wood floor (Figure 47).
or entirely below ground level. A polyethylene The required size, species and grade of studs
sheet ground cover is required under preserved and thickness of plywood depends on stud
wood foundation floors. In addition, place a spacing and backfill height and the number
polyethylene strip between the bottom plate and of storeys supported.
the footing to keep the plate dry and to prevent
moisture from getting into the wall cavity.
46 Certification mark for preserved wood foundation wood and plywood
type of perservative used

(name of inspection agency)
Company Name
CSA O322 CCA 0510 first two digits identify

and Logo
the treating plant, the last

PWF - FBT two the year of treatment
use approved for the material

standard CSA O322,
under which material is qualified

CHAPTER 7
47 Preservative-treated wood foundations
A typical wood-frame wall
framing strap
finished grade treated wall stud
(minimum slope of 1 in 12)
treated plywood cover
38 x 89 mm (2 in. x 4 in.)
treated blocking between
free-draining backfill studs (backing at panel joint)
treated exterior plywood
treated wall plate
polyethylene treated footing plate
(stops at grade) treated screed board
concrete slab
gravel bed 125 mm (5 in.) minimum polyethylene
B
treated subfloor
treated floor joist
polyethylene
treated wood sleeper
C treated blocking between

studs (backing for panel
joint and nailer for
38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) ledger
subfloor
interior finish) treated top wall plate
floor joist
treated stud
treated wall plate
polyethylene
D polyethylene and
exterior sheathing
treated wall plate
treated screed board
concrete strip footing resting
on undisturbed soil
water passages 60 mm (21⁄2 in.)
minimum diameter at 1.2 m (4 ft.) o.c.
concrete slab on polyethylene
compacted granular drainage layer
polyethylene capillary break
Note: Shaded areas indicate those members that are preservative treated.

CHAPTER 7
SLABS 2. Place at least 100 mm (4 in.) of crushed

rock or coarse gravel under the floor slab
Concrete slabs are used for basement floors
to restrict the passage of moisture by
and for houses or portions of houses constructed
capillary action from the ground to the
at grade. In small buildings, they are generally
slab and to facilitate soil gas remediation
supported by the ground below and not by
if necessary.
perimeter foundations.
3. Consider installing rigid polystyrene insulation
Basement Floor Slabs over the gravel base in cold climates, when the
basement may contain habitable space, or when
Basement floor slabs are usually installed after the basement floor slab will be heated.
a building has been closed-in, sewer and water
lines installed and the basement floor drain put 4. Apply the layer of 0.15 mm (6 mil)
in place. These slabs should be at least 75 mm polyethylene sheet below the slab to
(3 in.) thick and slope toward the floor drain dampproof the floor and provide a barrier
or sump pit. to soil gas, including radon, and seal it to the
foundation wall at the perimeter. Where the
There should be at least one drain (or sump pit) water table is high, waterproofing the slab will
located near the laundry area, if one is provided be necessary.
in the basement. Curing concrete gives off
moisture that can seriously affect finish flooring, 5. To allow for slight movement due to shrinkage
drywall or millwork. Therefore, the basement of the slab during drying and settling of the
should be ventilated to allow moisture to escape sub-base, provide a pre-moulded joint filler
before finish flooring or millwork is installed. or double layer of sheathing paper, or extend
the under-slab polyethylene (Figure 41)
Floor slabs separating conditioned space from the between the floor slab and wall or column.
ground must be constructed with an air barrier Seal the joint filler, sheathing paper or
system to prevent radon or other soil gases from polyethylene to the polyethylene air barrier/
entering. An effective air barrier system for dampproofing membrane on the wall to keep
floors-on-ground is provided by: radon from entering the living space.
■■ minimizing concrete cracks; 6. Place and consolidate the concrete, then
strike it off with a straightedge to the
■■ providing a barrier material under the floor.
proper elevation. This can be determined
In most cases, this will be accomplished by
by measuring down from the bottom of
placing 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene under
properly levelled floor joists. In order to
the floor; and, eliminate local high or low areas and to embed
■■ sealing voids, joints and penetrations. large aggregate particles, the surface is then
immediately smoothed using a large darby or
The usual construction sequence for a concrete bull-type float or by other appropriate means.
floor slab is as follows: Tools used for air-entrained concrete should
1. Complete the installation of sewer lines have a magnesium surface. Take care not to
and other subsurface work before the slab overwork the concrete, because this will result
is placed. Compact backfill in trenches. in a less durable surface.

CHAPTER 7
7. After the water sheen has disappeared and temperatures of 10 to 21°C (50 to 70°F).
as soon as the concrete can support foot Curing may be carried out by ponding
traffic without indentations occurring, edging, water on top of the slab (by temporarily
jointing and floating operations can begin. plugging all floor drains), or by covering with
Performing any of these operations while burlap kept continuously wet. If this is not
bleed water is present will cause serious practical, liquid, membrane-forming curing
dusting or scaling. compound may be spread on the concrete
surface. Use curing compounds that are
8. Proper control jointing or grooving may
compatible with tile adhesives if the floor
be necessary to avoid minor random
finish is to be tiled.
cracking in the slab. Control joints should be
placed on line with interior columns and at The 2010 NBC provides specific protection
changes in width of the floor slab (Figure 48). against future radon ingress into conditioned
The maximum spacing of control joints should spaces in housing by requiring compliance with
be between 4.5 and 6.0 m (15 and 20 ft.) in one of the following two methods:
either direction. Joints may be formed in the ■■ The first method requires a gas-permeable
freshly placed concrete by cutting grooves by
layer between the ground and the air barrier
hand with a jointing tool as soon as the
that allows for depressurization of the space
concrete is firm enough. The depth of joints
below the soil gas barrier. This layer could
should be about one-quarter the thickness
be coarse sand or a dimpled membrane or
of the floor slab.
another product that allows the collection
9. As soon as the floor surface has been finished, and extraction of gas. An inlet needs to
curing should begin. It should continue be provided that allows for effective
for at least five days at air temperatures of depressurization of the gas-permeable layer.
21°C (70°F) or higher, or for seven days at An outlet must be provided that permits
48 Location of control joints
1 1
1. control joints within 3 m (10 ft.) of corners
2. spacing of joints 6 m (20 ft.) maximum
3. joints incorporate side of opening 2
4. control joint in floor slab 3
5 3
5. floor slab joint spacing of 6 m (20 ft.) maximum
6. control joint around column footings 4
(see note) 3 5
Note: The diamond-shaped joints (6) may be omitted if column footings are below floor level and the
column is wrapped with two layers of sheathing membrane or joint filler to break the bond.

CHAPTER 7
connection to depressurization equipment If the sub-floor space is interrupted by

sealed to maintain the integrity of the air internal footings, it is important to ensure
barrier system. The outlet should be clearly that the collection system is capable of
labelled to indicate that it is intended for the depressurizing all areas.
removal of radon from below the floor-on-
ground. An example of this method would Slabs-on-ground
be a sump chamber that is sealed to the air Because slabs-on-ground have requirements
barrier, which can be connected and used to similar to those pertaining to basement floor
exhaust air from beneath a floor-on-ground. slabs, the steps and precautions described for
■■ The second method is more specific and the latter apply here as well. An important
requires a 100 mm (4 in.) layer of clean, difference is the need to establish the finish
granular material under the floor-on-ground floor level at a sufficient height above the natural
and a pipe at least 100 mm (4 in.) in diameter grade so that the finished grade will provide
through the floor. The lower end of the pipe good drainage away from the house (Figure 49).
extends into the required granular layer. The top of the slab must be at least 150 mm
The top of the pipe must be fitted with (6 in.) above finished grade.
an airtight cap. If there is a desire to locate Remove all debris, stumps and organic matter
the pipe rough-in close to an exterior wall or from the area below the slab and fill voids with
into the service area of a basement, a normal compacted granular material to provide a smooth
plumbing pipe can be used to connect the surface free of soft pockets.
vertical pipe to the center of the sub-floor.
49 Independent concrete floor slab and foundation wall
stud
air/vapour barrier metal or vinyl siding
insulation sheathing membrane
drywall
rigid insulation over
finish flooring sheathing and framing
concrete slab reinforced sheathing
base flashing
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) cement parging
well-compacted fill under slab on lath or other protection
dampproofing
rigid insulation
floor-to-wall joint and caulking
sill gasket foundation wall

CHAPTER 7
Install water-resistant rigid insulation around Insulating concrete form (ICF) foundations
the perimeter of the slab and protect it from must also be dampproofed and the material
physical or ultraviolet damage with parging or used must be compatible with the foam
a board finish. To resist cracking, reinforce the formwork/insulation.
slab with 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) thick steel reinforcing
When backfilling walls, avoid causing damage to
bars spaced 600 mm (24 in.) on centre in both
the dampproofing, waterproofing, insulation or
directions. (The steel bars have a metric product
drainage layer.
designation of 10M.) Alternatively, welded wire
mesh can be used that forms a grid of 152 mm Dampproofing is also required on the interior of
(6 in.) squares in which the thickness of the concrete or unit masonry walls that come into
steel is 3.4 mm (0.15 in.). [The metric product contact with interior wood framing supporting
designation of this grid is 152 × 152 mm insulation or interior finishes. When installed
(MW 9.1 × 9.1.)] between the foundation wall and interior framing,
the dampproofing prevents moisture in the
A mechanical float finish provides a smooth
foundation wall from coming into contact with
finished surface.
the wood framing. It usually consists of building
The requirements for footings and foundations paper applied on the inside of the wall, and must
for houses with slabs-on-ground are similar to extend from the basement floor and terminate at
those for crawl spaces and constructed in the the exterior finish grade level.
same manner. A structural slab, which supports
loads from vehicles or the walls above, must be WATERPROOFING
designed by an engineer.
Waterproofing is needed where there is a
likelihood of hydrostatic water pressure and
FOUNDATION
requires the services of a qualified professional
DAMPPROOFING to identify which measures are to be taken to
Dampproofing is necessary for all deal with the water and the forces imposed on
foundations that contain habitable space to the foundation. Waterproofed foundations need
restrict the movement of soil moisture into not be dampproofed. For walls, waterproofing
the wall. Dampproofing materials include consists of an impermeable membrane, such as
bitumen, polyethylene or other sheet material. two layers of bitumen-saturated felt. The layers
In poorly-drained soils or soils with a high water of felt are attached to the wall and each other
table, waterproofing will be required. and covered with liquid bitumen. Waterproofing
materials for ICF foundations must be compatible
Dampproof concrete and unit masonry walls
with the foam formwork/insulation.
below grade with a heavy coat of bituminous
material applied on the exterior surface from the Floor slabs must also be waterproofed
footings to the finished grade line. Such a coating where hydrostatic pressure could be an issue.
is usually sufficient to make the wall resistant The waterproofing materials must consist of a
to surface water moving down to the footing membrane sandwiched between two layers of
drainage system. Mineral fibre insulation or concrete, each layer not less than 75 mm
drainage layers are recommended to drain water (3 in.) thick. The floor membrane must be
away from the foundation walls. sealed to the wall membrane. In many cases,

CHAPTER 7
foundations subjected to hydrostatic pressure backfill from clogging the drain. Backfill must
are also equipped with a means of relieving the not contain pyritic shale or materials finer than
water pressure to prevent structural damage. 4 mm (5⁄32 in.).
Connect the drain pipe with a tight joint to a
FOUNDATION DRAINAGE storm sewer or other satisfactory outlet. A sump
Foundation drainage is required unless it can may be necessary in some cases.
be shown that natural, free-draining soil makes
it unnecessary. Foundation drainage normally On wet sites, special drainage features such
consists of a drain pipe installed around the as lateral drain pipes under the floor slab may
perimeter of the basement and usually a wall be needed to avoid hydrostatic pressures on
drainage layer. A layer of granular material basement walls and slab. Note that foundation
can be used in lieu of a perimeter drain for drainage is not intended to deal with high water
foundations such as preserved wood foundations, tables. Foundations located on sites with high
where the granular layer slopes to a sump. water tables must be designed by an engineer.
Adequate drainage is essential to prevent For a preserved wood foundation, a granular

the infiltration of water into the basement. layer must be employed in combination with
Drain pipe should be laid on solid undisturbed a sump. The granular layer must be at least
soil around the footings, with the top of the 125 mm (5 in.) thick under the footings and
pipe below the level of the basement floor or extend at least 300 mm (12 in.) beyond the edge
crawl space, and with a slight slope to the outlet. of the footings (Figure 47). Slope the bottom
Cover the pipe with a minimum of 150 mm of the excavation so that it drains to the sump,
(6 in.) of coarse, clean gravel or crushed rock which must be drained by gravity to a sewer,
(Figure 50). The pipe should be wrapped with a ditch or dry well, or evacuated by pumping.
filter fabric “sock” to prevent fine particles in the
50 Drain pipe at foundation wall
dampproofing
150 mm (6 in.) coarse gravel or

crushed stone on top and side
footing
perforated plastic drain tile

CHAPTER 7
The granular layer technique is applicable to foundation wall. The granular fill surrounding
any type of foundation that includes a sump. the drain pipe should also cover the drainage
layer at the base of the wall.
Drainage layers may be applied to the
outside of the basement wall to direct any Basement windows that extend below ground
infiltrating rainwater that comes into contact level require window wells (Figure 51) to direct
with the foundation wall down to the drain water away from them. Corrugated steel frames
pipe or granular layer and away from the are commonly used for this purpose.
wall. Consult the local building department
When the backfill is not a granular material,
to determine whether drainage layers or
the bottom of the window well should be
membranes are required.
drained by a pipe or hole 150 mm (6 in)
Wall drainage layers normally consist of 19 mm in diameter installed through the backfill
(3⁄4 in.) or thicker mineral-fibre insulation with material to the drain pipe and filled with
a density of at least 57 kg/m3 (3.6 lb./cu. ft.) crushed stone.
or other commercially available wall drainage
Where a bedroom window with sliders,
materials. Alternatively, free-draining granular
casement or inward-opening awning opens
material may be used as backfill. It is important
into a window well, it must have a clearance
that the drainage layer direct water to the drain
of at least 760 mm (30 in.) in front of the
pipe, avoiding any ponding at the base of the
51 Window well at basement wall
provide adequate clearance for

escape from egress window
building foundation
slope directing surface drainage

away from building
basement window
corrugated metal window well

anchored to foundation
backfill
drainage tile filled with crushed

stone leading to weeping tile

CHAPTER 7
window to allow for escape in the event of along their full height. To reduce the possibility
emergency. Additional clearance is required of trapped moisture, it is recommended that
for outward-opening awning windows. concrete foundation walls insulated on the
interior be left exposed for several months
BACKFILLING so that they lose excess moisture before the
insulation is applied. When batt insulation
Place backfill after the first floor joists and
supported by wood framing is used, interior
subfloor are in place because they provide lateral
dampproofing material must be used to separate
support for the foundation walls. This applies
the framing from the concrete walls. With framing
to concrete, ICF, masonry and preserved wood
in place, it is relatively economical to add drywall
foundation walls. Table 5 (Appendix A) shows
to create a finished wall. When spray-foam
the maximum height from basement floor to
or polystyrene insulation is installed on the
finished grade for both laterally supported and
interior of basement walls, it must be covered
laterally unsupported foundation walls.
by a barrier such as drywall to protect it in the
Backfill material within 600 mm (24 in.) of the event of fire.
foundation should be free-draining granular
Basement walls can also be insulated on the
material (not subject to ice lensing). It should
exterior. Some exterior insulation products also
be free of large rocks, clay clumps, construction
serve as a wall drainage layer. The portion of
waste and pyritic shales. These materials can
the insulation that extends above grade must be
cause pressure points on the foundation wall,
covered by a protective material.
damage dampproofing or waterproofing
membranes, and impair proper drainage
around the foundation.
FOOTINGS AND
FOUNDATIONS FOR
Unequal backfill loading against foundation walls
can cause movement or cracking. Therefore, CRAWL SPACES
deposit backfill material uniformly around Crawl spaces are enclosed spaces between
the perimeter in small lifts. Compact each the underside of a floor assembly and the
lift before the next one is placed. Ensure that ground below, where the clearance is less than
externally mounted insulation, drainage material, the minimum 2 m (6 ft. 6 in.) required for a
dampproofing or waterproofing membranes are basement and less than 25 per cent of their area
not damaged. above ground is open to the outdoors. Crawl
spaces are often used to give access to ducts,
FOUNDATION INSULATION pipes, cables and other utilities and can be heated
Foundation (basement) walls are required to (conditioned) or unheated (unconditioned). If a
be insulated if they enclose conditioned space. crawl space is unheated, it is essential to have an
Basement floors with radiant heating must be effective air barrier between the conditioned and
insulated underneath. The levels of insulation unconditioned space.
required are determined by the climate zone in As for other types of foundations, footings for
which the house is built. See Chapter 5 for more crawl spaces must be placed at a depth below
detailed information. grade determined by soil conditions and frost
Foundations can be insulated on the interior or penetration (see Table 3 in Appendix A).
the exterior of the building. Foundation walls Footing sizes are generally the same as those
enclosing conditioned space should be insulated used to support basement walls. Crawl space

CHAPTER 7
walls may be built of concrete, ICFs, concrete roofs, concrete steps with more than three risers,
masonry units or preserved wood. Since the and decks more than 600 mm (2 ft.) above the
inside grade is seldom much lower than the ground require their supports to be founded on
outside grade, the thickness of the foundation rock, on coarse-grained soil with good drainage,
walls may be less than those enclosing a basement. or, for other types of soils, the supports must
Crawl space insulation, which can be installed extend below the frost line (Figure 175 in
either at the perimeter of the foundation or Chapter 26).
in the floor framing under the living space,
is discussed in Chapter 5. GARAGE FOUNDATIONS
Foundations for garages are usually concrete
Crawl Space Ventilation and
or masonry. Concrete slab-on-ground or
Ground Cover preserved wood foundations are also options.
Crawl space walls below the level of the The minimum depth below grade for a garage
outside finished grade must be dampproofed. foundation attached to a house should not be
Install drain pipe around the footings and less than that shown in Table 3 (Appendix A).
connect it to a sewer, ditch or dry well. Slope If fill is required below the floor, use compacted
crawl space floors and access trenches toward granular material to avoid settlement after the
the floor drain. For unheated crawl spaces, floor is placed and loads applied. The concrete
install a ground cover of concrete, asphalt or floor should be at least 75 mm (3 in.) thick.
0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene or Type S roll Provide an airtight curb or partition at least
roofing over the ground surface with the joints 50 mm (2 in.) high at the edges of the slab
lapped at least 100 mm (4 in.). For heated crawl adjacent to interior space, and slope the garage
spaces, install a 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene floor to the outdoors.
sheet with joints lapped at least 300 mm (12 in.),
sealed and weighted down, or, covered with at Place and cure concrete garage floors the same
least 50 mm (2 in.) of concrete. The ground way as basement floor slabs. Provide control
cover prevents ground moisture from entering joints so that the concrete segments are similar
the crawl space area. The crawl space must be in size. For a single car garage, one control joint
conditioned like the remainder of the house, dividing the floor into two roughly square
or ventilated (see Chapter 20), in which case segments should be sufficient.
the floor above must be insulated and be
The foundation walls should not be less than
provided an adequate air barrier system and
150 mm (6 in.) thick and should extend at least
vapour barrier.
150 mm (6 in.) above grade.
FOUNDATIONS FOR DECKS Sill plates should be anchored to the foundation

wall or slab with anchor bolts spaced not more
AND CONCRETE STEPS
than 2.4 m (8 ft.) apart and with at least two
Frost action can cause supports for exterior decks, bolts in each sill piece. Extra anchors may be
balconies and stairs to shift. Movement can cause required at the side of the main door and in
structural damage and may allow water to drain areas with high earthquake or wind exposure.
towards the house. For this reason, balconies with

CHAPTER 7
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Consider shallow basements in properties

with high water tables to reduce the
■■ Basements are places where radon and
risk of water entering the foundation.
other soil gases can enter. It is therefore
Shallow basements can have large windows
essential that basement floors and slabs and
for better natural illumination and ventilation
any penetrations such as sump pits and floor
and to enhance safety for those having to
drains be airtight. Builders are now required
exit below-grade living spaces.
to provide a stub for a sub-floor radon
collection system that can be connected and
Energy Efficiency
vented outside should radon or soil gases
prove to be a problem. ■■ The NBC requires that basement walls and
some basement floors be insulated to a level
■■ Damp basements can be conducive to
determined by the number of heating degree
mold. Dry basements provide a healthier
days where a house is built.
environment for people and better
conditions for storage. Provide foundation
Resource Efficiency
dampproofing, perimeter drainage and
insulation on the foundation wall to reduce ■■ Consider using fabric forms for concrete
or eliminate condensation on interior footings.
surfaces. A capillary break between the
■■ Re-use formwork boards for rough framing
footings and the walls is recommended.
and blocking.
CAN/CSA Standard O80 Series-08: Wood Preservation,

CAN/CAS Standard S406-92 (R2008): Construction of Preserved Wood Foundations,
CSA Standard O322-02 (R2007): Procedure for Certification of Pressure-Treated
Wood Materials for Use in Preserved Wood Foundations,
Permanent Wood Foundations,
Canadian Wood Council (product No. PWPD-06-E)

CHAPTER 8
Framing the House
Wood-frame construction combines repetitive The framing method and depth and spacing
framing elements such as wall studs, floor joists of members affect insulation levels and must
and roof trusses with floor, wall and roof be considered carefully. Refer to Chapter 5 for
sheathing to produce rigid building assemblies more information.
capable of resisting wind, earthquake, snow,
This book shows metric dimensions followed by
occupant and construction loads. For housing
an approximate imperial equivalent (in brackets).
applications, the repetitive framing members
Not all dimensions are exact. Although a 2 × 4 in.
are spaced no more than 600 mm (24 in.) apart,
framing member is shown in its exact 38 × 89 mm
the span of structural members must not exceed
dimensions, the metric dimensions for the
12.2 m (40 ft.), and the design load due to
spacing between the framing members are
occupants and contents must not exceed 2.4 kPa
soft conversions from 12 in. to 300 mm (rather
(50 psf). The repetitive framing members may be
than 305 mm), 16 in. to 400 mm (rather than
dimension lumber or engineered wood products
406 mm) and 24 in. to 600 mm (rather than
such as trusses or wood I-joists.
610 mm), which is consistent with the values
The structural shell consists of the foundation, in the National Building Code. It is common
floors, walls and roof (see Appendix B). If a practice in house construction to install joists,
house has load-bearing interior walls, they must studs, and rafters in increments of 12, 16 and
be erected at the same time as the exterior walls. 24 inches, which are whole number fractions
The shell must be framed and sheathed to provide of the dimensions of panel products (gypsum
rigidity. Temporary bracing and cross-bracing board, plywood and OSB) that are supported
may also be required to allow construction to on the framing. The soft converted metric values
proceed safely. are provided for the reader’s convenience. It is

CHAPTER 8
Framing the House
assumed that the spacing between framing ADVANCED FRAMING

members will conform to the actual metric TECHNIQUES
dimensions of 305, 406 and 610 mm.
Consider using advanced framing techniques
PLATFORM FRAMING (AFT), also referred to as optimum value
engineering, to reduce the amount of wood
Platform construction is the most common framing used in construction by eliminating
method for framing a house. The floor platform wood where it is structurally unnecessary, reduce
is built first and the walls for each story are added the amount of site-generated construction waste,
above each floor. Prefabricated walls can be improve the thermal resistance of the building
assembled on the floor platform, or walls can envelope and reduce construction costs. AFT
be built horizontally on top of the floor and requires careful coordination of the location of
then be tilted into place without using heavy roof, floor and wall framing members. Advanced
lifting equipment. The bottom and top plates, framing situates trusses, rafters or roof joists and
which are an integral part of the wall framing, floor framing members directly over load-bearing
provide fire blocks at the floor and ceiling and studs so that a single top plate can be used. With
also nailing support for wall sheathing and AFT, cripples and jack studs underneath lintels
interior finish. may be eliminated especially when the location
of door and window openings in the exterior
BALLOON FRAMING wall is coordinated with modular stud spacing
Balloon framing was common up to the and use window sizes that fit between the studs,
early part of the 20th century and is now and replaced with metal hangers, where larger
used only occasionally. Unlike platform framing, openings are located in exterior loadbearing
the studs used for exterior and some interior walls. For non-loadbearing exterior walls, cripples
walls are continuous, passing beyond the floors and jack studs may be removed as they serve no
to the top plates that support the roof framing. structural purpose and occupy space that could
Floors are supported by ribbon boards inset into otherwise be filled with insulation.
the wall studs.
STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
Unlike platform construction that provides fire
blocking at each wall-floor junction, fire blocks The combination of dimension lumber or
must be specifically added to balloon frame engineered wood and wood panel sheathing
construction to prevent fire from spreading from gives wall, floor and roof assemblies the strength
one floor to the next through the wall cavity. to resist vertical loads (snow, occupants and
Because there are fewer horizontal members contents) and horizontal loads (wind and
(rim joists and wall plates), there is less vertical earthquake). Partitions, closets and finishes
shrinkage with balloon framing compared to such as gypsum board (drywall) also add rigidity.
platform framing. Where additional strength is required because
In some two-storey houses, the intermediate of a high risk of exposure to earthquake or
load-bearing wall in an otherwise platform- wind, the floors, walls and roofs can be made
framed house is balloon-framed to provide stronger by using thicker sheathing panels
convenient passage for heating ducts and pipes. and by placing the fasteners closer together.

CHAPTER 8
Framing the House
In addition, the floors, walls and roofs of methods. One can also opt to design according
wood-frame buildings are meant to act as a to NBC Part 4 or follow good engineering
structural unit. This is why the floor must be practices such as those in the Engineering
bolted to the concrete foundation. Additional Guide for Wood Frame Construction 2009
connections are also required between the roof published by the Canadian Wood Council.
or floors and walls and between the walls and
the foundations to provide a continuous and High Exposure Category
complete load path, especially in high exposure
Buildings in the high exposure category require
category areas for wind or earthquake.
additional features to provide the required
resistance to lateral loads. Nineteen locations
RESISTANCE TO LATERAL identified in NBC Appendix C fall into this
LOADS DUE TO WIND AND category for wind and 33 for earthquake
EARTHQUAKE exposure. For wind, affected locations are in
Newfoundland, Quebec, Alberta, Nunavut and
Different areas of Canada are subject to varying
the Northwest Territories. Most of the locations
risks of forces from winds and earthquakes. As a
affected by earthquake risk are in the coastal
result, all buildings must be built to resist these
region of British Columbia and four in the
lateral loads. The NBC Appendix C, Climatic
Lower St. Lawrence region of Quebec.
and Earthquake Information for Building
Design in Canada, provides wind pressures and The NBC includes prescriptive solutions that
earthquake factors used to determine exposure call for the use of strong portions of walls called
to wind and seismic (earthquake) loads for braced wall panels. Requirements for location,
buildings. NBC 9.23 provides requirements spacing, dimensions, fasteners and construction
for resisting lateral loads for low-rise buildings. materials must be met, and these solutions are
The requirements are based on three levels of subject to limitations based on building height
risk: low to moderate; high; and extreme. and whether the construction is comprised of
heavy materials such as concrete roof tiles or
Low to Moderate concrete topping on floors. In addition, buildings
Exposure Category in the high exposure category must also address
concerns such as foundation anchorage, sheathing
Buildings in the low to moderate exposure thickness, and sheathing and drywall fastener
category provide resistance to wind and lengths and spacings. Lumber sheathing, if used,
earthquake loads if they are of traditional must be installed diagonally on both walls and
wood-frame construction comprised of exterior roofs. Obtaining an engineered design is also
sheathing, panel-type cladding or gypsum board an option.
finish. If two or more of these options are chosen,
lateral load resistance will be increased. Of the Extreme Exposure Category
680 locations identified in NBC Appendix C,
671 and 630 locations fall into this category Buildings in the extreme exposure category
for wind and earthquake exposure respectively. must be engineered. Only one of all the locations
This means that for most locations in Canada, identified in NBC Appendix C falls into this
bracing requirements can be met by using category for wind, but three locations do in
standard wood-framing materials and fastening terms of earthquake exposure.

CHAPTER 8
Framing the House
Construction is resource-intensive and ■■ Store and protect materials properly to

any measures that reduce the quantity of avoid damage and the need to discard
resources needed will make construction more and replace.
sustainable. The four Rs—Review, Reduce,
■■ Look for ways to reduce framing materials,
Reuse and Recycle—apply to all building
such as by constructing walls with wider
materials but are particularly applicable to
stud spacing and by using fewer studs at
the large proportion of wood products used
corners, where permitted.
in wood-frame house construction.
Reuse
Resource Efficiency
■■ Reuse cut-offs for short framing members
Review and as blocking, strapping and bracing.
■■ Plan house layouts and room sizes for ■■ Reuse materials and equipment when
efficient use of space and to avoid excessive they have the same properties as new
building area and heated volume. ones and are satisfactory for the intended
use. For example, bricks can be reused as
■■ Plan room dimensions so that standard
long as they are clean and free of mortar.
material sizes are used wherever possible.
Reuse lumber where possible. For example,
■■ Consider using code-acceptable practices use footing formwork lumber for bracing
that use less framing materials such as or strapping.
advanced framing techniques (also called
optimum value engineering). Recycle
■■ Sort and securely store materials
Reduce
for recycling.
■■ Estimate quantities carefully to minimize
leftover materials and waste.
2010 National Building Code of Canada (Section 9.23, Part 4 and Appendix C),
Canadian Wood Council (publication no. EGWF-09-E)

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
The first floor framing consists of sill plates with anchor bolts at least 12.7 mm (½ in.) in
bolted to the foundation walls, with rim (header) diameter spaced not more than 2.4 m (8 ft.)
joists and floor joists toe-nailed to the sill plates. on centre or other approved anchors. Buildings
Headers, trimmers and beams are used to carry with two or more floors located in areas where
loads around floor openings. Main support the exposure category to earthquake or wind is
beams or load-bearing walls in the basement high are required to have stronger anchorage.
are usually required as intermediate supports
for the floor. Other floors are similar except that COLUMNS AND BEAMS
the rim joists and floor joists rest on a wall top
plate instead of the sill plate. Wood or steel columns are usually used in
the basement to support beams, which, in turn,
support the inner portion of the first-floor joists
SILL PLATES AND ANCHORS as well as loads from upper floors transferred
The sill plate should be levelled carefully. through walls, floors and posts.
If the top of the foundation is level, the sill
Cylindrical structural-steel columns (called
plate may be laid directly on caulking placed
“teleposts”) with adjustable lengths and bearing
on the top of the concrete or over a closed-cell
plates at both ends are commonly used to
foam gasket or other air-impermeable material
support beams. The top plate should be as
of the same width as the sill plate. If the top of
wide as the beam it supports and either be
the foundation is uneven or not level, the sill
bolted to the flange where a steel beam is used
plate may be laid in a full bed of mortar. All sill
or nailed where a wood beam is used.
plates must be anchored to the foundation wall

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
Wood columns at least 140 × 140 mm for basement columns must be sized to suit
(6 × 6 in. nominal) may be solid or built-up the column spacing, the span of the supported
from 38 mm (2 in. nominal) lumber. Use at joists, the number of floors supported and the
least 76 mm (3 in.) nails spaced at 300 mm soil-bearing pressure.
(12 in.) on centre to fasten the built-up members
Either wood or steel beams may be used in house
together. A wood column should be the same
construction. For steel beams, the wide-flange
width as the beam it supports and be cut square
(W) profile is most commonly used (Table 18
to ensure even bearing at the top and bottom.
in Appendix A).
Fasten the column to the beam at the top
and install dampproofing material such as Wood beams can be solid or built-up. Built-up
0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene or Type S wood beams (Figure 52) are usually made of
roll roofing to separate it from the concrete three or more pieces of 38 mm (2 in. nominal)
at the bottom. lumber set on edge and fastened together
from each side with 89 mm (31⁄2 in.) nails.
Columns are usually spaced 2.4 to 3.0 m
Space the nails not more than 450 mm (18 in.)
(8 to 10 ft.) apart, depending on the loading and
apart in each row, with the end nails located
strength of the beam they support. The footings
52 Built-up wood beam
foundation wall
built-up wood beam
joints should be within sill plate

150 mm (6 in.) of quarter
point of clear span
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) clearance if beam
is untreated and the beam bottom
is at or below grade all around or
beam end preservative-treated
at or below grade
separate wood beams installed less

than 150 mm (6 in.) above grade from
concrete with dampproofing material,
such as 0.155 mm (2 mil) polyethylene
89 mm (31⁄2 in.) minimum bearing
clear span
steel or wood column

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.) from the end a 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) air space at the ends and
of each piece. Locate butt joints in each sides. Untreated wood beams should also
member over a supporting post or within be separated from the concrete with an
about 150 mm (6 in.) of the quarter points impermeable membrane if they are 150 mm
in the span. (See Tables 15 to 17 Appendix A) (6 in.) or less above grade.
Joints are not permitted in either the end
spans or in not more than half the members BEAM AND JOIST
at any one location. Bolts at least 12.7 mm INSTALLATION
(1⁄2 in.) in diameter and spaced not less than
1.2 m (4 ft.) apart can also be used to laminate Joists can rest on top of the beam (Figure 53),
a wood beam. in which case the top of the beam is level with the
top of the sill plate (Figure 52). This method is
Alternatives to built-up wood beams and used where the basement has adequate headroom
columns include steel or glue-laminated below the beam. The joists should lap above the
timber (glulam) (Table 19 in Appendix A) beam and the maximum recommended length of
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) beams, lap is 300 mm (12 in.).
and parallel strand lumber (PSL).
Where more clearance under a wood beam is
Ends of beams must bear at least 89 mm desired, the beam may be installed flush with
(31⁄2 in.) on concrete or masonry walls or the joists, which are then supported by joist
columns. To prevent deterioration, the ends hangers or other structural connectors attached
of wood beams, located at or below grade to the beam. Joists can also be supported
and framed into masonry or concrete walls, on ledger strips attached to wood beams
must be treated to prevent decay or have
53 Joists supported on top of wood beam
built-up wood beam
wood joist
toenail
metal or wood column

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
(Figure 54). Nail a 38 × 64 mm (2 × 3 in. FOUNDATION WALL-FLOOR

nominal) ledger strip to the beam with two CONNECTION
82 mm (31⁄4 in.) nails for each joist supported
on the beam. The ends of the joists may be There are two methods of wall and joist
spliced as shown in Figure 54. connection used in platform framing: the sill-plate
method and the joist-embedded method.
Joists framed into the side of a steel beam may
be supported on the bottom flange or on a
38 × 38 mm (2 × 2 in. nominal) ledger strip
Sill-Plate Method
bolted to the web with 6.3 mm (1⁄4 in.) bolts The sill-plate method is the most common form
spaced 600 mm (24 in.) on centre. Splice the of connection and can be used with either
joists (Figure 55) and provide at least a 12 mm concrete or concrete block foundation walls.
(1⁄2 in.) space between the beam and the splice It consists of a wood sill plate anchored to the
to allow for joist shrinkage.
54 Joists supported on ledger strips nailed to beam
at least 2–82 mm (31⁄4 in.)

nails at each end of splice
built-up wood beam
38 x 64 mm (2 x 3 in.)
ledger strip
38 x 38 x 600 mm (2 x 2 x 24 in.)
splice with at least 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) space
between the splice and the beam
wood floor joist
55 Joists framed into a steel beam
steel beam
joists connected by 38 x 38 mm (2 x 2 in.)

splices with at least 12 mm (½ in.) space
between the splice and the beam
joist
alternatively, the joists may be supported

on a minimum 38 x 38 mm (2 x 2 in.) wood
plate bolted through the web of the beam

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
foundation wall (Figure 56) for the support and be preservative-treated. A foam gasket should be
fastening of the joists and a rim joist attached placed between the concrete and the sill plate to
to the ends of the joists. The sill plate is usually reduce or eliminate air leakage at this juncture.
supported on the top of the foundation wall,
Where it is desirable to lower the elevation
in which case the bottom of the sill plate should
of the main floor in relation to the top of the
be at least 150 mm (6 in.) above the finished
foundation, the top of concrete foundation walls
grade, or else it must be separated from the
may be reduced to 90 mm (31⁄2 in.) in thickness
concrete by 0.05 mm (2 mil) polyethylene or
(Figure 57). If siding or stucco is used as an
Type S roll roofing, or the wood framing must
56 Sill-plate method used in platform construction
bottom wall plate

subfloor
wood I-joist or wood floor joist
rim board
anchored sill plate
foam gasket or extension of air barrier
mortar levelling bed
200 mm (8 in.) minimum for stucco and wood siding
150 mm (6 in.) minimum for masonry and metal and vinyl siding
finished grade
57 Floor joists supported on a ledge formed in the foundation wall
wall finish
air/vapour barrier
insulation
wall stud
subfloor
wall sheathing
sheathing membrane
rigid insulation over framing
wall plate
bottom sill plate
anchored to foundation
floor joist toenailed to sill plate

continuous header
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) air space sill plate anchored to
if rim joist is untreated foundation with anchor bolts

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
exterior finish, a sill plate anchored to the top Joist-Embedded Method

of the wall supports the wall framing, and a
The joist-embedded method is used rarely,
separate sill plate located on a ledge formed
and only with cast-in-place concrete foundation
in the wall supports the floor joists.
walls. Beams, joists and headers are positioned
Where brick veneer is used, the top of the before the concrete is placed. Support the floor
foundation wall supports the brick, and the framing temporarily on the inside concrete form
floor framing supports the wall framing and use wedges to level the framing. Place filler
(Figure 58). If the thickness of the wall is pieces between the floor joists and along the
reduced, the height of the reduced section end walls to retain the fluid concrete between
cannot exceed 350 mm (14 in.). the joists.
58 Floor joists supported on ledge formed in foundation wall
wall finish
air/vapour barrier
insulation rigid insulation
over framing
wall stud
wall sheathing
sheathing membrane subfloor
masonry veneer
air space
base flashing

12 mm (1⁄2 in.) air space if
the wood is untreated and
located at or below grade
floor joist toenailed to sill plate
dampproof course under sill

when less than 150 mm (6 in.)
above finished grade
continuous header
anchor bolt
sill plate anchored to foundation

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
Set the filler pieces flush with the inner face of Remove the filler pieces and the wall forms when
the foundation wall (Figure 59). Joist headers the concrete has set. This method can also be
and end rim joists serve as outside forms for the used for a brick veneer finish (Figure 60).
concrete. Beam ends must be treated to prevent
decay when the bottoms of the members are FLOOR JOISTS
located at or below grade. Place the concrete
so that at least two-thirds of the depth of each Joists are selected to meet strength, deflection
joist is embedded in the concrete, thus providing and vibration requirements on which the joist
suitable anchorage for the floor-framing members. selection tables are based (Tables 20 and 21
in Appendix A). The spans in the tables are
59 Floor joists embedded in the top of the foundation wall
rim joist
header
floor joist
concrete foundation
60 Masonry support using joist-embedded method of floor framing
brick veneer
header
sheathing membrane
lapped over flashing
metal flashing
floor joist
concrete foundation

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
measured between the inside edges of the joist Alternatives to dimension lumber floor
supports and have been calculated for standard joists include laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
Canadian lumber sizes. Strength requirements joists, parallel chord trusses and wood I-joists.
ensure the floor joist system is strong enough Wood I-joists have become common residential
to support the anticipated loads. Deflection floor framing materials because they can span
requirements ensure that the deformation of longer distances and they shrink less because they
the floor under heavy load is within acceptable are made from dry materials. Typical residential
limits and will not lead to defects, such as wood I-joists are 241 mm (91⁄2 in.) and 302 mm
cracking of the ceiling below the floor. Vibration (117⁄8 in.) deep. Wood I-joists have special
requirements ensure that the floor is adequately installation details (Figure 61) that differ
stiff so that, for example, foot traffic will not from those for dimension lumber joists.
cause dishes in cabinets to rattle.
Because of their thin webs, wood I-joists are
Dimension lumber floor joists are usually 38 mm less capable than lumber joists of supporting
(2 in. nominal) thick and either 140, 184, 235 vertical loads (for example, from load-bearing
or 286 mm (6, 8, 10 or 12 in. nominal) deep walls above). For this reason, special blocking
depending on the loading, span, spacing between techniques are used to transfer vertical
joists, and species and grade of lumber. loads around and through the wood I-joists
61 Principles for wood I-joist installation
proper storage adequate joist

and handling bearing length
correct span rim framing to transfer

distance continuous wall loads
all wood I-joist cantilevers

require engineering
squash blocks to
transfer point loads
safe installation—
bracing or sheathing web stiffeners
(where required)
correct placement and to transfer floor loads
sizing of holes in webs

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
(Figure 62). All manufacturers provide technical may be acceptable. Conversely, if floor depth is
information that describes these requirements, not a limitation, deeper joists at 600 mm (24 in.)
and their directions must be followed. spacing may prove more economical.
Where a sill plate is used, joists are installed after A joist with a bow edgewise should be placed
the sill plates have been levelled, caulked and with the crown on top—it will tend to straighten
anchored to the foundation wall. The joists are when the subfloor and floor loads are applied.
located and spaced according to the design.
A rim joist is end-nailed or toe-nailed to each
Joist spacing of 400 mm (16 in.) on centre is the joist. The joists, including the end joist parallel to
most common. For heavy loads or when floor the exterior walls, are toe-nailed to the sill plate
depth is limited, joists spaced 300 mm (12 in.) (Figure 63). The inner portions of the joists
62 Load transfer requirements for wood I-joists
Rim framing transfers exterior wall loads

around the I-joists to the wall below
Blocking transfers point loads and interior

wall loads around I-joists to the wall or
beam below
Squash blocks are used to transfer point

loads from columns or framing around doors
and windows from one floor to the next
without loading the I-joists.
Web stiffeners may be required if the load

on the joist exceeds the design capacity of the
joist without web stiffeners.
63 Floor framing
panel joint over joist cross-bridging

joist under partitions continuous wood strapping
parallel to joists sub floor nailed or screwed
joists lapped over beam to joists (field-gluing will
blocking improve floor performance)
floor joists toenailed to sill plate
anchored sill plate rim joist end nailed to joist

joists parallel to foundation rim joist toenailed to sill plate

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
are supported on top of load-bearing walls or When framing for large openings such as
intermediate beams (Figure 53), or framed into stairwells or fireplaces, the trimmer joists
the side of the beam (Figure 54). must be doubled if they support header joists
(joists into which other joists are framed) more
When a load-bearing wall runs parallel to
than 800 mm (32 in.) long. Header joists
the joists, it must be supported by a beam or
longer than 1.2 m (4 ft.) must also be doubled.
load-bearing wall in the basement. Floor designs
Where unusually large openings occur, trimmer
often require a load-bearing wall located at
joists that support header joists more than 2 m
right angles to the floor joists, but offset from
(6 ft. 6 in.) long and header joists that are more
the joist support. Load-bearing interior walls
than 3.2 m (10 ft. 6 in.) long must be designed
at right angles to floor joists should be located
according to accepted engineering practice.
not more than 900 mm (36 in.) from the joist
support when the wall does not support a floor, Nailing and assembly methods generally used
and not more than 600 mm (24 in.) from the in the framing of floor openings are shown in
joist support when the wall supports one or more Figure 64.
floors, unless the joist size is designed to support
Joist hangers are often used to support long joist
such concentrated loads.
headers and tail joists.
Non-load-bearing partitions parallel to the
Joist twisting can be reduced and load sharing
joists should bear on joists or on blocking
between joists improved by cross bridging,
between the joists. The blocking should be
blocking, strapping or a ceiling finish fastened
38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. nominal) lumber spaced
to the underside of the joists. Where a ceiling
1.2 m (4 ft.) or less on centre.
64 Framing for floor openings where double headers and double trimmers
are used
first header
second header
first trimmer joist
length of opening
second trimmer joist
first trimmer nailed to first header

first header nailed to tail joists
second header nailed to first header
first trimmer nailed to second header
second trimmer nailed to first trimmer
joist hangers may be required as an
alternative to end nailing tail joists
tail joist

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
finish is not used, restraint should be provided Install subfloors with the direction of the
at intermediate locations between the supports panels or planks at right angles to the floor
and at distances not greater than 2.1 m joists and with the end joints staggered and
(6 ft. 10 in.). nailed along the edges at 150 mm (6 in.) on
centre and 300 mm (12 in.) at intermediate
Intermediate restraint may be provided by
supports. Use ringed underlay nails, which are
the following methods: 19 × 64 mm (1 × 3 in. designed to resist withdrawal and “nail popping,”
nominal) or 38 × 38 mm (2 × 2 in. nominal) or approved staples where the panels provide a
cross-bridging; or continuous 19 × 64 mm combination subfloor and underlay. See Table 23
(1 × 3 in. nominal) wood strapping nailed to the (Appendix A) for sheathing and subflooring
bottoms of the joists or both cross-bridging and fastening requirements.
strapping. Continuous wood strapping is not
required when a ceiling finish is provided. Floor stiffness can be increased and floor squeaks
minimized by applying elastomeric glue between
Floor Performance the floor joists and the subfloor. The subfloor,
adhesive and joists act together as a strengthened
The floor joist span tables incorporate vibration floor frame, thus reducing deflection between
criteria. The tables recognize that some floor adjacent joists.
constructions are more “bouncy” or “springy”
than others. Therefore, by adding blocking or All subfloor panels that do not have tongue
increasing subfloor thickness, floors will be less and groove joints should be covered with an
springy or bouncy and floor joist spans may underlay where a vinyl floor covering or ceramic
be increased. Alternatively, engineered wood tile is used. An underlay is not required where the
products such as laminated veneer lumber joists, edges of the subflooring are supported.
wood I-joists and parallel-chord trusses may All plywood and OSB panels used for subflooring
be used, but vibration criteria must be also be should be the exterior type (manufactured with
considered for these engineered products. waterproof adhesives).
SUBFLOOR For a lumber subfloor, 19 mm (1 in. nominal)

thick boards are generally used. This thickness
Plywood, OSB or tongue-and-grooved lumber can be reduced to 17 mm (11⁄16 in.) where joists
no wider than 184 mm (8 in. nominal) is are spaced at no more than 400 mm (16 in.) on
typically used for subflooring. Minimum centre. Apply the boards so that the end joints
thicknesses for subflooring are shown in occur over the joists and stagger end joints
Table 22 (Appendix A). throughout the floor. Boards may be applied at
right angles to the joists or diagonally at an angle
Plywood and OSB are often used as subflooring
of 45°. When the subflooring is laid at right
under wood-strip flooring or as a combination
angles to the joists, place strip flooring at right
subfloor and underlay for resilient flooring
angles to the subflooring unless an underlay is
or ceramic tile. When used as a combination
used. Diagonal subflooring permits strip flooring
subfloor and underlay, the side joints must
to be laid either parallel to or across the joists.
be supported on blocking at least 38 × 38 mm
Nail the boards with at least two 51 mm (2 in.)
(2 × 2 in. nominal) fitted between the joists
nails at each support. Lumber subflooring must
unless the panels have tongue-and-groove edges.
be covered with a panel-type underlay when the
floor is finished with resilient flooring.

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
FLOOR FRAMING be specifically designed for the appropriate loads

AT PROJECTIONS according to accepted engineering practice.
Extend the subflooring flush with the outer
Floor joists sometimes project beyond the framing members.
foundation or framed wall to provide support
for a bay window or additional floor space in Install insulation carefully on top of the soffit
the upper rooms. The cantilevered portion of finish under the cantilevered floor and up the
the floor framing should not exceed 400 mm inside face of the joist header and end joists.
(16 in.) for 38 × 184 mm (2 × 8 in.) joists and Consider using spray foam insulation. Place the
600 mm (24 in.) for larger joists (Figure 65). vapour barrier on the warm side of the insulation
In either case, this projection should not carry and install an air barrier to prevent air leakage
loads from additional floors. If the cantilevered through the cantilevered floor assembly.
floor joists are to carry additional loads, they must
65 Floor framing at projections
end joist
subfloor
bead of caulking
floor joist
rigid insulation
with caulking
vapour retarder
gypsum board
full depth insulation
header
overhang vapour-permeable
air barrier material
soffit covering
rigid insulation

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
CHOOSING THE SIZES OF BUILT-UP WOOD BEAMS
Problem ■■ Beam span is 4 m (13 ft.)

Select two built-up beams that meet the ■■ Species group and grade specified is
following conditions. SPF No. 2 and better
Conditions Selection
■■ One-storey, brick veneer house Use Table 15 (Appendix A).
■■ Beam supporting main floor only Acceptable beams for this application include:
5 – 38 × 235 mm (5 – 2 × 10 in.) or
■■ Supported joist length is 3.6 m (12 ft.)
4 – 38 × 286 mm (4 – 2 × 12 in.)
66 Basement beam and first floor joist framing
supported joist length

= 3.6 m (12 ft.)
beam end
foundation wall
interior support
beam span = 4 m (13 ft.) built-up beam
supported joist length

⁄ + b⁄2
a2
a b
beam span
supporting column

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
CHOOSING THE SIZES AND SPACING OF FLOOR JOISTS
Problem Selection
Select a floor joist that is acceptable for the Use Table 20 (Appendix A).
following conditions.
Acceptable floor joist sizes for this
application include:
Conditions
38 × 184 mm at 300 mm
■■ Joists are supporting the living room floor (2 × 8 in. at 12 in.) on centre or
■■ Joist span is 3.75 m (12 ft. 3 in.) 38 × 235 mm at 600 mm
■■ Bridging will be installed (2 × 10 in. at 24 in.) on centre
Note 1: Any spacing less than 600 mm (24 in.)
■■ Basement ceiling will not be finished on centre for the 38 × 235 mm (2 × 10 in.) is
■■ Species group and grade specified are SPF acceptable.
No. 2 and better Note 2: In accordance with the National Building
Code, the metric spacing of wood framing
■■ Subfloor is 15.9 mm (5⁄8 in.) plywood nailed members is expressed as a “soft” conversion
in place from the actual imperial dimensions. For example,
■■ Also note that drywall or gypsum spacing of 12, 16 and 24 inches on centre is
converted to 300, 400 and 600 mm. on centre,
board ceiling finish can be considered as
respectively. In order to suit the imperial sizes
strapping. For this example, floor joists of common 1 220 × 2 440 mm (4 × 8 ft.) panel
can be considered braced with bridging products, such as gypsum board, OSB and
and strapping. plywood, the actual spacing of framing members
is commonly adjusted to 305, 406 and 610 mm
on centre, respectively.
67 Floor joists bearing on beam and foundation wall
joist span = 3.75 m (12 ft. 3 in.)

CHAPTER 9
Floor Framing
Resource Efficiency ■■ Consider using engineered wood beams,

such as LVL and PSL. Engineered wood
■■ The use of engineered wood products
products may use lesser-quality wood
such as wood I-joists is common because
fibre and adhesives to provide strength
of their span and performance capabilities
and rigidity, and usually weigh less and
and their efficient use of wood fibre.
are easier to install.
■■ Advanced framing techniques (also called
optimum value engineering) can reduce
the amount of wood framing materials
by 15–20 per cent, compared with
conventional framing.
Canadian Span Book 2009,

Canadian Wood Council (publication no. SB00-09-E)
Canadian Wood Council (publication no. EGWF-09-E)

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
Wall framing includes studs, wall plates and Insulation is usually installed in the stud spaces.
lintels that resist lateral loads and vertical If the stud space is not deep enough to contain
loads from the upper floors, ceiling and roof. the required level of insulation, wider studs,
All framing lumber should be grade-stamped double walls, or rigid or semi-rigid insulation
and have a moisture content not exceeding outside the stud space may be used. In all cases,
19 per cent. See Table 24 (Appendix A) for the vapour control requirements presented in
nailing requirements. Chapter 5 must be observed.
Exterior wall studs are the vertical members Additional rigid or semi-rigid insulation or
to which the wall sheathing and cladding are batts installed between 38 × 38 mm (2 × 2 in.)
attached. They are supported on a bottom horizontal furring strips can be attached to
plate and, in turn, support the top plate(s). the inside of the studs, or rigid or semi-rigid
Studs usually consist of 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. insulation sheathing fastened to the outside
nominal) or 38 × 140 mm (2 × 6 in. nominal) of the studs. Wider 38 × 140 mm (2 × 6 in.
lumber and are commonly spaced 400 mm nominal) or 38 × 184 (2 × 8 in.) studs can also
(16 in.) on centre. This spacing may be changed be used to provide space for more batt insulation.
to 300 or 600 mm (12 or 24 in.), depending on
The studs are attached to horizontal top and
the load and the limitations imposed by the
bottom 38 mm (2 in. nominal) wall plates that
type and thickness of the wall covering used
are the same width as the studs. If a concrete
(Table 25 in Appendix A).
topping is used on a floor, it is recommended

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
that a double bottom plate be used so that provides an additional tie to the framed walls.
there is a nailing surface at the bottom for Where the second top plate does not lap the
affixing wallboard and finishes. Where the plate immediately underneath at corner and
drywall is contributing to the strength of a partition intersections, they may be held together
braced wall panel, the second bottom wall with 0.91 mm (0.036 in.) galvanized steel plates
plate is needed for attachment purposes. at least 75 mm (3 in.) wide and 150 mm (6 in.)
For load-bearing walls, unless the roof rafters long, nailed with at least three 63 mm (21⁄2 in.)
or trusses are positioned within 50 mm nails to each wall.
(2 in.) over the wall studs, the top plate
Lintels are the horizontal members placed
must be doubled. This second top plate
over window, door and other openings to carry
usually laps the first plate at the corners and
loads to the studs on either side of the opening
partition intersections and, when nailed in place,
(Figure 68). They are usually constructed of at
68 Wall framing used with platform construction
top plate nailed to each stud

top plates nailed together stud toenailed to
bottom plate
top plates at butt joint with metal
corners and load tie or lap top plate
bearing partitions
lapped and nailed
or tied with a metal
plate fastened to
the top plates
double studs at openings and multiple

temporary brace studs at corners and intersections
stud and jack stud bottom plate nailed to joist or rim joist
cripple/trimmer stud subfloor
window opening
let-in bracing or metal strapping
lintel when no or non-structural
sheathing is used
Note: Where the lintel exceeds 3 m (10 ft.), the jack stud needs to be doubled on both sides of the opening.

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
least two pieces of 38 mm (2 in. nominal) Once the wall sections are aligned and plumb,
lumber, nailed together to form a single unit. they are nailed together at the corners and
Rigid insulation is commonly used as a spacer intersections. When polyethylene is used for
between the members to make the lintel the same the air barrier system, a strip of the material
thickness as the wall framing. The depth of a should be placed between the interior walls and
lintel is determined by the width of the opening the exterior walls, and above the first top plate
and vertical loads supported. (See Tables 26 of interior walls before the second top plate is
and 27 in Appendix A) For openings less than applied for later attachment and sealing to the
3 m (10 ft.) wide, provide a full stud on each rest of the air barrier (see Figures 12 and 13
side of openings (Figure 68) and a jack stud in Chapter 5).
on each side to support the lintel. For openings
Interior partitions supporting floor, ceiling or
wider than 3 m (10 ft.), provide double
roof loads are called load-bearing walls; others
jack studs on both sides in addition to the
are called non-load-bearing or simply partitions.
full studs.
Interior load-bearing walls are framed in the
same way as exterior walls. Studs are usually
PLATFORM FRAMING 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. nominal) lumber spaced
This is a common framing method where each at 400 mm (16 in.) on centre. This spacing
floor serves a work platform for building and may be changed to 300 mm (12 in.) or 600 mm
erecting the walls for the next storey. End-nail (24 in.) depending on the loads supported and
the top and bottom plates to each stud with two the type and thickness of the wall finish used
nails at least 82 mm (31⁄4 in.) long. Apply wall (Table 25 in Appendix A)
sheathing to the framing prior to erection
Partitions can be built with 38 × 64 mm (2 × 3 in.
to eliminate the need for scaffolding for this
nominal) or 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. nominal)
operation. Some types of sheathing such as
studs spaced at 400 or 600 mm (16 or 24 in.) on
plywood and OSB will resist lateral loads
centre depending on the type and thickness of
and keep walls square. Others such as rigid
the wall finish used. Where a partition does not
glass-fibre, asphalt-coated fibreboard, polystyrene
contain a swinging door, 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in.
or polyurethane board will not, and walls need
nominal) studs at 400 mm (16 in.) on centre are
to be reinforced with diagonal wood or metal
sometimes used with the wide face of the stud
bracing let into the studs (Figure 68).
parallel to the wall. This is sometimes done for
Once a wall section is ready, rotate it into the partitions enclosing closets to save space.
vertical position, add temporary braces and
Since there is no vertical load to be supported
nail the bottom plates to the subfloor and floor
by partitions, single studs may be used at door
framing members (Figure 68). The braces should
openings. The top of the opening may be bridged
have their larger dimension on the vertical and
with a single piece of 38 mm (2 in. nominal)
allow the vertical position of the wall to be
lumber the same width as the studs. These
adjusted so that it is plumb.
members provide a nailing support for wall
finishes, door frames and trim.

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
A multiple-stud post made up of at least three support for the interior finish and exterior
studs, or the equivalent, is generally used at sheathing (Figures 69 and 70). Corners and
exterior corners and intersections to provide a intersections, however, must be framed with at
good tie between adjoining walls and nailing least two studs.
69 Multiple stud arrangements at an exterior corner
corner studs
bottom plate
three-stud two-stud
corner corner subfloor
gypsum
board clip
end joist
insulation sill plate
foundation
70 Multiple stud arrangements at the intersection of an interior partition with

an exterior wall
polyethylene strip
interior stud partition stud
attached to stud
insulation in spaces
between studs
interior stud bottom plate
attached to
blocking subfloor
end joist
interior stud sill plate

attached after foundation
drywall installation

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
Nailing support is required for the edges of the BRACED WALL PANELS
ceiling finish at the junction of the wall and
To provide lateral resistance in areas with high
ceiling where partitions run parallel to the
wind or earthquake exposure, builders have
ceiling joists (Figures 71 and 72).
the option of using strong wall segments called
71 Support for ceiling finish where ceiling joists run parallel to a partition
38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) blocking
nailed to ceiling joists
ceiling joist
38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) nailing support
air barrier tab for connection

to the ceiling air barrier system
(may also be installed between top
plates—not required between floors)
plate
stud
72 End-wall framing and nailing support for interior finish for

platform construction
stud
bottom plate
subfloor
floor joist
wood nailing support for

interior finish
end joist
plate

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
braced wall panels. A braced wall panel is a For basements or crawl spaces, perimeter
portion of a wood-frame wall where the bracing, concrete or masonry walls provide significant
sheathing, cladding or interior finish is designed lateral resistance as compared with above-ground
and installed to provide the required lateral frame walls. For this reason, interior braced wall
resistance. These requirements are intended to bands can be terminated at the floor above the
ensure all sides of a building are robust. If for basement or crawl space, provided the remaining
instance, there is a desire to have a large area braced wall bands are spaced not more than
of windows on one side of a house, strong wall 15 m (49 ft.) on centre or form a perimeter
portions are required to compensate for the braced wall band.
window openings.
Many traditional house designs have incorporated
Braced wall panels must be located within enclosed porches where the enclosure is light
braced wall bands, which are 1.2 m (4 ft.) construction and mostly glazed, and modern
wide spaces that extend from one floor to house designs sometimes incorporate solariums
another (Figure 73). that are constructed outside the main structure
of the building. Neither of these designs has
There is a limit to the number of stories
exterior wall area that could be constructed as
that can be designed using the prescriptive
braced wall panels. For this reason, an exception
solutions (braced wall panels), and the
can be made to permit the construction of these
requirements dictate the location, configuration,
spaces provided:
spacing and dimensions for braced wall panels.
The number of storeys permitted is reduced if ■■ they do not extend too far from the main
heavy construction materials such as tile roofs structure of the building;
or concrete toppings on floors are used. ■■ they do not support a floor; and
73 Braced wall bands and panels
braced wall panels offset a

maximum of 1.2 m (4 ft.)
braced wall bands continuous

from one floor to another
the proportional length of braced wall

panels in this braced wall band provides
the required lateral load resistance

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
■■ the roof provides lateral resistance by The requirements for walls in detached garages
being either: and in accessory buildings serving a single
dwelling unit are also less stringent, provided
■■ contiguous with the roof of the rest of
these walls are not supporting a floor.
the building with framing members not
more than 400 mm (16 in.) on centre, or
BALLOON FRAMING
■■ constructed with roof framing not more
For balloon-framed construction, both the
than 400 mm (16 in.) on centre fastened
studs and first-floor joists rest on the foundation
to the framing of the main structure.
sill plate (Figure 74) and an intermediate beam
Braced wall bands and braced wall panels on or bearing wall. Studs are toe-nailed to these
the front wall of an attached garage significantly supports with at least four 63 mm (2½ in.) nails;
change current construction, and the width the joists in turn are nailed to the studs with at
would have to be increased to accommodate least two 76 mm (3 in.) nails. When lumber
both garage doors and braced wall panels. subfloor is laid diagonally, blocking is required
Because people do not generally spend a lot between the joists at the wall lines to support the
of time in garages or accessory buildings and ends of the boards.
do not sleep in these buildings or spaces, less
Upper-floor joists bear on a ribbon board not
stringent requirements apply to these structures,
less than 19 × 89 mm (1 × 4 in. nominal) that has
provided they do not support more than one
been let into the studs, and the joists are nailed to
floor above the garage, have limited depth
the studs. The end joists parallel to the exterior
and have a certain percentage of the back and
walls on all floors are also nailed to the studs.
side walls constructed of braced wall panels.
74 Wall framing using balloon construction method
second-floor joist
fire stop
19 x 89 mm (1 x 4 in.)
ribbon let-in
stud
alternative insulate prior to application
corner of sheathing or sheathing
membrane
first-floor joist
fire stop
foundation sill plate
(anchored)

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
As the spaces between the studs are not reduce thermal bridging caused by the framing.
interrupted by wall plates (as they would be Thermal bridging occurs when thermally
in platform framing), fire blocks are required at conductive materials such as wood framing
floor and ceiling levels to eliminate continuous conduct heat through the building envelope,
concealed spaces in the wall. Lumber blocking thereby bypassing the insulation in the framing
38 mm (11⁄2 in.) thick is commonly used for this cavity, and can considerably reduce the thermal
purpose. Fire blocking is not required where a resistance of a wall assembly.
wall space is filled with insulation.
STRUCTURAL INSULATED
HIGHLY INSULATED WALLS PANELS (SIPS)
Consider building exterior walls with higher Structural insulated panels consisting of an
insulation levels than those required by the outer and inner layer of plywood or OSB bonded
building code to reduce heating and cooling to a polystyrene insulation core provide both
energy consumption and improve comfort structural rigidity and high insulation levels.
(see Figure 19 in Chapter 5). Double-frame walls As most studs in the wall assembly have been
have been used successfully in cold climates and eliminated, SIPs have negligible thermal bridging.
where the owners want highly energy-efficient The joints between SIP panels should be “tongue
construction. Rigid insulation applied over and groove” and sealed with caulking to prevent
the exterior of the wall framing will increase air leakage (Figure 75).
the thermal resistance of the walls and
75 Structural insulated panel system (SIPS)
top plate
splices
rough
corner connection opening
header panel

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
CHOOSING THE SIZE AND SPACING OF WALL STUDS

FOR PLATFORM FRAMING
Problem 76 Platform framing

Select the first floor wall studs that are able to
support the superimposed loads as follows.
Conditions
First floor interior wall studs support a
second storey and an attic that is not served
by a staircase (that is, without storage).
All studs are 2.36 m (7 ft. 9 in.) long.
Selection
Use Table 25 (Appendix A).
Acceptable wall stud sizes for this 2.36 m
application include: (7 ft. 9 in.)
38 × 64 mm (2 × 3 in.) spaced at
400 mm (16 in.) on centre, or
38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in.) spaced at
600 mm (24 in.) on centre
Note: In accordance with the National Building

members is expressed as a “soft” conversion
from the actual imperial dimensions. For example,
spacing of 12, 16 and 24 inches on centre is products, such as gypsum board, OSB and
converted to 300, 400 and 600 mm on centre, plywood, the actual spacing of framing members
respectively. In order to suit the imperial sizes is commonly adjusted to 305, 406 and 610 mm
of common 1 220 × 2 440 mm (4 × 8 ft.) panel on centre respectively.

CHAPTER 10
Wall Framing
Energy Efficiency ■■ Use studs pre-cut to the required length

for a standard wall height.
■■ Wood-frame construction provides space
for insulation between the framing members. ■■ For non-standard height walls, select lumber
The dimensions of the framing may be lengths that minimize the length of off-cuts.
increased or framing may be doubled to
■■ Space studs at 466 mm (19.2 in.) or 600 mm
provide space for higher insulation levels.
(24 in.) on centre when possible.
Resource Efficiency ■■ Sort end cuts for reuse for blocking,
bracing, etc.
■■ Minimize the amount of waste from
wall framing through proper planning ■■ Lay out walls to maximize the use of full
and practices. panels of plywood, OSB and rigid insulation.
■■ Use dry lumber and store it properly to ■■ Reuse temporary braces as plates for the
reduce damage. walls on the next floor.

CHAPTER 11
Ceiling and Roof Framing
A roof must have a water-shedding surface of 45° is expressed as a 12⁄12 slope. A roof with
air and vapour barriers to prevent moisture a 4⁄12 slope has a rise of 4 inches for every
accumulation in the roof assembly, thermal 12 inches of run.
insulation and ventilation to remove moisture
When expressed as a ratio, for slopes less than
that has escaped from the conditioned space.
45°, the first number (the vertical component) is
In Canada, most houses are framed with
always shown as one. A ratio of 1:5, for example,
prefabricated wood trusses and have an unheated,
indicates a vertical of 1 unit for every 5 units of
ventilated attic space. Cathedral ceilings and
horizontal dimension. For slopes steeper than 45°,
flat roofs do not have attic spaces, but there
the second number (the horizontal component) is
must still be a vented space above the insulation
always shown as one. A ratio of 5:1, for example,
to remove moisture.
indicates a vertical of 5 units for every one unit
Steeper roofs tend to shed water better than of horizontal dimension. The use of mixed units
flat or low-slope roofs. The slope of a roof such as 1 mm in 10 m should be avoided.
is expressed as a rise-to-run ratio with the
Expressed as a ratio, the imperial designation
vertical component, or rise, always shown
of 4⁄12 is 1:3. In special cases where a high degree
first. There are two conventions for expressing
of accuracy is required, angular expressions of
the slope of a roof: imperial and ratio.
slope are acceptable.
The imperial convention is based on the
Pitched roofs vary in slope from 1:6 to 1:1
use of a framing square, and the run is
or more. Roof slope affects such factors as
always expressed as 12, based on 12 inches
the minimum slope required for various
to a foot. For example, a roof with a slope

CHAPTER 11
roofing materials to reduce the risk of water PITCHED ROOFS

backing up through the roof membrane.
Prefabricated roof trusses are most often used
The minimum allowable slope for asphalt
for framing residential roofs. Rafters framed on
shingles is 1:6, and there are different
site are sometimes used. Of the pitched roofs,
installation requirements for roof slopes
the gable roof is the simplest to construct.
of 1:3 or greater and slopes less than 1:3.
Other pitched configurations, such as a hip
There are minimum allowable slopes for
or L-shape roof, can also be framed with
each type of roofing material.
trusses (Figure 77).
The dimensions of roof joists and rafters for
the various grades and species of lumber and Prefabricated Roof Trusses
for various live loads are given in Tables 29 Prefabricated roof trusses offer many advantages.
to 32 (Appendix A). They are designed to handle snow loads that the
trusses will be subjected to, are manufactured
77 L-shape trussed roof
See isometric below
ridge
valley trusses
roof sheathing
gable end
girder truss
common trusses
double wall plates
Note: For clarity, some structural members of some of the trusses have been omitted,
and roof sheathing appears continuous.

CHAPTER 11
with a high level of quality control, reduce Prefabricated trusses should be stored on a flat,
lumber waste and speed up the process of clean area of the construction site. Trusses shorter
enclosing the house. They provide a surface than a 6 m (20 ft.) span are usually installed by
for the roof sheathing, a surface for the ceiling hand. Trusses longer than this require special
finish material and a space for insulation. lifting techniques to avoid damage.
Raised heel trusses (Figure 78) are used in most
Trusses must be lifted into a vertical position
new houses because they provide a deeper space
carefully to prevent excessive lateral bending.
at the eaves to accommodate greater amounts of
The gable truss is placed first and braced to
insulation. The energy efficiency requirements in
most building codes lead to the use of trusses,
rafters and roof joists with a vertical dimension 79 Types of prefabricated
at the outer face of the exterior wall framing of roof trusses
300 mm (12 in.) or more.
Ventilation of the attic space is easily provided
through the eaves and at the ridge. In most
cases, trusses are designed to span from exterior king-post
wall to exterior wall with no intermediate
load-bearing walls to support the roof loads
(Figure 79). This gives flexibility to interior
planning because partitions can be placed
without regard to structural requirements. Howe
A continuous air barrier and vapour retarder
can be applied to the underside of the trusses
before the interior partitions are erected.
78 Raised heel roof truss provides Fink or W

depth for insulation
mono-pitch parallel chord
scissor truss
provide truss mansard

anchors as
requested by
manufacturer
or by code

CHAPTER 11
the ground and wall. Each additional truss is temporarily braced (Figure 80). When all trusses
lifted into position, generally 600 mm (24 in.) are plumbed and properly positioned, they are
on centre, toe-nailed to the top plates and braced permanently (Figure 81); a) permanent
80 Temporary bracing of roof trusses
Note: Gable ends are normally sheathed prior to installation of end braces.
81 Permanent bracing of roof trusses
A Plan View B End Elevation

38 x 89 mm
(2 x 4 in.) web
bracing as
lateral brace required by truss
manufacturer
top chord
ridge line
diagonal brace
C Side Elevation
nailed to top sheathing
chord—repeat at blocking
approximate
6 m (20 ft.) lateral brace
intervals as diagonal forms
required by truss braced bay—repeat
manufacturer at both ends and at
approximate 6 m (20 ft.)
lateral bracing intervals as required
by truss manufacturer
ceiling

CHAPTER 11
bracing of top chord plane, b) lateral web bracing Liveable attic spaces need adequate insulation,
and c) permanent bracing to web member or an air barrier system and a vapour barrier as
bottom chord plane. The stiffness of the roof is discussed in Chapter 5. The size of framing
increased when the sheathing has been applied. members found in Tables 29 to 32 (Appendix A)
Trusses must be installed and braced according may need to be increased to provide space for
to the manufacturer’s instructions and must additional insulation to meet energy efficiency
not be cut or altered. requirements, or additional wood framing may
be added to increase the space in the roof cavity.
Site Assembly of Pitched Roofs Ceiling joists are used to support the ceiling
For on-site construction, the gable roof is finish and to act as ties between exterior walls
the simplest roof constructed with rafters and, in some cases, opposing rafters. They may
or trusses (Figure 82), which are the same also provide support for roof loads transferred
length and pattern and can be erected rather to them by dwarf walls (knee walls) used as
easily. Dormers may be added to provide intermediate support for rafters, in which case
additional light, headroom and ventilation they must be sized accordingly. (See Table 33 in
(see Figure 88). The hip roof design uses Appendix A for ceiling joist spans.) When ceiling
common rafters fastened to a ridge board, joists also support floor loads, determine what size
with hip rafters providing the support for is needed from the floor joist tables. (See Table 19
the jack rafters (Figure 83b). and Table 20 in Appendix A)
82 Types of pitched roofs
Flat Monopitch Gable
Hip Gambrel Mansard

CHAPTER 11
For pitched roofs framed with dimension where jack rafters run perpendicular to the
lumber, nail the ceiling joists in place after the ceiling joists, a stub joist can tie the jack rafter
interior and exterior wall framing is complete back to the ceiling joist (Figure 85). Lap and
but before the rafters are erected, because nail the joists together or splice them at the
otherwise the thrust of the rafters will tend centre load-bearing wall to provide a continuous
to push out the exterior walls. Ceiling joists tie across opposing rafters. The number of nails
are generally used to tie the lower ends of required in the connections depends upon the
the rafters in pitched roofs that slope 1:3 or roof slope, rafter spacing, snow load and the
more. To prevent the rafter ends from moving width of the house. (See Table 24 in Appendix A
outward, nail the ceiling joist to the side of for nailing requirements.)
each pair of rafters (Figure 83). For hip roofs
83 Roof framing and attachment
A Gable roof
ridge board
rafter
collar brace
collar tie
gable end stud
ceiling joist
top wall plate
B Hip roof hip rafter at least 50 mm (2 in.)

deeper than jack rafters
jack rafter
ceiling joist
top plate

CHAPTER 11
The additional roof load imposed by dwarf Since hip rafters are usually about 51 mm (2 in.)
walls that run at right angles to ceiling joists deeper than common or jack rafters, they reduce
(Figure 84) must be considered when choosing the space along the end walls to the extent that in
the size of the joists. An increase in the depth of low-slope roofs, there may not be enough room to
the joists to the next standard depth will usually install the outside ceiling joist at normal spacing
provide the additional strength required where from the wall. In this case, doubled joists are
the roof slope is more than 1:4. When the slope used and positioned to suit the available space
is 1:4 or less, determine the size of the ceiling (Figure 85). Tail joists are then added and
joists from the span tables for roof joists toenailed to the outside wall plate and end-nailed
(Tables 29 and 30 in Appendix A).
84 Rafter heel supported on a rafter plate
Rafter plate nailed to top of each ceiling joist with at least two 100 mm (4 in.) nails
rafter plate ridge beam
rafter
exterior wall
knee wall with top and bottom plates and
stud in line with each ceiling joist and rafter
struts at 1.2 m (4 ft.) o.c.
ceiling joists lapped directly
above interior load-bearing wall
85 Doubled ceiling joists and stub joists used where a hip rafter reduces clear
space near the end wall
jack rafter hip rafter at least
50 mm (2 in.) deeper
than jack rafters
ceiling joist
double ceiling joist
normal location for ceiling

joist if space is available
stub joist
end wall framing top plate

CHAPTER 11
to the doubled joist. The spacing of these tail A ridge board (see Figure 83) or a ridge
joists is usually the same as that of the main beam (see Figure 84) is used to ensure a level
ceiling joists. ridgeline and to facilitate placement of the
rafters. Erect rafters in pairs and nail them to the
Cut rafters to length with the proper angle at
ridge board or beam. Toe-nail the lower ends to
the ridge and notches (known as bird’s mouth
the wall plate. Locate each pair of rafters directly
joints) on the eaves. The heel or lower part of the
opposite each other or offset at the ridge by not
rafters should bear directly over the exterior wall.
more than their thickness. Offsetting is required
Depending on the design of the roof and the
to maintain vertical alignment of the rafters when
shape of the outside walls, place the rafters:
the lower ends are tied to ceiling joists that have
■■ directly on the wall plates (see Figure 83); been lapped (rather than butted together) at the
centre load-bearing wall (see Figure 84).
■■ on a rafter plate nailed to the top of the ceiling
joists (see Figure 84); or A roof that slopes less than 1:3 should be
vertically supported at the peak. This can be
■■ on a load-bearing wall supported on the accomplished by providing a 38 × 140 mm
exterior wall plate (Figure 86). (2 × 6 in. nominal) ridge beam supported
The last method is used where a portion of the at 1.2 m (4 ft.) intervals by 38 × 89 mm
outside wall is inset. The ceiling joists extend (2 × 4 in. nominal) vertical struts (see Figure 84).
beyond the exterior wall and are nailed to the A load-bearing wall may be used instead of the
side of the rafters. This provides lateral support ridge beam. Since the ridge support does not
for the bearing wall and stability for the ends result in outward thrust of the roof members,
of the rafters. continuous ties between the lower ends of
86 Rafter heel supported on load-bearing wall
ridge board
intermediate struts to be set not
less than 45º to the horizontal
studs in load-bearing
wall located directly
38 mm (2 in.) thick splice plate under each rafter
interior bearing wall

roof rafters notched and bearing
directly on top plate of exterior wall
continuous nailer and soffit supports
ceiling joists extend beyond the exterior
wall and are nailed to the rafters and
toe-nailed to the double wall plate
wall sheathing exterior wall

CHAPTER 11
opposing rafters are not necessary. Ridge beams to the side of each rafter and supported on a
are also required for steeper pitched roofs when load-bearing partition. The angle of any struts
the outside ends of the rafters cannot be tied should not be less than 45° from the horizontal.
together to resist thrust. Rafters at right angles to the ceiling joists may
Intermediate support is generally provided be supported at an intermediate point by a dwarf
between the ridge and exterior walls to reduce wall sitting on a beam placed between the ceiling
the span of the rafters. This reduces the size joists. The underside of the beam is raised at
of the rafters that is required, as the span is least 25 mm (1 in.) above the ceiling finish by
measured from this intermediate point to the blocks inserted under the ends of the beam at
ridge or eave support. the exterior walls and intermediate load-bearing
partition. The space prevents the beam from
For rafters in roofs that slope 1:3 or more,
damaging the ceiling finish when deflected by
intermediate support is usually provided by
the roof loads.
38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. nominal) collar ties nailed
to the side of each pair of rafters. Since these A beam may also be used as intermediate support
ties are in compression and subject to buckling, for hip and valley rafters. A roof strut is used to
ties more than 2.4 m (8 ft.) long should be transfer the load from the hip or valley rafter to
supported against lateral deflection. This can be the beam. Where intermediate support is required
done by nailing a 19 × 89 mm (1 × 4 in. nominal) for a few rafters in the end section on a hip roof,
continuous member at right angles to the collar a simple support can be provided by a beam
ties near their centre with three, 76 mm (3 in.) (sometimes called a “strongback”) consisting
nails at each end (see Figure 83). of two, 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. nominal) members
nailed together, set on edge and nailed to the
Intermediate support for rafters in roofs that
bottom of the rafters. This beam is supported at
slope less than 1:3 is usually provided by a
points along its length by 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in.
dwarf-bearing wall (see Figure 84) built in the
nominal) struts radiating from a common point
same way as a load-bearing partition, except that
of support on the intermediate load-bearing wall.
a single top plate may be used where the rafters
The ends are cut to fit the selected angle and
are positioned directly over the studs.
securely nailed in place.
Struts may also be used as intermediate supports
Hip and valley rafters should be about 50 mm
for rafters in pitched roofs. A 38 × 89 mm
(2 in.) deeper than common rafters (Figures 83,
(2 × 4 in. nominal) strut (see Figure 86) is nailed
85 and 87). This additional depth provides full
87 Framing at a valley
valley rafter
jack rafter
common rafter
top plate
corner wall studs

CHAPTER 11
contact with the angle-cut of the jack rafters. around the opening. A bottom plate added on
In hip roofs, the jack rafters are nailed to the top of the sheathing supports the side studs
hip rafters and wall plate. Where a valley enclosing the dormer and also serves as a
occurs, nail the jack rafters to the valley rafter nailing base for the wall sheathing.
and ridge.
Dormers are framed so that the rafters at Gable-End Framing
each side are doubled to support the side and Projections
studs and valley rafters. The top ends of After roof framing members have been
the valley rafters are supported by a header installed, the gable-end studs are nailed
spanning between the doubled rafters in place. Studs in unfinished attics can be
(Figure 88). The most common method of placed with the wide face parallel to the wall.
construction is to install the roof sheathing Cut the ends of the studs to fit the angle of
before the dormer is framed, and then cut the rafter and toenail them to the wall plate
the sheathing flush with the framing members and to the underside of the rafter with at
88 Typical dormer framing
double header
jack rafter
double rafter
joist hangers
valley rafter
side stud
size window to allow for

proper flashing, detailing
and finishing of roofing
roof sheathing applied prior

to construction of dormer

CHAPTER 11
least four 63 mm (21⁄2 in.) nails at each end Roofs that project less than 300 mm (12 in.)
(Figure 89). The framing of the roof projections over the gable-end wall usually terminate
at the gable ends is shown in Figures 89 and 90. with a framing member called a rake rafter
89 Wide projection at gable end supported by “lookout” rafters
ridge beam
rafter
top plate of gable end wall
blocking between lookouts

to support roof sheathing and
inner edge of soffit covering
lookouts at 600 mm (24 in.) o.c.
ceiling joist
top plate
header or rough fascia
lookout cut away
to show top plate fascia board at eave and gable end
corner studs
90 Narrow projection at gable end
blocking spaced at 600 mm (24 in.) o.c.

supporting soffit covering
ridge beam
rafter
19 mm (3⁄4 in.) nailing strip
to support edge of soffit
ceiling joist
roof sheathing
gable wall sheathing taken up
to underside of roof sheathing
top plate
studs
rake rafter supported by ridge beam,

rafter header, blocking and sheathing
rough fascia supports
corner studs heel of rake rafter

CHAPTER 11
(see Figure 90). A 19 mm (3⁄4 in. nominal) Low-Slope Roofs

nailing strip is fastened to the rafter located above
Low-slope roofs must be constructed
the gable end wall. Blocking spaced at 600 mm
more water-tight than pitched roofs because
(24 in.) on centre is used to support the soffit
drainage is poorer. They sometimes support
covering. This blocking is toenailed to the nailing
decks or terraces or occasional traffic and
strip and end-nailed to the rake rafter. The soffit
therefore must be protected with durable,
covering is then installed and nailed to these
wear-resistant materials.
supports and a fascia board is added.
Gable-end projections extending more than Where rafters also serve as ceiling joists, the term
300 mm (12 in.) beyond the wall should be “roof joist” is used. Their size is determined by
supported by framing members called “lookouts” both roof and ceiling loads. (See Tables 29 and
(see Figure 89). Gable-end studs are placed with 30 in Appendix A.) Rafters chosen for structural
the narrow face parallel to the sheathing, and a adequacy may not, however, provide adequate
top wall plate is added. The lookout members, depth for insulation and ventilation of the roof
usually the same size as the rafters, are spaced space. In such cases, wider lumber or engineered
at 600 mm (24 in.) on centre. wood products should be used.
The ends are supported by end-nailing to the Roof joists for low-slope roofs are usually laid
first rafter and inboard of the gable end to the level or nearly level, with roof sheathing and
top plate of the gable. Blocking is then fitted a roof covering on top. The underside of the
between the lookouts in line with the wall line roof joists supports the ceiling. A slope of at least
to support the roof sheathing and inner edge of 1:50 is required for drainage. Slope the joists
the soffit covering. The soffit covering is nailed to by adding a ledger strip at the top of the bearing
these supports, and a fascia is added. The length wall or by adding a tapered strip to the top of
of lookout members should be at least twice the the joists.
width of the roof overhang. A double rafter is Lookout rafters are usually used when an
used to support the inner ends of the lookout overhang is provided for a low-slope roof
members when they project into the roof more (Figure 91). If the lookout rafters project into
than one-and-one-half rafter spaces.
91 Typical construction of a low-slope roof with overhang
alternative framing layout (dashed lines)

roof joist
lookout rafter
header
exterior wall plate

rafter header

CHAPTER 11
the ceiling area more than one and one-half joist at the eavestrough and roof overhang, which are
spaces, two roof joists are nailed together to exposed to outdoor temperatures on all sides and
form a header. One outside rafter header is are therefore colder than the ceiling. This may
then added and end-nailed to the lookout cause water to back up at the eaves, penetrate
rafters and roof joists. This serves as a nailing through the roof and leak into the walls and
support for the roof sheathing, fascia board ceilings (see Figure 100). Adequate airtightening
and soffit covering. in combination with insulation and ventilation
beneath the roof sheathing will keep attic
ROOF SPACE VENTILATION temperatures low during winter and help
prevent snow on the roof from melting. A space
Always provide adequate ventilation of the roof
above the insulation between the exterior walls
space above the insulation. Accumulated water
and the underside of the roof sheathing allows
vapour in attic spaces and under low-slope roofs
ventilation from the eaves to the attic space.
could condense during cold weather in sufficient
When no air ventilation baffles are used, the
quantity to cause damage. Since most types of
clearance must be at least 63 mm (21⁄2 in.).
roof membranes are highly resistant to vapour
If baffles are used, the clearance can be reduced
transmission, vapour does not pass through them
to 25 mm (1 in.) (see Figure 24 in Chapter 5).
and ventilation is needed to remove vapour that
enters the roof space. Roofs with slopes of 1:6 and greater are required
to have an unobstructed vent area at least 1⁄300
During cold weather, heat lost through the
of the insulated ceiling area, measured on a
ceiling insulation combined with sun exposure
horizontal plane. For roofs with slopes less than
may provide enough heat to melt the snow on a
1:6, the area must be at least 1⁄150 of the ceiling
roof but not on the projecting eaves. Water from
area. Roof-, gable- or eave-type vents can be used
the melting snow can freeze and form ice dams
(see Figures 92 and 93). Vents must be uniformly
92 Soffit roof ventilation
baffle
perforated soffit
pre-finished fascia
airflow

CHAPTER 11
distributed with at least 25 per cent of the vent If rigid insulation is installed on top of the
area located at the bottom of the space and at roof sheathing (and below the roof covering),
least 25 per cent at the top. the space above the ceiling is not ventilated.
If batt insulation is placed between the Vents must not allow the entry of rain, snow or
roof-ceiling joists in a low-slope roof, insects. If a vent is a potential source of moisture
a ventilated space of at least 63 mm (21⁄2 in.) entry, a baffle is required to reduce air flow.
must be provided between the top of the Corrosion-resistant metal or plastic materials
insulation and the underside of the roof should be used for vents and to screen
sheathing. This can be achieved by placing ventilator openings.
38 × 64 mm (2 × 3 in. nominal) cross-purlins
Except for very small attic spaces, attics require
over the top of, and at right angles to,
an access hatch. The area of the hatch must be
the roof-ceiling joists. The cross-purlins
at least 0.32 m2 (3.4 sq. ft.) with no dimension
may be shimmed to provide the required
less than 500 mm (20 in.).
roof slope (see Figure 25 in Chapter 5).
93 High-level roof ventilation
Ridge vent Gable vent
wind flow
airflow
airflow

CHAPTER 11
CHOOSING THE SIZE AND SPACING OF CEILING JOISTS
Problem Selection
Select the minimum ceiling joist that is Use Table 33 (Appendix A).
acceptable for the following conditions:
For this application select 38 × 140 mm
(2 × 6 in.) ceiling joist.
Conditions
■■ Attic is inaccessible and is not used
for storage. Note: In accordance with the National Building
■■ Ceiling supports the insulation and drywall members is expressed as a “soft” conversions
interior finish. from the actual imperial dimensions. For example,
spacing of 12, 16 and 24 inches on centre is
■■ Span is 4.3 m (14 ft. 2 in.).
converted to 300, 400 and 600 mm on centre,
■■ Ceiling joist spacing is 400 mm (16 in.). respectively. In order to suit the imperial sizes
of common 1 220 × 2 440 mm (4 × 8 ft.) panel
■■ Species group and grade specified is products, such as gypsum board, OSB and
SPF No. 2 and better. plywood, the actual spacing of framing members
is commonly adjusted to 305, 406 and 610 mm
on centre, respectively.
94 Ceiling joists
span = 4.3 m (14 ft. 2 in.)
spacing = 400 mm (16 in.)

CHAPTER 11
CHOOSING THE SIZE AND SPACING OF ROOF RAFTERS
Problem ■■ Lower ends of the rafter are restrained.

Select the smallest dimension rafter that is able
Selection
to span the roof as follows.
Conditions
Acceptable rafters include:
■■ Building is located in Ottawa.
38 × 184 mm (2 × 8 in.) at
■■ Specified roof snow load is 1.72 kPa 300 mm (12 in.) on centre.
(36 lbs/sq. ft.).
38 × 235 mm (2 × 10 in.) at
■■ Roof slope is 1:3. 600 mm (24 in.) on centre.
■■ Rafter span is 4.7 m (15 ft. 6 in.).
■■ Species group and grade specified is Note: The rafters must also be deep
SPF No. 2 and better. enough to accommodate the required
level of insulation.
■■ Shingle roofing to be used.
95 Roof rafters
Rafter span = 4.7 m (15 ft. 6 in.)

CHAPTER 11
CHOOSING THE SIZE AND SPACING OF ROOF JOISTS
Problem ■■ Shingle roofing to be used.

Select the roof joists that are able to span the ■■ Lower ends of the roof joists are restrained.
roof as follows.
Selection
Conditions
■■ Building is located in Ottawa.
Acceptable roof joists include:
■■ Specified roof snow load is 1.72 kPa
38 × 235 mm (2 × 10 in.) at
(36 lbs/sq. ft.).
400 mm (16 in.) on centre.
■■ Roof slope is 1 in 3.
38 × 286 mm (2 × 12 in.) at
■■ Roof joist span is 4.19 m (13 ft. 9 in.). 600 mm (24 in.) on centre.
■■ Species group and grade specified is
SPF No. 2 and better. Note: The roof joists must also be deep enough
to accommodate the required level of insulation.
96 Roof joists
Roof joist span = 4.19 m (13 ft. 9 in.)

CHAPTER 11
Energy Efficiency Affordability

■■ Use raised heel trusses or rafters/roof joists When planned in advance, attic space can
that are deep enough to contain high levels be converted to high-quality living space.
of insulation over exterior walls. This is economical because it provides
additional space without increasing the
■■ Consider using raised heel trusses that are
building footprint and makes use of an
deep enough at the eaves to accommodate
existing roof. Consider these factors when
higher levels of insulation than required by
planning attic rooms:
the building code.
■■ Plan stair locations so access can be
■■ Consider increasing the depth of roof
extended to the attic space in the future.
framing members or reducing the spacing
between them to accommodate future solar ■■ Size ceiling joists as floor joists or design
thermal and photovoltaic panels. Consult a the attic trusses or rafters for future
structural engineer. habitable space. Use ceiling insulation
that may be moved to the roof assembly
Resource Efficiency during conversion.
Prefabricated roof trusses are widely used ■■ Ensure that the roof assembly will
for residential roof framing. Trusses use an accommodate sufficient insulation with
efficient arrangement of select lumber and a ventilation air space above it.
metal plates to provide long spans and reduce
■■ Steeper roof slopes shed snow and rain
the amount of wood required as compared
more effectively and enclose more attic
with framing with lumber rafters and joists.
volume than lower slopes.
They provide the following advantages:
■■ Rough in or plan for future services such
■■ Designed to suit local climatic conditions.
as electricity, plumbing, heating, ventilation,
■■ Fast to erect leading to earlier close-in. cable and telephone.
■■ Ample space for insulation and ventilation.
■■ Available to suit all possible roof shapes.
■■ Eliminate cut-offs at the site.

CHAPTER 12
Roof Sheathing and Coverings
ROOF SHEATHING Installing Roof Sheathing

Sheathing-grade plywood or OSB or lumber When plywood or OSB is used for roof
planks are applied over roof trusses, joists or sheathing, sheets are laid with the face grain
rafters to provide a nailing base for the roof at right angles to the framing (Figure 97)
covering and lateral bracing of the roof framing. and with the joints offset to obtain a good
97 Application of structural wood-panel roof sheathing
rafter nails 300 mm (12 in.) o.c. minimum
ceiling joist metal H-clip, blocking or

tongue-and-groove plywood
2-3 mm (1⁄8 in.) space
nails 150 mm (6 in.) o.c. minimum
grain direction
double top plate

CHAPTER 12
tie across the roof framing. Leave a 2 to 3 mm (1⁄8 in Appendix A)—no less than 15.5 mm (5⁄8 in.)—
in.) gap between panels to prevent buckling is required for built-up roofing on a low-slope
should expansion in the sheathing occur. roof to be used as a walking deck.
The required thicknesses of the plywood, Lumber sheathing must be laid closed, or edge
OSB or other roof sheathing are shown in to edge (Figure 98) with all ends supported and
Table 35 (Appendix A). Sheathing thickness joints staggered. For exposure to high wind or
depends on the spacing of the rafters, roof joists earthquake forces, lumber sheathing must be laid
or trusses and whether the edges of the sheets diagonally or be engineered. The boards are
are supported. To prevent damage to the roof usually 19 mm (¾ in. nominal) thick, but this
covering when thinner panels are used, support thickness may be reduced to 17 mm (11⁄16 in.)
the joints with 38 × 38 mm (2 × 2 in. nominal) where supports are spaced at 400 mm nominal
blocking nailed securely between the roof (16 in. actual) or less on centre.
framing members, or by metal H-clips inserted Boards 184 mm (8 in. nominal) or less in
between sheets. H-clips are widely used because width are nailed to the framing members with
installation is simple and economical. at least two, 51 mm (2 in.) nails per bearing.
It is good practice to stagger the location of Those wider than 184 mm (8 in. nominal)
fasteners at the edges of adjoining panels. should be nailed with at least three, 51 mm
Staple fasteners for 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) roof sheathing (2 in.) nails per bearing. For areas with high
must be at least 1.6 mm thick, 38.1 mm long wind loads, the length of the nails must be
with a 9.5 mm crown (1⁄16 in. thick, 11⁄2 in. increased to 63 mm (21⁄2 in.).
long with a 3⁄8 in. crown), and be driven with Boards wider than 286 mm (12 in. nominal)
the crown parallel to the framing (Table 38 in should not be used for roof sheathing. For a
Appendix A). Thicker roof sheathing (Table 22 wood shingle roof, the roof boards may be spaced
98 Installation of wood-board roof sheathing
Spaced method
nailing strip
Closed method
roof boards
joint
rafter
ceiling joist
plate
Note: For areas exposed to high wind and earthquake forces, lumber roof sheathing must be installed diagonally.

CHAPTER 12
the same distance apart on centre as the shingle EAVE PROTECTION

exposure. This method (Figure 98), commonly
Eave protection is achieved by installing a
used in damp climates, permits air movement
membrane along the edge of the roof to
and allows shingles to dry between wettings,
prevent water from entering the roof. It is
reducing the possibility of decay.
not required over unheated garages and
porches, on roofs with a slope of 1:1.5 or
Roof Sheathing Details
greater or in regions with 3,500 or fewer
Where openings occur in the roof structure for heating degree-days. Eave protection should
interior chimneys, the roof sheathing and framing extend at least 900 mm (36 in.) up the roof
members should have a clearance of 50 mm to a point at least 300 mm (12 in.) inside the
(2 in.) on all sides from the finished masonry, inner face of the exterior wall. Eave protection
or metal chimney for fire safety (Figure 99). is installed under the shingle starter course
This clearance may be reduced to 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) and is most often a self-adhering bituminous
for exterior masonry chimneys. Roof sheathing or roll roofing membrane.
should be securely nailed to the rafters and
headers around the opening. During cold weather, heat loss through the
ceiling insulation combined with sun exposure
Fit sheathing at valleys and hips to give a tight may provide enough heat to melt the snow
joint and securely nail it to the valley or hip on a roof but not on the projecting eaves.
rafter (Figure 99). This will provide a solid, Water from the melting snow can freeze and
smooth base for flashing (see Chapter 14). form ice dams at the eavestrough and roof
99 Roof sheathing detail at a valley and at a chimney opening
50 mm (2 in.)
clearance around chimney
rafter
header roof sheathing
valley
ridge board
ceiling joist
plate
stud

CHAPTER 12
overhang. As temperatures fluctuate, the melted ceiling/wall junction and at all penetrations
snow freezes, causing the ice dam to progressively through the ceiling air barrier during construction.
grow larger (Figure 100). Provide sufficient ceiling insulation to comply
with building code requirements for your
When a thaw occurs, this ridge of ice causes a
location, and ensure that the attic space is
dam that prevents melt water from escaping down
vented to the exterior at the eaves.
the roof. The trapped water backs up under
shingles and could leak into the attic, ceiling and Skylights should be situated away from the
wall. To prevent ice damming from occurring, areas where ice damming is likely. In addition,
do pay attention to air-sealing at the ceiling, the eave protection consisting of either type S
100 Eave protection
snow
No eave protection
trapped water backs up through
the roofing membrane
thin ice slab under snow
melted snow running down

underside of sheathing
heat loss or outdoor

temperature melts snow
ice
ice in eavestrough
inside face of wall
insulation
Eave protection minimum 900 mm (36 in.) wide

(measured along the slope) eave
protection extending at least
300 mm (12 in.) (measured
horizontally) beyond inside
face of the wall studs
eave protection directs water

off the roof

CHAPTER 12
(smooth surface) or type M (mineral-surfaced) The minimum and maximum slopes for the
roll roofing should be installed over the sheathing, different types of roof coverings are presented
laid with the joints lapped at least 100 mm in Table 36 (Appendix A). The minimum slope
(4 in.) and cemented together. Alternatively, of roofs is 1:6 for asphalt shingles (using a
a peel-and-stick bituminous membrane may low-slope application), 1:4 for wood shingles,
be used. Methods of flashing shingled roofs and 1:3 for hand-split shakes and asphalt shingles
at valleys, chimneys and intersecting walls (using normal application).
are described in Chapter 14.
Asphalt Shingles on Slopes
ROOF COVERINGS 1:3 or Greater
The roof covering should be installed as Asphalt strip shingles should be a minimum
soon as the sheathing is in place to keep No. 210 grade. Square-butt strip shingles
the building dry and to provide durable, are usually 310 × 915 mm (12 × 36 in.) or
water-resistant protection. 335 × 1 000 mm (131⁄4 × 39 3⁄8 in.) in size, have
three tabs and should be laid with 130 mm
The choice of roofing materials may be influenced (5 in.) or 145 mm (5¾ in.) of their width
by cost, appearance, local code requirements or exposed to the weather. Since there are
local preferences. Asphalt shingles are commonly approximately 21 to 26 strips in a bundle,
used on pitched roofs. Prefinished metal, a bundle will cover about 3 m2 (32 sq. ft.).
galvanized steel or aluminum roofing is also
common in some regions. At normal roof pitches, Store bundles flat so that strips will not curl
metal roofs will generally shed snow, a desirable when the bundles are opened. Distribute the
characteristic in heavy snowfall areas. Roll roofing, storage of shingles on roofs so that the load
wood shingles, hand-split shakes, sheet metal capacity of the framing is not exceeded.
and concrete or clay tile are also used. Built-up The method for installing asphalt shingles
roofing with a gravel topping or cap sheet is is shown in Figure 101. Install the eave
usually used for low-slope roofs. protection where required. Apply a starter
101 Application of asphalt shingles
roof sheathing
eave protection
roofing nail
tar seals
exposure
fascia board
starting course either solid
strip or reversed shingles
with tabs removed

CHAPTER 12
strip comprised of shingles with their tabs ridges. Maintain a shingle exposure of not more
removed along the eaves before the first course than one-third the full height of the shingle.
of shingles, so that it extends at least 12 mm Install starter strips as for higher-sloped roofs,
(1⁄2 in.) beyond the eaves, rakes and fascia board but apply them over a continuous band of
to form a drip edge. Starter strips with metal cement not less than 200 mm (8 in.) wide.
drip edges can also be used. The first course of shingles is then cemented
This projection prevents water from backing to the strip with a continuous band of cement
up under the shingles by capillary action. that is 100 mm (4 in.) wider than the shingle
Alternatively, a shingle strip laid with the exposure. For example, a 250 mm (10 in.)
tabs facing up the roof slope may be used band of cement should be used when the shingle
for this purpose. Type M roll roofing may exposure is 150 mm (6 in.). The succeeding
also be used as a starter strip and, when courses of shingles are laid on a band of cement
continued up the roof slope, will also serve 50 mm (2 in.) wider than the shingle exposure,
as eave protection. Nail the starter strip so that a 200 mm (8 in.) band is used when
along the bottom edge at 300 mm (12 in.) the exposure is 150 mm (6 in.).
intervals. Lay the first course of shingles To avoid defacing the exposed surface of the
with the butt edge in line with the bottom shingles with cement, the band should be
of the starter strip. located between 25 and 50 mm (1 and 2 in.)
The allowable exposure distance of shingles above the butt edge of each succeeding course
must be respected and depends on the roof of shingles. Staple or nail each shingle strip
slope and the type and length of shingle used. in place with four fasteners located above the
exposed portion of the shingle. If cold-application
Chalk lines can be used to align the shingle
cement is used, it should be applied at a rate of
courses so that tabs and tab notches are in a
approximately 0.5 L/m2 (1 gal./100 sq. ft.) of
straight line. Asphalt-impregnated building
cemented area. Hot-application cement is applied
paper is often placed over the roof sheathing
at a rate of approximately 1 kg/m2 (0.2 lb./sq. ft.)
as a shingle underlay, and the lines printed on
of cemented area. This technique is necessary
the underlay serve as guides to help align the
only for slopes lower than 1:4 since there are
shingles. Use four large-head roofing nails
special low-slope shingles of sufficient length to
per strip that are long enough to penetrate
at least 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) into the roof sheathing. maintain the three thicknesses necessary at roof
Most asphalt shingles are self-sealing; a strip pitches of 1:4 or greater.
of adhesive on the underside of the tab affixes
the shingle to the one beneath. Wood Shingles
Interlocking and other special shingles should be Western red and white cedar are the principal
laid according to the manufacturer’s directions. species of wood used for shingles because their
heartwoods have high decay resistance and low
Asphalt Shingles on Low Slopes shrinkage (they may also be preservative-treated).
Other species are also used for shingles but should
of 1:6 to 1:3
be preservative-treated. Wood shingles commonly
Care is required to ensure that the roof covering for houses are No. 1 and No. 2 grade. The width
on a low slope roof is waterproof. Except for of wood shingles varies between a maximum
the first two courses, use three thicknesses of width of 350 mm (14 in.) and a minimum
shingles on the entire roof including hips and width of 75 mm (3 in.).

CHAPTER 12
Figure 102 shows how to lay a wood shingle course below. Space the joints in succeeding
roof. As for asphalt shingles, underlay and courses so that the joint in one course is not
roofing felt is not usually required, but eave in line with the joints in the two previous
protection is required. courses laid.
Double lay the first shingle course with the Use only two nails per shingle. The distance
upper shingles overlapping the joints in the of the nails from the butt edge should be
course beneath and both rows extending the shingle exposure plus 40 mm (19⁄16 in.),
about 25 mm (1 in.) beyond the fascia boards with an edge distance of about 20 mm
at the eaves. This will prevent water from (13⁄16 in.). For example, if the shingle exposure
backing up underneath the shingles. Place is to be 125 mm (5 in.), a nail should be
shingles 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) apart to allow for swelling. 165 mm (69⁄16 in.) from the butt edge of the
Offset the joints between shingles in one course shingle being nailed. Use hot-dip galvanized
at least 40 mm (19⁄16 in.) from a joint in the or other corrosion-resistant shingle nails.
102 Installation of wood shingles
eave protection to extend

at least 300 mm (12 in.)
beyond inside face of wall
roof sheathing
two nails per shingle
20 mm (13⁄16 in.)
edge distance to nails
wood shingles
exposure
40 mm (19⁄16 in.) lap
6 mm (1⁄4 in.) space between shingles
fascia board
first shingle course (double)
project shingles 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) for drip

CHAPTER 12
Flat grain shingles wider than 200 mm (8 in.) An exposure of 190 mm (71⁄2 in.) is recommended
are sometimes split and nailed as two shingles for 450 mm (18 in.) long shakes, and 250 mm
to avoid problems with cupping and warping. (10 in.) for 600 mm (24 in.) long shakes.
The minimum recommended roof pitch for
Shakes hand-split shakes is 1:3.
Cedar hand-split shakes must not be less A 900 mm (36 in.) strip of No. 15 roofing
than 450 mm (18 in.) long and 100 mm felt should be laid over the sheathing boards
(4 in.) wide, and no wider than 350 mm at the eave line. The beginning or starter
(133⁄4 in.). The butt thickness should be course of shakes should be doubled; for extra
between 9 and 32 mm (3⁄8 and 11⁄4 in.) texture, it can be tripled. The bottom course
(Figure 103). or courses can be 380 mm (15 in.) or 450 mm
(18 in.) shakes.
Shakes may be applied over spaced or closed
roof sheathing. When spaced sheathing is After each course of shakes is applied,
used (Figure 98), apply 19 × 89 mm (1 × 4 in. a 450 mm (18 in.) wide strip of No. 15
nominal) or wider strips on centre equal to the roofing felt should be laid over the top portion
weather exposure at which the shakes are to be of the shakes, extending onto the sheathing.
laid, but never more than 250 mm (10 in.). The bottom edge of the felt should be positioned
Closed roof sheathing is recommended for areas above the butt at a distance equal to twice the
where wind-driven snow conditions prevail. weather exposure. For example, 600 mm (24 in.)
103 Installation of hand-split shakes
width between 100 mm and 350 mm

(4 in. and 133⁄4 in.)
length not less than 450 mm (18 in.)
thickness between 9 mm and 32 mm

(3⁄8 in. and 11⁄4 in.)
450 mm (18 in.) No. 15 felt laid over

top portion of each course
eave protection
double starter course
fascia

CHAPTER 12
shakes laid with 250 mm (10 in.) exposure ridge or hip and blind-nailed. Each shingle
would need to have felt applied 500 mm is lapped to provide the same coverage as the
(20 in.) above the shake butts. Thus, the felt roofing shingles. Orient the ridge cap to provide
will cover the top 100 mm (4 in.) of the shakes maximum protection from the prevailing wind.
and extend about 350 mm (15 in.) onto the
For wood shingles, 150 mm (6 in.) wide
sheathing (Figure 103).
shingles are alternatively lapped and blind-nailed
Space shakes from 6 to 9 mm (1⁄4 to 3⁄8 in.) apart. (Figure 104). Flashing is sometimes used under
Offset side joints no less than 40 mm (19⁄16 in.) a wood-shingle ridge.
over the adjacent courses. When straight split
shakes are used, the “froe-end” (the end from Built-up Roofs
which the shakes have been split, and which is
Built-up roof coverings should be installed by
smoother) should be laid uppermost (towards
specialized roofing installers. A built-up roof
the ridge).
may have three or more layers of roofing felt.
Each layer, including the final layer, is sealed
Finish at Ridge and Hips with tar or asphalt. The surface is then covered
The most common type of finish for asphalt with gravel (embedded in the asphalt or tar) or
shingles is shown in Figure 104. Asphalt shingle with a cap sheet. This covering provides ballast
squares (one third of a strip) are used over the against wind uplift and protection from the sun.
104 Finish at ridge and hips
prevailing wind
Asphalt shingles nail
prevailing wind
Wood shingles No. 15 roofing felt
nail

CHAPTER 12
Coal tar products and asphalt products are not Where a built-up roof intersects a masonry-clad
compatible and must not be used together. wall, the roof membrane is turned up the face
of the masonry and a flashing is installed over
The eave line of projecting roofs is trimmed
the membrane. A counter-flashing should be
with metal edging or flashing to direct water
embedded into the mortar joints at least 25 mm
away from the fascia board. A gravel stop or cant
(1 in.), extend down the wall about 150 mm
strip is used in conjunction with the flashing at
(6 in.) and lap over the membrane flashing at
the eaves when the roof is covered with gravel
least 100 mm (4 in.).
(Figure 105). Where built-up roofing abuts a
wall (except a masonry-clad wall), the roofing Single-ply membranes can also be used for
is mopped to the cant strip and turned up low-slope roofs including the small roofs typical
the wall at least 150 mm (6 in.). The wall of wood-frame construction.
sheathing paper and siding is then lapped
over the roof membrane).
105 Built-up roof
siding
sheathing membrane
50 mm (2 in.) minimum lap
membrane flashing
cant strip
roof sheathing
built-up roofing
metal gravel stop Junction of built

up roof and wall
covered with siding
fascia board
Eave flashing
and drip

CHAPTER 12
Sheet Metal Roofing The choice of metal thickness, whether steel or

aluminum, depends on the local snow load and
Sheet metal roofing is manufactured in
the profile of the metal roofing, but should not
widths from 762 to 914 mm (30 to 36 in.)
be less than 0.33 mm (0.013 in.) for galvanized
and in any lengths specified by the builder.
steel, 0.46 mm (0.018 in.) for copper or zinc and
Various accessories are needed for hips and
0.48 mm (0.019 in.) for aluminum. The required
valleys, eave starters and edges (Figure 106).
thicknesses for specific snow loads are provided
The minimum slope for sheet metal roofing by the manufacturer.
is 1:4, unless the manufacturer provides written
confirmation that a lower slope has been tested Concrete and Clay Tile Roofing
and proven. If sheet metal roofing is applied over
Concrete or clay tile is considerably heavier than
spaced supports, the sheets need to be designed
other roofing systems and the roof structure must
to support the snow load, and there must be a
be designed by an engineer to withstand the
support under each end joint (Figure 106).
additional load.
106 Sheet metal roofing
Nailing strips for sheet

metal roofing
Eave starter Valley
Ridge cap Cottage hip
End wall flashing Side wall flashing

CHAPTER 12
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Reduce roof waste. Estimate quantities

carefully. As much as possible, make the
■■ Design and construct the roofing system
dimensions of roof surfaces a multiple of
to deflect all water away from the roof
400 or 600 mm (16 or 24 in.) to reduce
and walls, and to prevent water from
waste from panel roof sheathing.
infiltrating the living spaces. Moisture in
ceilings, walls and floors can promote ■■ Metal roofing can be re-used or recycled
mold growth, which could lead to health after the end of the building’s service life.
problems among occupants.
■■ Asphalt-fibreglass, metal, and concrete roof
■■ Project water-shedding beyond materials coverings are made from non-renewable
below, and provide drip edges to deflect materials. Wood products from a properly
water outwards and away from cladding managed forest are renewable.
materials, windows, doors and penetrations.
■■ The service life of asphalt-fibreglass shingles
depends on their quality, roof slope and
Energy Efficiency their exposure to sun and other weather
■■ Consider designing and orienting the roof conditions. Metal and concrete roof
so that it may accommodate solar thermal coverings can last significantly longer.
and/or solar photovoltaic renewable energy Wood shingles can also last longer but
production in future. Choose a roof finish this depends on many variables (drainage
with a service life equal to or greater than and drying, grain direction, susceptibility
that of the renewable systems. to splitting and curling, etc.).
■■ Consider increasing roof sheathing thickness ■■ The service life of roof coverings can be
or reducing the spacing between roof maximized by providing conditions that
framing members to accommodate future allow them to dry between wettings.
solar thermal and photovoltaic panels. This means keeping roofs clear of leaves
and branches and trimming overhanging
■■ Building integrated solar photovoltaics such branches to permit drying and prevent
as solar roof tiles can produce renewable the growth of moss.
energy without compromising the
appearance of the roof. ■■ Concrete roof coverings are very durable
but heavy, and additional roof framing
Resource Efficiency and Affordability may be needed to provide adequate
structural support. In areas with a high
■■ Select the type of roof sheathing that earthquake risk, additional structural
best suits local requirements for durability, reinforcement must be provided to
availability, place of manufacture and support heavy roofing materials.
transportation cost.
■■ Select a roof covering that has a good
appearance, is durable and provides the best
balance between initial cost and service life.

CHAPTER 13
Wall Sheathing and Exterior Finishes
Wall sheathing is the outside covering used over TYPES AND INSTALLATION
the wall framework. It is nailed directly to the OF SHEATHING
wall framing members and provides a nailing
base for some types of siding and backing for OSB is a structural panel made from wood
others. Certain wall sheathing materials such strands that are bonded together under heat and
as plywood and OSB are very effective in pressure with a waterproof, phenolic adhesive.
providing lateral bracing. The strands in the outer faces are oriented along
the longitudinal axis of the panel, giving added
Insulating sheathing materials will not normally strength and rigidity in the long direction.
provide the required temporary or permanent The panels are manufactured in sheets 1.2 m
bracing, and let-in braces of wood or metal are (4 ft.) wide and usually 2.4 m (8 ft.) long.
used when bracing is needed. Sheathing must The O-1 or O-2 designation indicates an
be applied to the gable ends and walls when oriented panel, while an R1 designation indicates
the exterior cladding is a type that requires a panel containing randomly arranged wafers
solid backing (see Figure 68) or intermediate (waferboard). It must be at least 7.9 mm (5⁄16 in.)
fastening between supports. thick for studs up to 600 mm (24 in.) on centre
Several types of sheathing are used: plywood, and 6.35 mm (1⁄4 in.) for studs up to 400 mm
OSB, lumber, rigid insulation, fibreboard and (16 in.) on centre. OSB is often identified with
gypsum board. Table 28 (Appendix A) lists types a panel mark rating rather than a thickness.
of sheathing and the minimum thickness When using rated OSB, the panel mark rating
necessary to provide sufficient backing for must correspond to the stud spacing (Table 28
exterior finishing materials. in Appendix A).

CHAPTER 13
Plywood and OSB wall sheathing are usually spaced not more than 150 mm (6 in.) on
applied vertically and are often nailed to the wall centre along the edges and 300 mm (12 in.)
framework before a wall is lifted into position. along the intermediate supports (Figure 107).
This helps maintain squareness, avoids the need Plywood is a structural panel made from wood
for scaffolding, and speeds construction. Window veneers that are glued together so that the grain
openings may be covered by the sheathing panels direction of each layer is perpendicular to the
that are cut when window installation occurs. adjacent layers. The grain direction of the top
When sheathing is applied horizontally, vertical and bottom surfaces is parallel to the length
joints should be staggered. of the panel. Sheathing grade plywood is made
There are two methods of installing sheathing with waterproof adhesive, unsanded, and may
down to the foundation sill so that it covers contain knots. The minimum thickness for
not only the walls, but the joist header space as exterior plywood wall sheathing is 7.5 mm
well. One way is to extend the low end of the (5⁄16 in.) for studs 600 mm (24 in.) on centre,
sheathing panel beyond the bottom wall plate and 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) for studs up to 400 mm
and adding a filler piece at the top. Another way (16 in.) on centre. Sheets are made 1.22 m
is to use longer 2.74 m (9 ft.) sheathing panels (4 ft.) wide and usually 2.44 m (8 ft.) or
that cover the wall down to the sill area. It is 2.74 m (9 ft.) long.
better to cover the header and sill with the same
Fibreboard sheathing should be at least 11.1 mm
wall sheet because this reduces air infiltration,
(7⁄16 in.) thick for studs 600 mm (24 in.) on centre
and when structural panels are in place, it ties
and 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) for studs 400 mm (16 in.)
the framing to the sill plates.
on centre. It is made in sheets 1.22 m (4 ft.) wide
Leave a 2 to 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) wide space between and generally 2.44 m (8 ft.) long, and is usually
the sheets to permit expansion. Nail the impregnated with an asphalt material to increase
sheathing panels to the framing with nails water resistance.
107 Vertical and horizontal application of panel-type sheathing
Vertical application Horizontal application
window opening
10 mm (3⁄8 in.) minimum nails

edge distance to nail 2-3 mm (1⁄8 in.) space between sheets
2-3 mm (1⁄8 in.) space between sheets edge nail 150 mm (6 in.) o.c.
edge nail 150 mm (6 in.) o.c. nail 300 mm (12 in.) o.c.
nail 300 mm (12 in.) o.c. foundation
Note: Closer nailing patterns required for high wind/earthquake exposures

CHAPTER 13
Gypsum board sheathing consists of a thicknesses, and the insulating value per unit
gypsum filler faced on both sides with treated thickness varies. Rigid glass fibre sheathing
paper or a fibreglass matt facer. It should be with a vapour-permeable membrane can serve
at least 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) thick for studs as an air barrier when the joints are sealed with
600 mm (24 in.) on centre and 9.5 mm sheathing tape.
(3⁄8 in.) thick for studs 400 mm (16 in.) on
Lumber sheathing, which should not be less than
centre. It is made in sheets 1.22 m (4 ft.) wide
17 mm (11⁄16 in.) thick, is used in boards 140 to
and 2.44 m (8 ft.) long. The sheets are applied
286 mm (6 to 12 in. nominal) wide. It is milled
horizontally across the studs and nailed to the
in a shiplap, tongue-and-groove or square-edge
framing members.
pattern. The boards are nailed at each stud with
Insulating sheathing is non-structural. One type two nails for 140 to 184 mm (6 to 8 in.) widths
is a semi-rigid, glass-fibre panel with an exterior and three for 235 to 286 mm (10 to 12 in.)
vapour-permeable, waterproof membrane. widths. Longer nails are required in areas
Another type is made of mineral fibre and susceptible to extreme wind or earthquake forces.
has no membrane. Other types of rigid panels
End joints in the board must be placed over the
are made of expanded polystyrene, extruded
centre of the studs with the joints staggered on
polystyrene, polyurethane, isocyanurate or
different studs. Lumber sheathing may be applied
phenolic material. They are available in different
either horizontally or diagonally (Figure 108)
108 Lumber sheathing application
Horizontal and
diagonal wall
lumber sheathing
Horizontal application Diagonal application

joint stud
foundation 45º
Diagonal lumber
floor sheathing sheathing
joist
foundation wall

CHAPTER 13
and is extended beyond the subfloor to cover They are strong, flexible and can be
the header joist and the sill plate. The angle formed to make sill dams, seal the joints
cuts of the diagonal approach require more in other sheathing membranes, and seal
time and materials. the joints between sheathing membranes
and flashings.
SHEATHING MEMBRANE ■■ Liquid-applied membranes are usually
The sheathing membrane forms part of trowelled over the sheathing, with vertical
a second line of defence against the entry grooves for drainage. They provide both
of rainwater and may also be, in some an adhesive and a moisture barrier for the
cases, a primary component of the air polystyrene insulation boards used in exterior
barrier system. Since some moisture insulation finish systems (EIFS).
may condense in the wall space in winter,
Refer to Chapter 5 for more information
the sheathing membrane must be capable
concerning the design and installation of
of allowing it to diffuse outward to prevent
moisture barriers.
wood decay.
Several types of sheathing membrane are EXTERIOR CLADDING
commonly used in wood-frame construction:
Aside from contributing to house appearance
■■ Building paper is bituminous-impregnated and durability, exterior cladding is an important
paper that is produced in 915 mm (36 in.) part of the water penetration control strategy.
wide rolls and applied over the sheathing in Common types of cladding are made of
horizontal strips, starting at the bottom of metal, vinyl, hardboard, fibre-cement board
the frame wall. The paper is stapled to the or lumber siding; panel siding made of plywood,
sheathing, and each strip is shingle-lapped OSB, hardboard; wood shingles or shakes;
over the one beneath it. stucco; and masonry cladding such as brick
and stone.
■■ Spun-bonded polyolefin (SBPO), also known
as “Housewrap,” is produced in rolls 2.74 m Most siding can be affected by moisture and
(9 ft.) wide by up to 45 m (150 ft.) long. must be kept at least 200 mm (8 in.) away from
It is applied over the sheathing in horizontal the ground and at least 50 mm (2 in.) from an
strips that cover the height of a storey and adjoining roof surface. Methods of flashing
is stapled to the sheathing. SBPO is strong over window and door openings and between
and flexible enough to be turned into window different types of wall covering are described
and door openings and integrated with in Chapter 14.
the moisture management features at
the openings. Metal and Vinyl Sidings
■■ Self-adhesive (“peel-and-stick”) membranes Metal and vinyl sidings are factory finished
are used in areas subject to large amounts and manufactured in many shapes and patterns.
of water such as at door and window sills They are made to interlock so that only the
and heads. Peel-and-stick membranes are upper side of the siding is nailed, while the
produced in 915 mm (36 in.) wide rolls. bottom edge is locked to the upper part of the

CHAPTER 13
siding strip below (Figure 109). Interior and Install metal and vinyl siding so that it
exterior corners, termination points of the can expand and contract with temperature
soffit and gable ends as well as windows and changes without buckling, and make sure
doors, are covered using specially designed to follow the manufacturer’s installation
trim pieces. instructions. Place nails in the centre of the
nail slots, and do not hammer them tight to
Horizontal Application the wall.
Prepare the wall for cladding by applying the
Vertical Application
sheathing membrane. In wet and humid coastal
climates, strapping (furring) is required to provide Apply the sheathing membrane to prepare
a vented space (rainscreen) to facilitate drainage the wall for cladding. Some types of metal
and drying. Establish a level line around the and vinyl siding can be applied directly over
house for the starter strip, which is normally the sheathing membrane. In locations that
placed a minimum of 150 to 200 mm (6 to 8 in.) require a rainscreen, the strapping (furring)
above finished grade. Install all trim pieces for should be applied horizontally and spaced
corners, windows, doors and openings and starter according to the siding manufacturer’s
strips; and then apply the siding in successive recommendations. Provide 10 mm (3⁄8 in.)
courses up to the underside of the soffit. gaps between the butt ends of the strapping
to allow water behind the cladding to drain
Laps of adjacent strips of siding should be
downwards and out of the wall.
staggered more than 600 mm (24 in.) apart
and should all face in the same direction away
from the general viewing angle.
109 Types of siding
Metal or vinyl Bevel Drop siding
lap
exposure
Tongue-and-groove Board-on-board
with V-joint

CHAPTER 13
Hardboard Siding A vertical space is created behind the siding

to facilitate drainage and drying. This is
Hardboard horizontal siding (Figure 110) is
accomplished by mounting the siding on
made in a wide range of colours. It often has
furring strips nailed on top of the sheathing
splines for interlocking the panels and is installed
membrane to the studs behind.
in a manner similar to metal and vinyl siding.
Some manufacturers require that their hardboard Corrosion-resistant nails such as hot-dipped
siding be installed over furring. galvanized nails will hold the siding permanently
and will not disfigure the paint surface. Casing
Lumber Siding or siding nails are normally used for this purpose.
Drive the heads flush with the face of the siding.
Lumber siding should be sound and free of
If finishing nails are used, set the heads below the
knotholes, loose knots, checks or splits. Cedar
surface and fill the holes with putty. The length
and pine are the most commonly used species.
of the nails required depends on the thickness
It has also become more common to use
of the siding and the type of sheathing used
pressure-treated lumber for siding or wood
and must be long enough to penetrate at least
that has been factory-finished with stain or
25 mm (1 in.) into the nailing support.
paint. The finish should cover the front and
back surfaces of the siding to reduce water Horizontal Application
absorption. At the time of application, the siding
should have moisture content similar to what Bevel or feather-edge siding (see Figure 109)
it will be exposed to, that is, between 12 and is installed from the bottom up with the
18 per cent, depending on a region’s humidity bottom edge of the lowest course mounted on
and climate. a 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) thick furring strip. Overlap each
succeeding course at least 25 mm (1 in.) over
Rainscreen wall assemblies (Figure 110, the lower course. Spacing for the siding should
for example) are required in wet, humid be planned before the installation starts. Deduct
climates such as the coastal regions of Canada. the minimum lap from the overall width of
110 Horizontal siding
sheathing
sheathing membrane
vertical furring strips
horizontal siding
metal starter strip
insect screen

CHAPTER 13
the siding to determine the maximum board Tongue-and-groove matched siding (see
exposure. The number of boards needed to Figure 109) is 184 mm (8 in. nominal) or less
clad a wall must respect the maximum allowed in width. The first board is face-nailed near the
exposure. This may lead to an installation in grooved edge and angle-nailed through
which the exposure is less than the maximum the tongue. Each successive board is fitted
permitted. Attempt to have the bottom of a tightly to the preceding board and angle-nailed
board placed over the top of a window aligned through the tongue. A nail set is used to finish
with the top of the window cap (Figure 111). off the nailing.
Bevel siding must have a butt thickness of at least Drop (or matched) siding (see Figure 109)
12 mm (1⁄2 in.) for widths of 184 mm (8 in.) or should be at least 14.3 mm (9⁄16 in.) thick and
less and 14.3 mm (9⁄16 in.) for widths greater than 184 mm (8 in. nominal) or less in width. It is
184 mm (8 in.). The top edge should not be less produced in a variety of patterns with matched
than 5 mm (3⁄16 in.) thick. or shiplap edges. Stagger the butt joints between
111 Siding installation
Installation around a window
metal flashing
sheathing membrane around

window opening
scribe tight against window
Nailing
butt joints made over centre

of stud if sheathing omitted
foundation wall
stud
sheathing
Starter course
siding
bottom plate
header
sill plate
6 mm (1⁄4 in.) furring strip
extend siding below blocking
parging

CHAPTER 13
boards in adjacent courses. Seal the ends and fit When the spaced (board-on-board) method is
the siding so it is in close contact with adjacent used (Figure 109), the boards next to the wall
pieces. Loose joints allow water to get behind are normally wider than the cover boards and
the siding, which can cause paint deterioration are fastened with one row of nails near the centre
around the joints and lead to decay at the ends of each board. The cover board is then applied
of the boards and inside the wall. so that it laps the edges of the underlying boards
at least 25 mm (1 in.). Fasten the cover boards
A tight, waterproof joint can be made by placing
with one row of nails in the centre. Use a vertical
a small bead of caulking compound or putty
furring behind so that nailing does not split
along the end of each board after it is installed,
the cover board. This arrangement allows all
then pressing the next board into the compound
the boards to adjust to changing moisture
and removing the excess compound. Joints at
without splitting.
window or door trim can be made the same way.
The board-and-batten method uses square-edge
Bevel and drop siding should be face-nailed to
boards that are ordinarily 184 mm (8 in. nominal)
structural sheathing (plywood, OSB or lumber)
or less in width. The boards are applied with the
or to the wall studs. The size of the nail required
edges at least 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) apart and fastened
depends on the thickness of the siding and the
with one row of nails near the centre of each
type of sheathing used. A good way to minimize
board. A batten is used that laps the edges at
cracking from dimensional change is to drive
least 12 mm (1⁄2 in.). The batten is fastened with
nails through the siding just above the lap so
one row of nails driven in the joint between the
that they miss the top edge of the piece of siding
two boards. This allows all boards to adjust to
beneath (see Figure 111).
changing moisture without splitting. Since the
batten also serves to prevent the board edges
Vertical Application
from curling outward, the nailing should be
Lumber siding that can be applied vertically secure and closely spaced.
includes: plain matched boards; patterned
matched boards; square-edge boards covered Plywood Panels
at the joints with a batten strip; or square-edge
boards spaced apart and covered with another Plywood sheets acceptable for use as a cladding
board. Vertical siding is usually 14.3 mm (9⁄16 in.) material are made with a plain or grooved surface
thick. Boards should not be wider than 286 mm and are usually applied vertically. The joints may
(12 in. nominal). Vertical boards may be fastened be V-grooved or flush or may be covered with
to 14.3 mm (9⁄16 in.) lumber sheathing, 12.5 mm battens. Some products have a resin-impregnated
(1⁄2 in.) plywood or 12.5 mm (1⁄2 in.) OSB or paper laminated to the face that provides a
waferboard, or to horizontal furring strips. smooth, moisture-resistant surface that resists
checking or splitting after painting or staining.
The furring (strapping) should be at least
19 × 64 mm (1 × 3 in. nominal) lumber where If a rainscreen is not required, plywood
the framing is spaced not more than 400 mm cladding may be applied directly over the
(16 in.) on centre or 19 × 89 mm (1 × 4 in. sheathing membrane on unsheathed wall
nominal) lumber where the framing is spaced framing. The minimum thickness used is
not more than 600 mm (24 in.) on centre. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) for stud spacing of 400 mm
Butt joints in lumber siding should be cut at (16 in.) on centre and 8 mm (5⁄16 in.) for
45 degrees (mitred) and overlapped to prevent spacing of supports up to 600 mm (24 in.)
the entry of water into the joint. on centre when the face grain is installed at

CHAPTER 13
right angles to supports. Where the face grain nails at least 51 mm (2 in.) long spaced not
is installed parallel to supports, the minimum more than 150 mm (6 in.) along the edges and
thickness is 8 mm (5⁄16 in.) and 11 mm (7⁄16 in.) 300 mm (12 in.) along intermediate supports.
for studs spaced at 400 mm (16 in.) and 600 mm Provide a 2 to 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) gap between panels.
(24 in.), respectively.
Cut edges should be protected with a suitable
Fibre Cement Board Siding
paint or sealer before installation. A 2 to 3 mm Fibre cement is a composite material made of
(1⁄8 in.) space between the sides and ends of the sand, cement and cellulose fibres. In appearance,
panels and butted ends of the battens will permit fibre cement siding most often consists of
expansion without bulging. Fill vertical joints overlapping horizontal boards, resembling
with caulking or cover them with battens. wood siding or shingles, and should be installed
Flash horizontal joints or lap them at least in accordance with manufacturer’s directions.
25 mm (1 in.).
The edges of plywood panels should be
Corner Treatment for Siding
supported and fastened with corrosion-resistant There are several methods used for siding
nails, usually 51 mm (2 in.) long. Space the nails at corners (Figure 112). For siding applied
not more than 150 mm (6 in.) along the edges horizontally, mitred corners and metal corners
and 300 mm (12 in.) at intermediate supports. or corner boards are common.
Mitred corners must fit tightly and smoothly
Hardboard Panels for the full depth of the mitre. To maintain a
Hardboard is also produced in sheets with tight fit at the mitre, purchase dry siding and
a variety of finishes and may be applied over protect it from rain during storage. The siding
sheathing or to unsheathed walls if a rainscreen can be set in putty or sealant to obtain a tight
is not required. The minimum thickness of joint. At interior corners, siding is usually
sheets should be at least 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) for butted against a corner strip of 25 or 38 mm
supports that are not more than 400 mm (1 or 11⁄2 in. nominal) material, depending on
(16 in.) on centre. Fasten the panels to framing the thickness of the siding.
members or sheathing with corrosion-resistant
112 Outside corner treatment of wood siding
Corner boards Mitred corner Metal corners
corner boards
siding

CHAPTER 13
Where rainscreen construction is used, the furring Wood shingles are most commonly applied in
strips should be kept back from the joints where a single course using first- and second-grade
water is most likely to enter, so that drainage and shingles. When the single-course application is
drying can occur. used, offset the joints in succeeding courses at
Metal corners that match the colour of the siding least 40 mm (19⁄16 in.), and ensure that joints
can be used and require less skill than mitred in any two or three courses do not line up.
corners or fitting siding to a corner board. To obtain deep shadow lines, shingles can
Corner boards are made of 25 or 38 mm be laid in what is called double-coursing by
(1 or 11⁄2 in. nominal) material, depending on using a lower grade shingle under the shingle
the thickness of the siding. The corner boards exposed to the weather. The exposed shingle
are applied against the sheathing with the siding butt extends about 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) below the
fitted tightly against the narrow edge of the butt of the undercourse. Where double-coursing
corner boards. Bed the siding in putty or is used, wider exposure to the weather is possible.
sealant to obtain a tight joint. Offset joints in the outer course from joints in
the undercourse by at least 40 mm (19⁄16 in.).
Plywood and hardboard are usually lapped at the
corners or fitted to a corner board. Lumber siding Fasten shingles and shakes with corrosion-
applied vertically is lapped at the corners. resistant nails. Shingles up to 200 mm (8 in.)
wide require only two nails and those more than
Wood Shingles and Shakes 200 mm (8 in.) wide require three. Drive nails
about 20 mm (13⁄16 in.) from the edges and
Wood shingles or machine-grooved shakes are
25 mm (1 in.) above the exposure line for
sometimes used for wall cladding. They are
single-course application, and 50 mm (2 in.)
available in lengths of 400, 450 and 600 mm
for double coursing.
(16, 18 and 24 in.) and may be factory-painted
or stained. Plywood, OSB or lumber sheathing
should be used under shingles or shakes. Stucco Finishes
Shingles are separated into three grades. The first Stucco is a mixture of Portland cement and
grade is composed of clear shingles, all heartwood, well-graded sand, with hydrated lime or masonry
and all edge grain. The second grade consists of cement added to make the mixture more plastic
shingles with clear butts and permits defects in (Table 39 in Appendix A). Other proprietary
the part of the shingle that is normally covered in stucco mixes are available. Their formulations will
use. The third grade includes shingles that have vary depending on the manufacturer of the mix.
defects other than those permitted in the second Usually applied in three coats (two base coats and
grade and are only suitable for under-coursing. one finish coat), the stucco is held in place by
First grade material is made in random widths stucco mesh or wire lath. A variety of finish coats
varying from 65 to 350 mm (21⁄2 to 14 in.) are available, from standard coloured cement
and only a small proportion of the narrow finishes to textured acrylics. Acrylic finish coats
width is permitted. Shingles of a uniform width, are often applied over conventional Portland
known as dimension shingles, are also available cement, with good results. It is important
in widths of 100, 125 or 150 mm (4, 5 or 6 in.). that the chosen product be durable and
Table 37 (Appendix A) shows the commonly vapour-permeable.
used exposure and thickness of wood shingles
and machine-grooved shakes.

CHAPTER 13
Provide a space between the stucco and wall surface. Where the sheathing is other than
the sheathing membrane. Some sheathing plywood, OSB or lumber, the fasteners must
membranes such as spun-bonded polyolefin penetrate the sheathing and go into the framing
can be affected by surfactants (soapy residues). member (stud or plate) at least 25 mm (1 in.).
Surfactants can reduce the water repelling
capability of a membrane by changing the Application
viscosity of water and can be produced by a) A layer of sheathing membrane, lapped 100 mm
certain types of wood species or b) additives (4 in.) at the edges, must be applied over the
mixed with the stucco to improve workability sheathing, and all openings must be flashed.
during installation. Apply the membrane carefully around window
Stucco must be kept at least 200 mm (8 in.) openings and lap them correctly to ensure that
above finished grade except where it is applied water does not enter at the window flanges.
over concrete or masonry. In high exposure areas Tar-saturated felts or papers should not be used
(frequent high rainfall and/or strong wind-driven beneath the stucco but tar-impregnated felts or
rains), a furred and drained airspace of no less paper may be used. The tar can bleed through
than 10 mm (7⁄16 in.) must be left between the the stucco causing unsightly discolouration.
stucco and the sheathing membrane to create The base coat consists of two layers of stucco.
a rainscreen. The top of the cavity should be The first layer or “scratch coat” is applied in
vented and baffled to keep rain from blowing a thickness of 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) that completely
into it. The bottom of the drainage cavity must embeds the wire lath or mesh. The scratch
be vented to the exterior and be flashed. coat surface must be scored or raked to provide
a bonding key for the second coat. Curing time
Reinforcing
will depend on outdoor temperature and weather
Stucco reinforcing (self-furring welded mesh conditions. Up to 48 hours of cure time is
or fully primed or galvanized woven mesh) recommended before the second coat is applied.
is stretched horizontally over sheathing paper,
Just prior to adding the second coat, dampen
with the joints in the mesh lapped at least
the base to ensure a good bond between the
50 mm (2 in.). Reinforce external corners by
coats. Apply the second coat at least 6 mm
extending the mesh from one side 150 mm
(1⁄4 in.) thick and firmly trowel it into the scored
(6 in.) around the adjacent corner, or by vertical
surface of the base.
strips of reinforcing that extend 150 mm (6 in.)
on either side of the corner. The second coat should be moist-cured for at
least 48 hours and then left to dry for at least five
Galvanized steel fasteners should be used
days before the finish coat is applied. The second
to hold the mesh in place such as 3.2 mm
coat should be dampened to ensure a good bond
(1⁄8 in.) diameter nails with heads that are about
and the finish coat applied to a depth of at least
11.1 mm (7⁄16 in.), or 1.98 mm (1⁄16 in.)
3 mm (1⁄8 in.).
thick staples. Fasteners are spaced 150 mm (6 in.)
vertically and 400 mm (16 in.) horizontally, or In dry, warm weather, new stucco should be
100 mm (4 in.) vertically and 600 mm (24 in.) kept damp to ensure proper curing. In cold
horizontally. Other fastening patterns may be weather, each coat of stucco should be kept at a
used, provided there are at least 20 fasteners per temperature of at least 10°C (50°F) for 48 hours
square meter (2 fasteners per square foot) of the after application.

CHAPTER 13
Masonry Veneer 25 mm (1 in.) between the masonry and the

sheathing membrane (Figure 113). Insulating
When masonry veneer is used for cladding,
concrete form (ICF) foundations may use a
the foundation must include a supporting ledge
reinforced flare at the top of the foundation to
or offset wide enough to allow a space at least
support the weight of brick veneer (Figure 114).
113 Masonry veneer support on foundation wall
sheathing membrane
100 mm (4 in.) lap minimum
wall stud 25 mm (1 in.) min. air space

behind brick veneer
wall sheathing
insulation brick tie nailed through
sheathing to stud
air/vapour barrier
bottom plate weephole every
subfloor 800 mm (32 in.) maximum
floor joist finish grade
header joist flashing extended up
sill plate wall 150 mm (6 in.)
anchor bolt rigid insulation over
foundation sheathing and wall framing
114 Support of masonry veneer on an ICF foundation
flair for brick support
ICF formwork/insulation

CHAPTER 13
The base flashing must extend from the outside Exterior Insulation and Finish
face of the wall over the top of the ledge and Systems (EIFS)
at least 150 mm (6 in.) up the wall behind the
sheathing paper. Use corrosion-resistant metal Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS)
ties nailed to the studs and embedded in the are products for cladding exterior walls.
mortar joints between the masonry to tie the These cladding systems integrate insulation
veneer to the framework. When fastened to with a stucco-like covering. However, EIFS differ
every other stud, they are usually spaced 800 mm from stucco in many respects. EIFS incorporate
(32 in.) apart horizontally and 400 mm (16 in.) proprietary constituent components that have
vertically. Alternatively, when fastened to every been developed and tested to be compatible
stud, they may be spaced 600 mm (24 in.) and to fulfill specific building envelope
horizontally and 500 mm (20 in.) vertically, performance requirements.
or 400 mm (16 in.) horizontally and 600 mm
(24 in.) vertically, depending on the stud spacing. The fact that the term EIFS includes the word
“system” is important to note. Proprietary EIFS
Mortar mix proportions should conform to
rely on their components to interact and
those shown in Table 6 (Appendix A). Lay brick
perform as a composite system. This is unique
or stone in a full bed of mortar. Ensure mortar
does not drop into the space between the veneer in comparison to most other cladding materials.
and sheathing where it will obstruct the cavity In addition to the ability to provide various
behind the veneer. Tool outside joints to a forms and finishes, consider the performance
smooth finish to provide maximum resistance capabilities offered by EIFS, and select systems
to water penetration. from manufacturers that incorporate features that
Weep holes serve both venting and drainage meet the project requirements. Considerations
functions. They should be placed not more than include fire safety, thermal resistance, resistance
800 mm (32 in.) apart in the bottom course of to rain penetration, interior air and moisture
the masonry veneer and above-grade windows control, impact resistance, and other aspects
and doors. This can be done by omitting part of durability.
of the mortar from the vertical joints, or by
inserting plastic tubes in the joints. EIFS incorporate the following components:
Masonry veneer should be at least 75 mm ■■ insulation board fastened mechanically and/or
(23⁄4 in.) thick and masonry less than 90 mm with an adhesive;
(31⁄2 in.) thick must have unraked joints.
■■ base coat with reinforcement (such as
Bricks should be hard, absorb little water and
alkali-resistant glass fibre or coated glass mesh),
be manufactured for exposure to the weather.
which typically adheres to the insulation but is
Stone veneers should be materials that are
sometimes mechanically fastened;
known to be durable.
Masonry laid during cold weather should be ■■ surface finish, sometimes with a primer,
protected from freezing until after the mortar adhered to the base coat; and
has set. The temperature of the masonry and ■■ joint treatments, drainage accessories, seals and
mortar should be maintained above 5°C (41°F)
sealants may also form part of the system.
for at least 24 hours after installation.

CHAPTER 13
The substrate to which an EIFS is attached EIFS are often applied to substrates treated
is not considered part of the EIFS. However, with a moisture, air and/or vapour barrier.
the substrate must be compatible with the EIFS, Barriers that are compatible with EIFS are
and be properly designed and installed for the provided or recommended by manufacturers.
EIFS to perform acceptably. EIFS components A typical EIFS arrangement with a vertical joint
are shown in Figure 115. between panels is shown in Figure 116.
115 Basic exterior insulation and finish system (EIFS) components
Substrate* treated with water-resistant coating
Adhesive
Insulation
Base coat with mesh
Finish coat
* Substrate is shown for clarity: it is not part of the EIFS
116 Components of an exterior insulation and finish system (EIFS)
vertical drainage channels in insulation

water resistant barrier membrane (WRB)
finish coat
two-stage joint for pressure equalization

and drainage at joints between panels
insulation
base coat with mesh

CHAPTER 13
Some of the advantages associated with EIFS are: ■■ Retrofit applications—Lightweight EIFS can
often be applied directly over existing cladding
■■ Continuity of thermal barrier—EIFS can
systems to:
provide a continuous exterior layer of
insulation for the building envelope. This can ■■ improve appearance;
be designed to protect the building and
■■ increase thermal performance;
backup wall structures from temperature
extremes that promote undesirable thermal ■■ correct problems with rain penetration;
movements, and to protect against moisture
■■ improve resistance to condensation or
damage from condensation. A continuous
entrapped moisture; and
thermal barrier helps avoid thermal bridging
and takes advantage of thermal mass (heat ■■ protect the structure and existing cladding
storage in the backup wall). This can improve from deterioration.
energy performance, promoting savings in
both the initial and operating costs related Some limitations of EIFS are:
to heating and cooling equipment. ■■ Combustibility—Some EIFS incorporate
■■ Lightweight—EIFS have a low weight combustible components and/or combustible
(dead load) in comparison to masonry or foam plastic insulation that must be
concrete cladding. This can reduce structure protected as required by the applicable
costs, particularly where earthquake loads building code.
influence the design. ■■ Impact resistance—EIFS can be vulnerable
■■ Water penetration resistance—Properly to impact damage as a result of the relatively
applied and maintained EIFS provide good thin lamina. At areas where impact damage
resistance to rain water penetration. The risk is likely, an appropriately reinforced EIFS
for rainwater penetration tends to be limited product must be used.
to joints, interfaces with other materials and ■■ Compatibility—Each EIFS constituent
where the lamina is damaged or otherwise component and materials that connect
defective. Most EIFS have a drained version to the EIFS must be compatible to assure
of the system that should be used whenever acceptable performance. This includes the
the EIFS is likely to be wetted. lamina, sealants, joint treatments, insulation,
■■ Flexibility—In comparison with rigid cladding adhesive/fastening, moisture/air/vapour
systems, many EIFS are relatively flexible and barriers and substrate. The manufacturer
better able to accommodate substrate flexure should be consulted to verify that each
or other movements without cracking. component and material has been tested
to be compatible.
■■ Appearance—A wide range of finish colours
and textures are available. Complex surface
■■ Staining—If exposed to frequent wetting,
features are easily incorporated for distinct staining by mildew growth can result.
and interesting architectural facades. Frequent wetting can occur where the
EIFS are not effectively protected from
■■ Reparability—Localized damage or defects in rain, or in high-humidity climates where
EIFS can be easily repaired. The appearance areas are not exposed to direct sunlight
can usually be restored or renewed by (north elevations, shaded areas, etc.).
reapplying the finish or by painting.

CHAPTER 13
■■ Sensitivity to workmanship—As is the case ■■ Long-term performance—While a minimum

with many multi-component, hand-applied 30-year service life for properly designed and
systems, EIFS performance is sensitive to applied EIFS is anticipated and indicated by
workmanship. Quality control is necessary field performance, longer term service for
to assure the various components are properly many product formulations has not been
applied and that they effectively work together determined. As with all cladding, maintenance
to provide the desired performance. is a prerequisite to longevity. Problems with
local deterioration or moisture ingress must be
dealt with promptly to achieve an acceptable
service life.
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Exterior Insulation Finish Systems provide

both insulation value and a finished wall
■■ Water entering the house can cause
surface, and can effectively reduce thermal
mold growth.
bridging caused by the wall framing.
■■ As the cladding on a house is the first
line of defence against water infiltration, Resource Efficiency and Affordability
it should be designed and installed to ■■ Carefully estimate the amount of cladding
resist water penetration. It should also
material required including some allowance
be maintained in good repair to keep
for wastage, rejection and future repair.
water out of the wall system.
When ordering materials, investigate the
possibility of returning unused materials for
Energy Efficiency a partial or full refund.
■■ Consider using high levels of rigid insulation ■■ Store and handle materials to avoid damage.
over the exterior wall framing to reduce
thermal bridging and increase the thermal ■■ Reduce cladding and sheathing waste by
insulation in the building envelope. applying the 4 Rs: reviewing, reducing,
reusing and recycling materials.

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
Flashings are components of the exterior building ■■ at locations where water might enter
envelope used to intercept and direct the flow the building through a juncture between
of water to designed drainage paths. They are two materials.
required to minimize the entry of water through
Flashings are also used to direct water away from
joints and between materials. Flashings are
building elements susceptible to deterioration,
usually installed wherever there is a discontinuity
staining, erosion, frost damage or corrosion
on exterior surfaces, such as:
when exposed to excessive wetting. As discussed
■■ at the top of exposed walls; in the previous chapter, flashings are part of the
primary and secondary lines of defence against
■■ at roof-wall junctions;
rain penetration.
■■ at roof-chimney junctions;
■■ around penetrations through roofing;
DESIGNING FOR FACTORS
THAT INFLUENCE
at valleys in roofs;
WATER FLOW
■■
■■ within walls above and below doors,

Flashings must deal with the forces that drive the
windows and other wall penetrations;
flow of water, because water can move upward
■■ at foundation level to lead water out of and sideways as well as downward. These forces
the wall cavity; and include gravity, surface tension, capillary action,
kinetic energy and differential pressure.

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
Gravity the wind actually carries rain drops upward.

The momentum of wind forces can be strong
The building should have the following features
enough to carry the rain drops through even
to deflect water that flows downward from the
small unsealed joints or openings. To prevent
pull of gravity:
this, it is important to overlap and seal all joints
■■ Surfaces should slope (minimum 6% slope) in flashings as well as the joints between the
in the desired direction of flow, after any flashing and the moisture barrier.
settlement or shrinkage has taken place.
Air Pressure and
■■ Points of discharge should project out beyond
materials below the flashing, which may Pressure Differentials
deteriorate when in contact with water or ice. The combined effect of a positive air pressure
■■ Terminations on sloped surfaces should be on the outside of a building and a negative
lapped in shingle fashion so that the natural pressure inside, which is called a “pressure
direction of the water is over and onto the differential,” can drive water through unsealed
next water-shedding surface. or poorly sealed joints. Wind can drive water
through even small holes and gaps. To prevent
this, care must be taken when incorporating
Surface Tension
a flashing into the building air barrier.
Surface tension allows water to flow along Alternatively, the joint may be sealed.
the underside of a surface horizontally, and Flashings at the top of buildings such as
even upward, in narrow spaces such as crevices. at parapets are subject to uplift. They should
In confined spaces, spacing horizontal surfaces be anchored to the wall securely and sealed
more than 9 mm (3⁄8 in.) apart will prevent the to prevent water penetration.
adherence of water to the two surfaces, thus
allowing the water to drain away. A “drip” edge is TYPES OF FLASHING
placed at points of discharge to break that surface
tension and allow water to drop by gravity. Many types of flashing are available, as each
location vulnerable to rain penetration has
Capillary Action different flashing design needs. The most
common types are described below and have
In porous materials such as concrete and brick, been named to describe how they function
water can be drawn into small-diameter openings and where they are located.
of less than 5 mm (3⁄16 in.) by capillary action or
“wicking.” The flashing joints should stop this Base Flashing
from occurring. The design of joints and upturns
must address this particular issue. When a roof intersects with a wall or another
roof penetration, such as a plumbing vent,
the roofing system should be turned up to
Kinetic Energy
make the junction watertight. The part of
Rain is often directed at flashings with the roofing that is turned up is generally
high velocity and significant horizontal known as a “base flashing.” It may be made
motion. On the upper locations of buildings,

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
of the same material as the main roofing surface to avoid a right-angle bend, which might
membrane or of a compatible material rupture the roofing membrane (Figure 118).
(see Figures 117 and 118). Membrane roofing is more flexible than built-up
roofing, and usually does not require a cant
117 Base flashing at roof penetration strip. The roofing membrane should extend at
least 150 mm (6 in.) up the wall and over the
sheathing. Lap the sheathing paper at least
100 mm (4 in.) over the membrane.
Counter Flashing
counter To prevent water from penetrating behind
flashing the top edge of base flashing, a separate
piece of flashing should be provided over
base
flashing the top. This flashing is known as “counter
flashing” and is usually made of sheet metal
(see Figure 119).
119 Counter flashing
118 Base flashing at roof-wall junction saw cut
sheathing paper counter flashing

base flashing
cant
counter flashing roof
base flashing
cant
roof
Counter flashing is also required to protect

the base flashing from impact and UV radiation
damage. This is necessary if the base flashing is
Where siding is used as cladding material,
a built-up bituminous roofing membrane
the base flashing is turned up behind the siding.
or made of any material that deteriorates in
Where siding abuts a roof, a space of at least
sunlight. Counter flashings should be installed
50 mm (2 in.) must be maintained between the
so that they are easily removed to allow for
siding and the roof surface. A cant strip should
inspection of the flexible base flashing below.
be installed where a built-up roof abuts a vertical

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
Through-Wall Flashing Cap Flashing

A through-wall flashing intercepts and directs Parapet walls require a metal cap flashing to
any water flowing down the cavity to the exterior prevent water from penetrating from the top
(see Figures 120 and 121). of the wall. Since a cap flashing sheds water,
it must be sloped toward the roof to prevent
staining of the exterior cladding. In addition,
120 Through-wall flashing
it cannot be made waterproof at the joints,
and requires a secondary, continuous and
waterproof flashing below it.
cavity
Dampproof Flashing
Precast concrete, stone masonry or brick units
known as “copings” close the tops of masonry
walls or act as window and door sills. These units
also serve to prevent water from entering the
top of the wall. If the copings are installed in
flashing sections, water may leak through the joints.
A dampproof flashing should be placed between
the coping and the top of the masonry wall to
prevent water from penetrating into the wall
below (see Figure 122). Using a dampproof
flashing is also good building practice if copings
or sills without joints are used.
121 Through-wall flashing 122 Dampproof flashing

at foundation
cavity
dampproofing
flashing (flexible,
self-adhering
rubberized
asphalt
membrane)
exterior finish
weep holes
through wall
flashing
sheathing

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
Valley Flashing flashing. Shingle nails must not be placed within

75 mm (3 in.) of the valley centre line at the
A “valley flashing” should be installed where
ridge, or within 125 mm (5 in.) at the eaves.
two roof slopes intersect to form a valley.
Rigid shingles should not be used in closed valley
Open valleys leave the middle of the flashing
roofs or roofs that slope less than 1:1.2.
exposed (see Figure 123) and must be flashed
with one layer of sheet metal at least 600 mm
(24 in.) wide, or with two layers of roll roofing
Stepped Flashing or Shingled,
installed over continuous sheathing. The bottom Stepped Base Flashing for
layer is Type S smooth roll roofing or Type M Shingled Roofs
mineral surface roofing (mineral surface down), Flashing must be provided at the junction
at least 457 mm (18 in.) wide. Centre this between a roof and a masonry wall or chimney.
layer on the valley and fasten along the The base flashing should extend at least 150 mm
edges with nails spaced 400 to 450 mm (6 in.) up the side of the chimney or masonry
(16 to 18 in.) apart. veneer. A common approach is to bend the
Apply a 100 mm (4 in.) band of roofing cement top of the base flashing and imbed it at least
along the edge of the bottom layer. Then apply 25 mm (1 in.) into the horizontal masonry joints.
a second strip of Type M mineral surface roll The flashing is installed on all sides of a chimney
roofing approximately 914 mm (36 in.) wide where it penetrates a roof. This flashing method
over the first layer (mineral surface up). Fasten does not direct any water that is inside the
the top layer along the edges with enough nails masonry to the exterior, and this water may
to hold it in place until the shingles are applied. leak into the chimney or wall.
The roof shingles stop 100 to 150 mm (4 to Stepped base flashing should be installed in
6 in.) from the centre of the valley, with the pieces, following the roof slope. The flashing
distance increasing from top to bottom. pieces (also called “flashing squares”) are
Closed valleys are usually flashed with one overlapped like the roof shingles, and extend
layer of sheet metal. Each course of shingles at least 100 mm (4 in.) under the shingles
is continued across the valley to conceal the (Figure 124). One square is used at each shingle
123 Valley flashing 124 Stepped flashing
sheet-metal valley flashing shingle-lapped,

stepped
counter flashing
cut saw
base flashing
n
w
do
pe
slo
two-ply membrane valley flashing

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
course and is bent up along the wall under the Flashing should also be installed at the
sheathing membrane. The squares must be large intersection of shingle roofs and walls
enough to give a good lap at the intersection of clad with materials other than masonry.
the roof and wall, and the head lap should be no It should extend up the wall not less than
less than 75 mm (3 in.). A through-wall flashing 75 mm (3 in.) behind the sheathing paper.
should be installed over the base flashing, through
A saddle or “cricket” should be installed
the full depth of the masonry veneer and air space
when the upper side of a chimney is more
behind, and extended at least 150 mm (6 in.) up
than 750 mm (30 in,) wide. These are
the wall sheathing (Figure 125). The sheathing
constructed out of wood during the roof
membrane should lap at least 75 mm (3 in.)
framing operations and are usually covered
over the top of the through-wall flashing.
125 Flashing at wall intersection
install building paper (diagonally) to

cover joints in the counter flashing
minimum overlap 75 mm (3 in.)
counter flashing; mechanically fasten

flashing to sheathing with flat-head
galvanized roofing nails at 300 mm
(12 in.) o/c, min. two per segment
100 mm (4 in.) min.
end dam
solder or
stepped base flashing (only install sealant
two sections shown for clarity) at all joints
shingles lap over flashing. Flashing
interwoven with shingle courses
Typical counter flashing segment

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
with sheet metal (Figure 126). The saddle Drip Flashing

should be suitably flashed at the roof and at
Drip flashings intercept moisture that has entered
the chimney.
behind the cladding and direct it to the outside,
A saddle is not required if the metal flashing is as well as redirect water flowing down the face
carried up both the roof and the chimney to a of the wall to prevent it from dripping down
height at least equal to one-sixth the chimney on the materials below. A drip flashing should be
width. On roof slopes behind a chimney, inserted between two different siding materials
the flashing should extend up the roof and up (for example, siding above stucco) or between
the chimney to a point equal in height to the different materials and components. To prevent
chimney counter flashing, but not less than water from entering the joint, a preformed drip
150 mm (6 in.) or 11⁄2 times the shingle exposure. should extend from behind the siding out over
Open joints or laps should be soldered or sealed, the stucco to a drip at the outside edge (Figure 9).
or a locked joint used.
126 Chimney flashing
saddle required by
code where width of
upper side of chimney
exceeds 750 mm (30 in.)
one-piece saddle
rubberized asphalt sheet

installed on sheathing
before installation of
metal flashings

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
Flashing should also be used over windows and contraction of all building components including
doors (drip flashing in this location is also called the flashing itself, normal deflections under
“head flashing”), unless they are protected by service loads, shrinkage and creep of concrete and
an overhang. This flashing is required where the wood; and expansion of brick after construction.
vertical distance between the window or door
and the underside of the overhang is more than Terminations
one-quarter the horizontal projection of the
Terminations should be formed into sharp
overhang. For example, flashing is required
breaks and to be sufficiently rigid at points of
if the top of a window is more than 300 mm
discharge to adequately project water away from
(12 in.) below an eave that projects 1.2 m (4 ft.).
materials below.
Head flashing should extend from the top of the
window or door to up and under the sheathing
paper or membrane. Durability
The flashing must be tough enough to resist
Where the sills of windows and doors in exterior
physical damage during construction, as well
walls are not self-flashing, flashing must be
as normal wear, which may be related to
installed between the underside of the window
the environment and building maintenance
or door and the wall below.
activities. Other factors to be considered
include deterioration from corrosion, metal
FLASHING PERFORMANCE incompatibility and galvanic action, deterioration
REQUIREMENTS due to exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, extreme
The following performance requirements should (hot and cold) temperatures, freezing water and
be considered when materials to be used as fatigue due to movement.
flashing are selected: For more information on durability, consult
the CSA Standard S478-95: Guidelines on
Water Barrier Durability in Buildings. In general, the service
The flashing assembly that includes materials life of flashings must be equal to or more than
and joints must shed water without allowing that of the wall system or roof system at locations
leakage. The ability of the flashing to seal and where maintenance or replacement of flashings
be detailed to avoid leakage is fundamental. would be uneconomical.
Creating an effective and durable joint seal is
often difficult. It is good practice to provide Compatibility
a secondary, continuous flexible membrane Flashings along with their primers and sealants
flashing under jointed materials such as brick, must all be chemically compatible with adjacent
stone or sheet metal. materials. Avoid contact between dissimilar
metals, as this can lead to galvanic corrosion
Movement Capability when the metals are moist. Water acts as the
The flashing must be able to accommodate electrolyte, and dissimilar metals as electrodes.
differential thermal and structural movements. Alkaline concrete and mortar aggressively
As a result, it must either be made of a flexible attack materials such as aluminum and
material or have joints designed to accommodate copper. These materials should be protected
movement such as thermal expansion and from contact with concrete or mortar by the

CHAPTER 14
Flashing
sheathing membrane or other suitable materials. ■■ Can the flashing accommodate normal stresses?
Consult the manufacturers of selected materials ■■ Is it possible to mould or modify the material
to determine whether adjacent materials will
to accommodate unusual conditions, or is it
be compatible.
possible to repair damage?
Buildability
Maintenance
Creating a flashing detail that is easy to build will
Besides durability, future maintenance of the
greatly increase the likelihood that the flashing
flashing must be considered. Materials or joint
will be built to perform acceptably. Ask yourself
sealants with limited service lives should be
the following questions:
avoided if the flashings are not accessible for
■■ Can the installation of flashings be sequenced replacement. Metal flashings built into concrete
to be separate from other construction or masonry cannot be removed to allow for
activities, or can this be easily incorporated inspection or repair of the materials underneath.
into other work? For example, coordination This should be considered when selecting
may be required between roofing and masonry materials and details for flashings. The flashings
activities at wall-roof junctions. and sealants should be inspected annually,
particularly in areas with the greatest exposure
■■ If the installation of the flashings is to be
to water and sunlight.
incorporated into other work, do the workers
have the required technology and skills?
CSA Standard S478-95: Guidelines on Durability in Buildings,


CHAPTER 15
Windows, Exterior Doors and Skylights
The proper selection and installation of windows, glazing equal to at least 10 per cent of the area
doors and skylights is an important aspect of of a room. Other rooms, such as family rooms,
wood-frame house construction. Although should have window areas equal to at least
windows, doors and skylights provide natural 5 per cent of the floor area of the room.
lighting and ventilation and means of egress
Operable windows provide natural ventilation
in the event of emergency, they may allow
and can reduce the need to operate mechanical
moisture to seep into the building envelope,
ventilation during non-heating seasons.
which adversely affects the durability. The use
Windows used for natural ventilation should
of low-performance units and poor installation
have an unobstructed, operable window area
can lead to costly repairs.
of at least 0.28 m2 (3 sq. ft.). Bathrooms should
have a window area of at least 0.09 m2 (1 sq. ft.),
LIGHT, VIEW AND or else require mechanical ventilation.
VENTILATION
Because fire can spread from windows to
Windows and doors with glazing provide light, adjacent houses, building codes place strict limits
view and ventilation. Except for bedrooms, on the amount of glazing in walls that are close
which require windows as a means of egress to property lines. Unprotected, glazed openings
from fire, the NBC does not require other rooms are not permitted in walls that are within 1.2 m
to have windows. However, it is recommended (4 ft.) of a property line. The allowable area of
that certain rooms have windows large enough windows in walls more than 1.2 m (4 ft.) from
to admit daylight because of the psychological a property line depends on their distance from
benefit they provide occupants and to provide the property line and the area of the wall facing
natural daylighting. A general rule is for living the property line. Consult the local building
rooms, dining rooms and bedrooms to have department for specific requirements.

CHAPTER 15
AIRTIGHTNESS, WATER fenestration based on the manufacturer’s

RESISTANCE AND WIND information, which will meet or exceed the
pressure for a given locale.
LOAD RESISTANCE
Windows, doors and skylights provide ENERGY RATING
environmental separation (resistance to water
Windows, doors and skylights must have
entry, thermal resistance and airtightness),
maximum overall thermal transmittance (U)
perform a structural function by resisting
not greater than the values listed in the NBC
wind loads, offer stability under operational
for the applicable heating-degree day category,
loads and withstand forced entry.
or a minimum energy rating not less than
Windows, doors and skylights in Canada the values listed in the NBC (Table 13 in
are expected to conform to the Harmonized Appendix A).
Standard NAFS—North American Fenestration
The Energy Rating (ER) is a useful measure
Standard/Specification for windows, doors,
of the overall heating season performance of a
and skylights (A440-11) and the Canadian
window based on three factors: (1) solar heat
Supplement: A440S1-09. It replaces a number
gain; (2) heat loss through frames, spacers and
of Canadian standards that were previously
glass; and (3) air leakage heat loss. The ER rating
referenced for doors and skylights as well as its
is based on a standard test-size window and
window predecessor CSA A440. The primary
depends on the type of window. For example,
performance designator required for a window,
fixed windows typically have a better (higher)
door or skylight indicates a certain performance
ER rating than operable windows. Because all
level and by itself indicates compliance with the
windows are evaluated the same way, this rating
Harmonized Standard.
method compares the energy performance of
The Canadian Supplement contains a checklist window types made by different manufacturers.
for selecting performance levels for windows,
Table 14 compares the thermal efficiencies
doors, and skylights. For a window, door or
of several glass configurations. The window
skylight to bear a label in Canada, it must
industry typically uses U value, which is a
meet all of the applicable requirements of both
measure of thermal transmittance and is the
the Harmonized Standard and the Canadian
inverse of R value. A U-value indicates the rate
Supplement, including those pertaining to
of heat transfer through an object. The lower
forced entry.
the U-value number, the slower it transfers heat
The Harmonized Standard includes a from a warm area to a cold area.
classification system that rates a window,
The energy rating (ER) value is calculated using
door or skylight assembly according to
a formula that balances a product’s U-value with
airtightness, watertightness and wind load
its potential solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
resistance. The ratings achieved are marked
and its airtightness. The higher the ER number,
on the window, door or skylight and indicate
the more energy-efficient the product and the
the level of performance that can be expected.
better the product’s thermal performance will
Builders must ensure that windows, doors and be. It is recommended that new windows have
skylights are suited for the climates where they an ER of at least 25 for operable windows
will be used by determining the test pressure and at least 33 for fixed windows (or higher,
required (Canadian Supplement) and select depending on the NBC requirement for your

CHAPTER 15
region). This means windows should be at with an opening that measures 450 × 750 mm
least double-glazed, be low-E coated and have (18 × 30 in.) would conform to this requirement,
argon gas fill. Higher-efficiency windows are but an awning window of the same size might
recommended for the colder regions of Canada. not, if the awning hardware restricts the size of
the opening. Awning windows with simple-to-
ER is a heating-only rating and therefore
use and quick-release hardware should provide
achieving a good ER can sometimes result
acceptable means of egress.
in situations where overheating is a problem.
The energy benefit from passive solar heat It is recommended that the sill for the escape
gain due to a higher ER must be balanced window be no higher than 1.5 m (5 ft.) above
with thermal comfort and impact on cooling. the floor. Access to escape windows can be
improved by using built-in furniture as a step.
MEANS OF EGRESS Where a security grill is installed over a
Windows can allow occupants to escape to the bedroom window, it must be possible to remove
outdoors (provide a means of egress) if fire blocks the grill from the interior without special tools
the usual exit paths from a room. Each basement or knowledge. The window must be capable of
bedroom must have at least one outside window staying open during an emergency without the
(or exterior door) operable from the inside need for props or supports. Where a window
without the use of tools or special knowledge opens into a window well, a clearance of at least
and without the need to remove sashes or 760 mm (30 in.) must be provided between
hardware. Windows in these locations must have the window and the well to provide room for
an unobstructed open portion with no dimension a person to exit. For windows that swing out,
less than 380 mm (15 in.) and with an open the 760 mm (30 in.) requirement is measured
area of at least 0.35 m2 (3.8 sq. ft.) as shown in from the edge of the window in its open position.
Figure 127. For example, a casement window
127 Minimum dimensions for egress windows
no dimension less than

380 mm (15 in.)
0.35 m2
(3.8 ft2) min.
unobstructed
area
Horizontal slider

CHAPTER 15
WINDOWS double-hung window has both sashes operable.

Because of their design, only half the window
Window Types area can open for ventilation. Older hung
windows were difficult to open or close and
Many types of windows have different were prone to air leakage. Modern hung
characteristics (Figure 128) along with their own windows are much improved and provide
advantages and disadvantages. Common window good resistance to forced entry.
terms are shown in Figure 129.
Horizontal and vertical slider windows
Fixed windows cannot be opened and are are easy to operate and do not swing into
generally the least expensive. Though they or obscure living space. Similar to single-
usually offer the best level of energy efficiency and double-hung windows, only half the
and resistance to forced entry, fixed windows window area of a slider can open for ventilation.
do not provide natural ventilation and cannot Sliders tend to be less airtight than casement
serve as a means of egress in case of fire. windows, awning and tilt-and-turn windows
Single- or double-hung windows open because their weatherstripping is subject
vertically. A single-hung window has only one to wear.
operable sash (usually the bottom unit) and a
128 Common window types 129 Window terminology
Interior Exterior
edge seal or spacer

glazing
gas fill
Casement Slider Hopper
low-emissivity
coating
sash
Awning Tilt-and-turn
insulating glass
unit (glazing)
sill
Single-hung or Double-hung

CHAPTER 15
Casement and awning windows swing open Low-Emissivity Coatings

to the exterior and are among the more expensive
Much of the heat lost and gained through a
types. They are very airtight and offer good
window is due to radiation, a process whereby
resistance to forced entry. The entire window
warmer objects radiate heat to cooler objects,
area can be open for ventilation. Casement
as in the case of sunlight passing through a
windows are well suited to deflecting prevailing
window and warming objects in a room.
winds into the dwelling for natural ventilation
Low-emissivity (low-E) coating is a thin
and passive cooling. Awning windows have the
metallic film deposited on glass that acts as
advantage of shedding rain effectively when open.
a mirror to radiate heat back into a room
Tilt-and-turn windows are the most flexible of during cold weather, and back to the outdoors
all window types. Some can act like casement during hot weather, thereby reducing heating
and awning windows. Similar to casements, and cooling bills. It provides a double-glazed
the entire window area can be open for window with about the same energy performance
ventilation. These windows can be very as a window with uncoated triple-glazing, but at
airtight when fitted with compression-type less additional cost. Many window manufacturers
closing devices. offer low-E glazing as a standard feature.
Window Performance Gas Fills

Several technological advances have vastly Another innovation is the use of inert gas
improved the performance of windows over between layers of glass in a sealed unit in the
the past 20 years. place of air. Inert gases have a higher insulating
value than air because they are heavier, resulting
Multiple Glass Layers in lower convective and conductive heat losses
Condensation on interior window surfaces can be between the panes of glass. Argon is the most
reduced by installing energy-efficient windows, commonly used gas due to its availability and
using efficient glazing and low-conductivity low cost. Many window manufacturers offer
frames. Each layer of glass and air space works windows made with inert, gas-sealed units.
to increase the inside surface temperature of the
innermost layer of glass, thereby reducing the
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
potential for condensation. Windows that The solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) is the
separate heated space from unheated space fraction of incident solar radiation admitted
or the exterior must be at least double-glazed. through a window, both directly transmitted
and absorbed and subsequently released inward.
Some condensation around the edges of windows
It is expressed as a number between 0 and 1.
can be expected during cold weather, particularly
The lower a window’s solar heat gain coefficient,
if the humidity in a house is high. Double-and
the less solar heat it transmits. Solar heat gain
triple-glazed windows with glazing that have
can provide free heat in the winter but can
low-conductivity edge seals and low-conductivity
also lead to overheating in the summer.
frames create warmer interior surface temperatures
The appropriate SHGC for a given window
and reduce the potential for condensation.
depends on the climate, orientation, shading
conditions and other factors.

CHAPTER 15
Edge Seals ■■ Solar heat gain coefficient

The thermal efficiency of a sealed glazing ■■ Appearance
unit can be significantly improved by using
In addition, the Harmonized Standard and
a low-conductivity edge spacer between panes
Canadian Supplement require manufacturers
of sealed glass units. Aluminum was commonly
to make windows that are:
used for window spacers but resulted in cold
areas around the edges of glazing units. ■■ suitable to local climatic loads (water
Plastic, silicone and glass fibre spacers are penetration resistance, wind load and
now used to reduce thermal conductivity airtightness); and
at the glass edges.
■■ resistant to forced entry.
Thermally-Efficient Frames All manufactured windows and entrance doors
Window frames are typically constructed of are required to meet forced entry requirements.
aluminum, vinyl (polyvinyl chloride, or PVC), All site-built doors and site-built windows located
wood or fibreglass. Each of these materials within 2 m (6 ft. 6 in.) of the ground must meet
has unique properties suited for window the same requirements.
frame construction, but differ in terms of
thermal performance. Aluminum is very Window Installation
conductive (1,000 times greater than vinyl, Windows are usually installed after the
wood or fibreglass) and, therefore, performs house framing and roof covering have been
poorly from a thermal efficiency standpoint. completed. Windows should arrive just in
Aluminum frames must be thermally broken time for installation. If they are delivered early,
using low-conductivity materials such as PVC store them upright in a secure, dry and level
or nylon, which improve the performance of area in their original packaging with any
the frame significantly. Frames constructed temporary bracing left in place. Screens are
of wood, PVC and fibreglass all have similar susceptible to damage and should be removed,
low-conductivity properties. Further improvements labelled and stored until construction is complete.
can be made in PVC and fibreglass by filling the
voids and airspaces in the frames with insulation. Prior to installation, review the manufacturer’s
While the frames may only make up a small installation instructions, and ensure that all of
portion of the overall window area, the thermal the proper tools, fasteners and materials are
performance of a window is significantly available. Install windows plumb and level within
influenced by the frame selection. the rough opening using shims to position and
temporarily secure them.
Window Selection Improper window installation can result in
The following list shows window selection factors: water and air leakage problems and poor
functioning of operable units. Correct window
■■ Cost installation includes lapping and sealing the
■■ Warranty water-impermeable sheathing membrane to
the window to form a continuous second
■■ Energy performance

CHAPTER 15
plane of protection at the window perimeter, applying closed-cell sprayed foam to insulate
and in particular, provide drainage of the and air seal the breaching in one step after the
sub-sill area (Figure 130). window is installed.
Depending on the technique used to insulate and The window must be connected to appropriate
air seal the window breaching (the gap between materials in the adjacent wall construction to
the window and the rough opening), air sealing maintain the continuity of the first and second
may be performed after the window is installed. planes of protection as well as the air barrier. It is
The most common technique now involves best to connect the air barrier at the interior edge
130 Sequence for window installation
A C
1. sub-sill slope to exterior
2. install sheathing membrane
below opening
3. install water- 6. install vertical sheathing
impermeable (WI) membrane and wrap
sill membrane into the side of
the window
4. install WI corner
reinforcement membrane 7. install horizontal
sheathing membrane
B and wrap under header
5. install overlapping
WI membrane
D E
8. install window,
shims and insulation
12. install wood
9. install head flashing furring
10. install and lap wall
sheathing membrane 13. install metal
drip edge
11. lap sheathing
membrane 14. install siding
above opening
15. install backer rod
and exterior and
interior sealants

CHAPTER 15
of the window so that any incidental water Provide continuity of the water shedding surface
leakage through the window can be readily at the first plane of protection by using sealant
drained to the exterior. and trim at the window perimeter. A drip edge is
Although insulating around the frame in the recommended at the sill because it causes water
rough opening can provide some thermal benefit, to drip free of the cladding below, reducing the
it does limit the drainage capability. In areas of probability of water running back into the
higher exposure, the use of sealant in the interior wall assembly and the staining created by
and an insulation material that can readily concentrated water run-off.
drain and dry is preferred. When exterior Figure 131 shows two drip edge arrangements
perimeter insulation is used, space should for a window sill. Attach windows securely to
always be provided for drainage and drying framing members (Figure 132).
between the insulation and the cladding.
131 Window sill
25 mm (1 in.) extension beyond cladding

or inner face of masonry sill
6% slope
drip notch positioned 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
beyond cladding or 15 mm (5⁄8 in.)
beyond inner face of masonry sill
water-impermeable membrane over sloped

subsill or over horizontal sill with dam
132 Window attachment
rough opening dimensions 25 mm (1 in.) larger than outside of window frame to

provide a minimum 12.5 mm (1⁄2 in.) space between the window frame and rough opening
lintel
fill space between window frame
and rough opening from the inside
with foam insulation
or
insulate and air-seal
attach window with wood screws
through sides of window frame only
shims at jamb and sill junctions only
shim at junction of multiple units
jack stud
cripple stud
Note: Always refer to manufacturer's instructions.

CHAPTER 15
Energy-efficient windows that come with double Nearly all doors are purchased and installed as
or preferably triple glazing and low-conductivity complete manufactured systems (Figure 133).
frames can provide significant energy savings. When custom doors are required, they must
They should be installed with spray foam or meet the same durability and performance
sealant around the perimeter between the frame requirements as manufactured units. In addition,
and the rough opening to reduce air leakage some components may have to be milled prior to
and water ingress. There should also be flexible assembly and installation (refer to Chapter 16).
membrane sub-sill flashing across the rough sill
and extending at least 100 mm (4 in.) up the
133 Pre-hung manufactured door
sides of the rough opening. The sill flashing
should be sloped towards the exterior to prevent
bulk water from entering the wall (Figure 11 head jamb
in Chapter 5). Position the window in the rough
opening so that the insulated glazing is in line hinge jamb
with the wall insulation. In thick walls, the
window should be placed close enough to the lock jamb
interior to allow heated room air to ‘wash’ the
inner surface of the glass to prevent condensation
and inwards from the exterior wall surface so
that it is protected from rain and snow, yet near
enough to the exterior so that flashings and pre-drilled
membranes are not excessively large. lockset holes
EXTERIOR DOORS hinge

Exterior doors, like windows, affect the
appearance of a dwelling and are often threshold
selected on the basis of style and finish.
Most manufactured exterior doors come
as manufactured units pre-hung in their
frames and ready for installation within a
rough opening.
Exterior doors are usually manufactured of
wood, steel, plastic or fibreglass. Wood doors Note: Exterior doors to have water-impermeable
are normally solid, while other types consist sill membrane and flashing
of inner and outer structural panels filled
with insulation and are more energy-efficient.
However, wood doors have proven performance Weatherstripping is the primary line of defence
and a traditional appearance that have against air leakage around doors. It should
contributed to their popularity. fit tightly and be effective, durable and easy
to replace. It is good practice for doors to be
Main doors should not be less than 45 mm
(13⁄4 in.) thick. They should be at least 810 mm protected by overhangs to limit exposure to
(32 in.) wide and 1.98 m (6 ft. 6 in.) high. wetting. Exterior doors should be installed
with the same attention to sealing and flashing
as windows.

CHAPTER 15
Doors that lead from the house to the garage Resistance to Forced Entry
must provide a gas-tight barrier to prevent
Hardware, in particular locksets and hinges,
automobile exhaust fumes from entering the
must be both functional and durable. The main
house. These doors should be tight-fitting,
entry door to a dwelling will be locked and
weatherstripped and provided with a
unlocked, opened and closed numerous times
self-closing device.
over its useful life. Low-cost hardware will
eventually need to be replaced and may cost
Glazing more in the long run.
Glazing in exterior doors should be thermally
The Harmonized Standard and Canadian
efficient, and depending on their size and
Supplement contain requirements pertaining
location, may also have to be tempered for
to resistance to forced entry for door hardware.
added safety. Glass sidelights greater than
Manufactured and site-built doors must meet
500 mm (20 in.) wide that could be mistaken
these requirements.
for a door and glass in storm or sliding doors
is required to be safety glass. Sidelights must Deadbolt locks in exterior doors to houses
be double-glazed. When no glazing is provided, must have a cylinder with no fewer than five
a door viewer is required for security purposes. pins and a bolt throw of at least 25 mm (1 in.)
As is the case for windows, the amount of (Figure 134). Double doors must have heavy
glazing in side doors near property lines may duty bolts top and bottom with an engagement
be restricted depending on the distance to the of at least 15 mm (5⁄8 in.). Hinges must be
property line. fastened to wood doors with wood screws not
134 Door hardware requirements
25 mm (1 in.)
deadbolt projection not

less than 25 mm (1 in.)
hinges fastened to door with screws

not less than 25 mm (1 in.) long
hinges fastened to door frame with

at least two screws per hinge that
penetrate at least 30 mm (13⁄16 in.)
into solid wood

CHAPTER 15
less than 25 mm (1 in.) long, and to wood maintain. Skylights must be securely attached
frames penetrating at least 30 mm (13⁄16 in.) to the roof framing and sealed to the air barrier
into solid wood. system in the roof, at the walls of the skylight
opening and at the ceiling.
Resistance to forced entry extends beyond
door hardware to the framing for the door as When the air barrier in a wood-frame building
well. Solid blocking must be provided on both consists of polyethylene attached to the inside
sides of the doorway at lock height between surface of the roof framing, the polyethylene
the jamb for the door and the structural framing must be extended up and sealed to the inside face
so that the jambs resist spreading by force. of the skylight frame. When the air barrier is a
Additional screws in the drywall around the membrane on the exterior of the roof sheathing,
doorframe will also strengthen resistance to it should be sealed to the outside of the skylight
forced entry. Doors conforming to the frame and covered with a prefinished metal
Harmonized Standard and Canadian flashing to protect it from exposure to ultraviolet
Supplement meet these requirements. radiation, water, snow, ice and mechanical
damage. Some skylight manufacturers supply
SKYLIGHTS step flashings specifically designed for their
units and for a variety of roof slopes and finishes,
Skylights are windows designed and which enables the installer to effectively integrate
manufactured for installation in a roof assembly. the skylight unit into the roof waterproofing
They must be installed carefully because they system. Figure 135 shows a stepped base
are exposed to severe climatic conditions and flashing for a skylight unit on a pitched roof.
their remote location makes them difficult to
135 Stepped flashing for skylight
prefinished steel step flashing;

lap at corners by saddle flashing
prefinished sheet-steel saddle
rubberized asphalt sheet (self-sealing)

base flashing turned up and over the curb

CHAPTER 15
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Tight-fitted and weather stripped storm

doors can reduce heat loss in winter
■■ Proper window location, size and design can
and heat gain in summer.
lead to improved comfort, reduced heat loss
and reduced glare. ■■ Windows and doors are responsible
for much of the heat loss in a house.
■■ Consider using exterior shading for
Choosing higher-performance windows
windows facing south or west to reduce
and doors should result in substantial
overheating and glare.
savings in space-heating energy over the
life of the building.
Energy Efficiency
■■ Windows can be customized with low-e
■■ Choose new windows and doors with
coatings to optimize solar gains and reduce
durable, tight-fitting seals and gaskets
losses. Window suppliers can advise on the
to reduce heat loss and water ingress.
best choices for the orientation of windows.
AAMA/WDMA/CSA 101/I.S.2/A440-11 Standard: NAFS—North American Fenestration

Standard/Specification for windows, doors and skylights,
CSA A440S1-09: Canadian Supplement to AAMA/WDMA/CSA 101/I.S.2/A440,
NAFS—North American Fenestration Standard/Specification for windows,
doors, and skylights,

CHAPTER 16
Exterior Trim and Millwork
Exterior trim and millwork include window between dissimilar metals, such as aluminum
and door trim, soffits, rake, gable and fascia and steel. If finishing nails are used, they must
trim that are cut and installed on site and be countersunk and then sealed after the prime
other accessories such as louvers and shutters coat is applied to prevent rust stains at nail
that are usually shop-manufactured. heads. When the siding is prefinished,
matching pre-painted nails may be used.
Trim should be low maintenance, resistant to
weathering, workable and dimensionally stable
(low tendency to warp, shrink or contract EAVE PROJECTION
and expand). The eave overhang gives some protection to the
wall. Soffits are usually clad with prefinished
Prefinished sheet metal is now widely used
perforated metal or vinyl panels (Figure 136).
because it is impermeable to water and can
These are low maintenance and provide ample
maintain its finish for many years without
area for venting roof spaces without permitting
having to be repainted. Correct detailing and
insects to enter the space. A narrow eave
sealing are a must to prevent water from running
projection is sometimes used on roofs with
behind the metal trim. When wood trim is
steep slopes. Soffits should not be used to
used, seal the end joints or mitres of lumber
vent rainscreen wall spaces.
exposed to moisture.
Plywood was once commonly used for soffits
Nails or screws used for fastening trim should
and still is at times. Apply 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
be corrosion-resistant, aluminum, galvanized
sanded plywood nailed at 150 mm (6 in.)
or stainless steel. They must be compatible
on centre along the edges and 300 mm (12 in.) at
with the metal trim to avoid galvanic reaction

CHAPTER 16
intermediate supports. Cut openings in the Special trim pieces are made for metal and
plywood to provide the required ventilation vinyl soffit materials to provide support at
area and install screening. Butt the exterior the wall and at the fascia. For plywood soffits,
finish to the underside of the soffit. Add a fascia nail a 19 × 19 mm (1 × 1 in. nominal) strip on
board to the ends of the trusses or rafters and top of the sheathing along the wall. This strip
apply wood or prefinished metal fascia extending supports the inner ends of the blocking and
about 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) below the soffit to form edges of the soffit covering.
a drip edge.
136 Roof projection at eaves
Narrow eave protection roof sheathing

truss top chord fascia board
truss bottom chord
pre-finished fascia
sheathing membrane
top plate
wall sheathing
vented soffit
wall studs
siding
Wide eave projection

with horizontal soffit roof sheathing
truss top chord
truss bottom chord fascia board
sheathing membrane
pre-finished fascia
top plate
wall sheathing
wall studs vented soffit
siding
Wide eave projection

with sloped soffit
truss top chord roof sheathing
truss bottom chord fascia board
sheathing membrane
top plate pre-finished fascia
wall sheathing
wall studs
siding
vented soffit

CHAPTER 16
Sloped soffits that follow the line of the ■■ Interrupt the gable soffit with a “box” at the
projected rafter are sometimes used instead end of the gable wall. The horizontal soffit
of horizontal soffits. under the lower fascia forms the bottom of
the box, and the sloped soffit of the gable is
EAVE AND GABLE-END parallel to the roof slope.
INTERSECTIONS
WINDOW AND DOOR TRIM
There are several ways to trim eave/gable-end
intersections. The two most common methods As described in Chapter 15, windows and doors
of trimming the eaves at the gable end are as must be installed so that they are sealed to the
follows (Figure 137): air barrier and must be flashed and sealed to
keep water out (see Figure 130 and Figure 138).
■■ Slope the gable soffit parallel to the roof, Exterior trim is used to conceal gaps around
until it meets the lower fascia. In this windows and doors and cover the exposed
case, the lower soffit is parallel to the ends of the siding. The trim can be wood
roof slope. or prefinished metal, which is the most
commonly used.
137 Eave and gable-end intersections (viewed from below)
Eave soffit terminated at Eave soffit sloped

wall and gable-end soffit on same plane as
continued to the fascia gable-end soffit
board at the eave
fascia fascia
plywood plywood soffit
soffit at eave
plywood
soffit at rake
Eave soffit carried out Vinyl or metal soffit

to the rake rafter and and fascia
gable-end soffit returned
down to meet the
eave soffit
fascia
fascia
plywood vinyl or
soffit at eave metal soffit at eave
plywood vinyl or
soffit at rake metal soffit at rake

CHAPTER 16
138 Section through doorframe at sill
space filled with insulation,

compressible gasket or sheathing membrane
sprayed urethane foam
siding
shim
door jamb
caulking
sloped doorsill
exterior door trim
water-impermeable
sill membrane check for storm door
19 mm (3⁄4 in.) board

caulking
concrete step
Affordability ■■ Factory-finished metal and other trim

materials are recommended because
■■ Exterior trim and millwork that needs to
their appearance can be maintained for
be periodically coated with paint, stain or
a long period of time by cleaning rather
clear finishes is becoming increasingly less
than recoating.
popular. Chapter 24 provides more detailed
information about the expected service life
Resource Conservation
of coatings. Exterior, site-coated surfaces
can be expected to require maintenance at ■■ Exterior trim and millwork that uses
least every three years. Exterior trim and finger-jointed wood, or medium/high density
millwork is often difficult to access without fibre, board conserves forest products.
ladders or other special equipment, further
increasing the cost of maintenance.

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
Stairs provide access between floors, and their STAIRWAY DESIGN

configuration, clearances and tread design
Stairs may be site built but are most often factory
must meet or exceed NBC requirements
manufactured. Stairways in houses can have a
to ensure safety during regular use and safe
straight, continuous run without an intermediate
and efficient exiting in the event of fire.
landing, or consist of two or more runs with
Common terms for stairs (Figures 139
changes in direction, or may be curved, in which
to 145) are as follows:
case special design criteria apply. The minimum
allowable stairway headroom is 1.95 m (6 ft. 5 in.)
STAIR RISE AND RUN (see Figure 141).
For safety and ease of use, stairs must comply
The width of any landing must not be less
with specific requirements. The rise and the
than the width of the stairs. Stairs in houses
run must be uniform for all treads in a flight of
and houses with a secondary suite must be at
stairs. For stairs in houses, the minimum run for
least 860 mm (34 in.) wide measured between
rectangular stairs is 210 mm (8¼ in.), and the
wall faces.
maximum is 355 mm (14 in.). The minimum
rise is 125 mm (5 in.), and the maximum is The length of a landing in a house cannot be less
200 mm (8 in.). The minimum tread depth than 860 mm (337⁄8 in.). The vertical height of
is 235 mm (9¼ in.), and the maximum is any flight of stairs cannot exceed 3.7 m (12 ft.).
355 mm (1315⁄16 in.). Each step in a flight of stairs should have the
same height.

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
139 Stair detail
tread
run
projection = 25 mm (1 in.)
effective tread depth:
= minimum tread depth
less 15 mm (19⁄32 in.)
rise
leading edge (nosing):
width of rounded or
bevelled edge = 25 mm (1 in.)
riser
A change in direction can be made with landings treads for a maximum allowable 90° turn).
or winders. Figure 140 shows different types of Only one set of such winders is permitted
stairway designs. If winders are used, they must between floor levels. Experience has shown
form an angle of either 30°, (three treads for that 30° winders are easier to negotiate than
a maximum allowable 90° turn), or 45° (two 45° winders.
140 Types of stair layouts
width
total run
total
rise
Straight long L wide L
double L with 30˚ winders narrow U wide U

and landing

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
Once the location and width of a stairway and A sloped or bevelled edge on leading edges
any required landings have been determined, (nosings) makes treads more visible. The size
the next step is to figure out the rise and the run. and shape of the slope or bevel is limited by the
To establish the rise, measure the exact distance building code to safeguard against tripping or
between the finished floors of the two storeys slipping (see Figure 139).
under consideration and divide by 184 mm
(71⁄4 in.), a comfortable riser height. Stringers
This calculation gives the number of risers Treads and risers are supported on stringers
needed over the total rise. Round up the number that must be solidly supported, firmly fixed and
that results from this calculation to the next properly positioned. The stringers may be either
whole number. The run is determined by cut (see Figures 142 and 143) or ploughed to fit
dividing the required number of treads into the outline of the treads and risers.
the total run of the stairs.
Wood stringers must not be less than 25 mm
For example, if the total rise is 2 718 mm (1 in.) thick when they are supported along their
(107 in.) and if each riser is 184 mm (71⁄4 in.), length or 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) when supported only
then 14.8 risers are needed (that is, 2,718/184 at the top and bottom. The overall depth must be
= 14.8). Rounding up, 15 risers will be required at least 235 mm (91⁄4 in.), and when the stringer
with each one having a rise of 181 mm (7.13 in.) is cut out to fit the treads and risers, the portion
(that is, 2,718/15 = 181.2). Alternatively 14 risers remaining (the “effective depth”) must not be less
at 192 mm (7.64 in.) rise would be appropriate than 90 mm (31⁄2 in.) deep.
when space is limited.
141 Stairway design
finish floor level
1.95 m (6 ft.- 5 in.)

minimum headroom rise
line of
leading edge run
total rise (nosing)
90 mm (31⁄2 in.)
minimum effective depth
stringer
finish floor level
total run

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
A third stringer is required when the width of the The wall stringer may be ploughed out to the
stairs is more than 900 mm (35 in.). The width profile of the tread and riser with sufficient
may be increased to 1200 mm (48 in.) where space at the back for wedges (see Figure 142).
risers support the front of the treads. The treads and risers are fitted into the space
Treads must be at least 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) thick ploughed into the wall stringer and wedged and
when used with open risers. This thickness can be glued in place. The wall stringer extends above
reduced to 25 mm (1 in.) where the stringers are the line of the leading edges and serves as trim
not more than 750 mm (29 in.) apart or where that can mate with baseboards at the top and
the tread is supported by a closed riser attached bottom of the stairs.
to the treads.
142 Stair components
Risers and treads

tongue and grooved together
tread
Risers and treads connected
leading edge (nosing) with angle blocks
riser glued angle block
space for wedges
angle block nail or screw
nail or screw
grain direction for

lumber, plywood Cut-out (open) stringer
and OSB treads
Housed stringer
tread return
stringer ploughed out
for stairs and wedges
moulding
balusters placed
in tread
cut stringer

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
The top of the riser may be connected to the leading edge of the tread may be returned on
bottom of the tread by angle-blocks glued to the its outside edge along the face of the stringer
concealed (back) side of both surfaces with screws (see Figure 142).
added to reinforce the joint. The bottom of the
riser is attached to the back of the tread with Basement Stairs
screws (see Figure 142) or the top of the riser is
Closed risers are safer but open risers may be
tongued into the front of the tread and the back
used for basement stairs (see Figure 143).
of the tread is tongued into the bottom of the
next riser (see Figure 142). The wall stringer is
screwed behind the treads and risers Exterior Stairs
to the wall. Exterior stairs can be wood or concrete.
Concrete stairs with more than two risers
If the outside stringer is an open stringer,
must be supported on piers or cantilevered
it may be cut out to fit the risers and treads.
from the foundation wall. The dimensions
The edges of the risers are mitred with the
of risers and treads for exterior stairs are the
corresponding edges of the stringer, and the
same as for interior stairs.
143 Basement stairs
Ploughed stringer
stair tread leading edge

(nosing) slightly chamfered
ploughed stringer
Cut-out stringer
stair tread
(supported on cut-out)
cut-out stringer
Cut-out stringer with an
attached finish member
25 mm (1 in.) thick finished

member on outside of stringer
stair tread
(supported on cut-out)
cut-out stringer

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
Concrete for exterior stairs must have a Guards for exterior balconies or landings,
compressive strength of at least 32 MPa porches or decks that are more than 600 mm
(4600 psi) and air entrainment of 5 to (24 in.) but less than 1800 mm (71 in) above the
8 per cent. Portions of wood stairs in ground must be at least 900 mm (36 in.) high.
contact with the ground must be treated For decks and landings higher than 1800 mm
with a wood preservative. (71 in.), guards must be at least 1070 mm
(42 in.) high.
Handrails and Guards Young children can use horizontal features in
Handrails run parallel to stairs to provide support a guard as a ladder, resulting in climbing and
for stair users. All stairways with three or more possible falling. Spacing between balusters for
risers in houses must have a handrail from floor all guards must not permit a 100 mm (4 in.)
to floor, and on both sides if the stair is 1100 mm sphere from passing through. Some ornamental
(43 in.) or wider. features are permitted between guards but must
meet limitations in their form so that they do not
For stairways with enclosing walls, attach the
facilitate climbing.
rail brackets to the wall with at least two screws
penetrating at least 32 mm (11⁄4 in.) into solid Guards must be strong enough to provide
framing members. Space the supports no more protection from falls during normal usage.
than 1.2 m (4 ft.) apart, with the first and last The specific loads that guards need to resist
supports no more than 300 mm (12 in.) from to meet this requirement should be verified at
the ends of the handrail. the permit approval stage.
For stairs that are open on one or both sides,
handrails are usually supported by balusters
Ramps
and end at newel posts. Handrails should be When a ramp is required for wheelchair access
between 800 and 965 mm (32 and 38 in.) above (a barrier-free path of travel) to a house or a
the tread at the leading edge line, with at least house with a secondary suite, certain conditions
50 mm (2 in.) clearance from the wall, and be must be met so that it is safe and easy to use.
built so that there is no obstruction that could A level area must be provided at the top and the
break a handhold. The start and end point of bottom of the ramp and intermediate level areas
handrails must not obstruct pedestrian traffic are required every 9 m (29 ft.)or where there is
or create a hazard. a change in direction. The clear width must be
at least 870 mm (34¼ in.) and the slope must
Guards surround openings to protect against
not be greater than 1:12. Consult the local
falling and are required around openings at
building department for additional information.
landings, decks and balconies that are more
than 600 mm (24 in.) above the adjacent level,
and alongside the open portions of stairways.
Guards for stairs in houses and houses with a
secondary suite must be not less than 900 mm
(36 in.) high measured vertically from the
leading edge.

CHAPTER 17
Stairs
Energy Efficiency stairs occur on exterior walls. To avoid

interruptions, install the air barrier before
■■ Ensure that the air barrier system is
the stair is put in place.
continuous and uninterrupted where
About Your House: Accessible Housing by Design—Ramps,

About Your House: Preventing Falls on Stairs,

CHAPTER 18
Chimneys, Flues and Fireplaces
CHIMNEYS AND FLUES 144 Chimney height above the ridge

A chimney is a structure containing a flue or
flues, which route any smoke and gases produced
900 mm (3 ft.) minimum
by a fire or furnace to the outside. A flue is a
sealed pipe or channel that may be contained
within a chimney or a self-contained unit 3 m (10 ft.)
independent of the chimney.
Chimneys and flues must be capable of
producing sufficient draft to maintain the chimney extends
fire and remove the products of combustion. at least 600 mm
Chimneys, flues and fireplaces must be (2 ft.) above any
carefully built to minimize fire hazards. part of a roof
within 3 m (10 ft.)
Ideally, they should not be located on
outside walls. Locating them within the
house keeps the chimney, flue and fireplace
warmer, giving a better draft and reducing roof
condensation inside them.
Chimneys and flues must extend at least
900 mm (36 in.) above the highest point where
the roof meets a chimney and must be at least
masonry or prefabricated chimney
600 mm (24 in.) higher than any roof surface
within 3 m (10 ft.) of the chimney (Figure 144).

CHAPTER 18
Chimneys may be used to vent oil- and There are two types of chimneys and flues
gas-burning equipment, provided the flue commonly used in residential construction:
lining complies with oil and gas appliance masonry chimneys and factory-built flues.
installation codes. Alternatively, the equipment
may be vented through special gas vents Masonry Chimneys
approved for this purpose.
A masonry chimney consists of a liner and an
A flue that serves a fireplace or wood stove outer wall (Figure 145). Masonry chimneys
cannot also serve as a flue for a gas- or must be built on a concrete footing designed
propane-fired furnace. to support the load. The size of the chimney
depends on the number, size and arrangement
A furnace and hot water tank or a fireplace
of flues. The outer wall of a masonry chimney
and wood stove can be connected to the same
must not be less than 75 mm (3 in.) and must
flue but there are limitations that should be
consist of solid masonry units. The NBC
checked with the local building department.
provides minimum sizes for round and
A flue should be as vertical as possible and
rectangular flues for fireplace chimneys.
cannot be sloped at an angle of more than
45° from the vertical.
145 Installation of flue linings
sealant around flue
75 mm (3 in.) minimum solid

masonry between linings

CHAPTER 18
The size of the flue required depends on Factory-Built Flues

the size of the fireplace opening and the
chimney height. The rule of thumb is for Factory-built flues do not require a foundation
the area of the flue opening to be at least (see Figure 147). The flue sections are comprised
one-tenth of the area of the fireplace of inner and outer stainless steel liners separated
opening but not less than 200 × 200 mm by insulation. Provide clearance between the
(8 × 8 in.). outer wall of the flue and the framing and
provide lateral support with clips attached
There must be at least 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) to the framing. Use only factory-built flues
clearance between chimneys and wood that have been tested and approved for use
framing for chimneys on exterior walls and in Canada.
50 mm (2 in.) for interior walls.
The liner must start not less than 200 mm FIREPLACES
(8 in.) below the lowest flue pipe connection Fireplaces can consist of solid masonry
and must extend between 50 and 100 mm construction, be factory-built, have steel
(2 and 4 in.) above the chimney cap. It can
inserts for masonry or wood frame construction,
be clay, concrete, firebrick or metal that
or be factory-built natural gas appliances.
meet established standards. Rectangular
Special wood pellet burning appliances are
glazed clay sections 600 mm (24 in.) long
available as well.
are most often used. The liner is installed as
the concrete or masonry outer wall is erected. All fireplaces must be designed properly to provide
A space of at least 10 mm (7⁄16 in.) that is heat, safely remove combustion by-products and
not filled with mortar is required between not pose a fire hazard. Fireplaces should have
the liner and the surrounding masonry. an external air supply so that warm, room air
The mortar used for the liner must be is not used for combustion. A fireplace that is
suitable for high temperatures. a solid-fuel-burning appliance requires that
If there are two or more flues in a chimney, CO alarms be installed in living spaces,
they should be separated from one another especially near bedrooms.
by at least 75 mm (3 in.) of solid masonry
or concrete, or 90 mm (31⁄2 in.) of fire Masonry Fireplaces
brick where fire-brick liners are used
A conventional masonry fireplace has very
(see Figure 145).
low heating efficiency because it draws large
The top of masonry chimneys should amounts of room air up the flue that must be
be capped to keep water away from replaced by air leakage through the building
masonry joints. The top of the cap should envelope elsewhere in the house. This results
be sloped away from the flue lining and in a warm room where the fireplace is located
extend beyond the chimney wall at least but a cold house elsewhere due to increased
25 mm (1 in.) to form a drip edge. A drip air leakage. Masonry fireplaces located on an
notch should be provided around the exterior wall can be a significant source of
underside of the cap.

CHAPTER 18
conductive heat loss and air leakage through ■■ The front of the fire chamber should be
walls. The components of a masonry fireplace wider than the back;
are shown in Figure 146. ■■ The upper part of the back should tilt
It is convenient but not essential to have an toward the face of the fireplace for better
ash dump through which ashes can be dropped burning performance;
into an ash pit with a cleanout door in the ■■ The back, which should rise one half the
basement for periodic removal of ashes. height of the opening before sloping forward,
Other design guidelines are: should be about two thirds of the opening
■■ The distance from the back of the fire in width;
chamber to the face of the fireplace cannot
be less than 300 mm (12 in.);
146 Fireplace terms
wall finish flue lining
mantelshelf smoke chamber
smoke shelf
mantel
damper
front hearth
throat
firebrick
ash dump
back hearth
ash pit
cleanout door

CHAPTER 18
■■ Provide a smoke shelf to reduce backdrafts Provide a clearance of at least 100 mm (4 in.)
by projecting the throat toward the face of between a fireplace and interior wood framing
the fireplace. and at least 50 mm (2 in.) for wood framing at
an exterior wall.
■■ The throat should be as wide and as shallow
as possible, but its area cannot be less than Factory Built Fireplace Inserts
the area of the flue. The sides of the fireplace
above the throat are drawn together to abut Factory-made fireplace inserts are available
the flue over the centre of the width of that reduce the amount of room air used by the
the fireplace; fireplace and achieve better heating performance.
To be most effective, the unit should have
■■ The slope of the sides of the smoke chamber draft-tight doors and a separate combustion
must not be more than 45° from the air supply from the outside. Airtight wood
vertical: and stoves are also more efficient than open fireplaces.
A fireplace insert can be added to a masonry
■■ Provide an adjustable damper to regulate the fireplace to improve safety and efficiency or
draft. It should be fully closable to minimize can be installed with a framed surround, if the
heat loss up the chimney when the fireplace required clearances are present. Inserts often
is not in use. have blowers that significantly improve heating
efficiency and circulation. A steel flue liner
The lining of the fire chamber must be firebrick
is installed inside an existing flue to remove
at least 50 mm (2 in.) thick and high temperature
combustion gases (Figure 146). Special installation
cement mortar or steel.
procedures must be followed. Review installation
If a firebrick liner is used, the back and sides of and fire safety requirements with the local
the fireplace must be at least 190 mm (8 in.) building department. Many if not most
thick including the thickness of the masonry jurisdictions require that solid fuel burning
liner. For a steel fireplace liner with an air fireplaces be installed by qualified contractors.
circulating chamber surrounding the fire
chamber, the back and sides may be solid Natural Gas Fireplaces
masonry units at least 90 mm (31⁄2 in.) thick Natural gas fireplaces have become a more
or hollow units at least 190 mm (8 in.). popular fireplace option in areas served by
natural gas. Aside from being more affordable,
The hearth may be even with or above the relatively efficient and lightweight, they can
floor and consists of two parts: the front or be directly vented through the wall behind
finish hearth and the back hearth under the fire. the unit (or up a chimney), can be sealed
The back hearth is built of firebrick as it must combustion (meaning the combustion process
withstand more heat. The front hearth guards never comes in contact with house air), and can
against flying sparks and is made of reinforced effectively heat the room where they have
concrete at least 100 mm (4 in.) thick that is been installed without cooling off the rest
often finished with ceramic tile. The front hearth of the house.
must extend at least 400 mm (16 in.) in front of
A gas-burning, factory-built fireplace
the fireplace opening and at least 200 mm (8 in.)
(natural gas or propane) may be installed
on each side.
in an existing masonry fireplace or in new

CHAPTER 18
construction (Figure 147) without masonry. Ensure the fireplace is approved for
Units usually come with fans that increase use in Canada. Install it according to
heating performance. Where floor space is the building code, the manufacturer’s
limited, natural gas fireplaces can be installed requirements and natural gas or propane
in small cantilevered projections secured to installation codes.
the side of the house and covered by a small
shed roof.
147 Factory-built fireplace
chimney cap
storm collar
custom galvanized or pre-finished

metal cap with collar
siding
hold-back insulation minimum

50 mm (2 in.) from chimney
fire-stop spacer
standoff
surround
nailing flange

CHAPTER 18
Wood-burning appliances can provide effective ■■ Distribute the heat to other parts of the
and affordable home heating with a renewable home using a forced-air heating system or
energy resource. It is important to select a ventilation system with a recirculating
appropriate appliances, fittings and accessories mode of operation.
that function safely, cleanly and efficiently. ■■ Use high-efficiency condensing-type
space- and water-heating appliances,
Healthy Indoor Environment which may be side-wall vented or vented
■■ Only use chimneys or flues that have through the roof. High-efficiency heating
been certified for use with the appliance. equipment does not lose as much heat
Follow the manufacturer’s installation up the flue as lower efficiency equipment.
instructions and have the completed
installation inspected by the local building Resource Efficiency
inspector prior to closing it in. ■■ For wood-burning fireplaces, use wood
■■ Wood burning results in the generation from sustainably operated wood lots.
of gases that are harmful to health. ■■ Wood pellets are a fuel source made
Backdrafting is prevented by not using
from waste wood and are a good
spillage-susceptible, fuel-fired appliances
environmental choice. Some pellet
(those that do not have sealed combustion)
stoves have feed systems that control
or by providing active make-up air to
the feed rate and heat.
balance exhaust air flows.
■■ Burning wood releases particulates to Environmental Responsibility
the outdoor environment, which may be ■■ When selecting a wood-burning
a health concern to people in the vicinity.
appliance, make sure that the one you
■■ Burn dry wood to avoid creosote build-up have selected has an Underwriters’
that can cause chimney fires. Laboratory certification and is EPA- or
CSA-B415.1-certified to ensure it is
■■ Store firewood outside to prevent moisture
clean-burning, safe and efficient.
release inside the house.
Energy Efficiency Affordability

■■ For people willing to do the extra work
■■ Locate the appliance in an area of the
involved in storing and moving wood fuel,
house where its immediate heating output
wood heating can be economical compared
is needed. Rooms where occupants spend
with other heating fuels. A backup system
a great deal of time, such as family rooms
is recommended to maintain minimum
or living rooms, will benefit most from a
temperatures for times when the house
wood stove or fireplace. Appliances with
is not occupied.
glass doors provide a view of the fire and
improve heating efficiency.

CHAPTER 19
Plumbing, Electrical and Appliances
The space between the framing members CUTTING FRAMING MEMBERS

in wood-frame walls, floors and roofs
provides convenient space for locating Notching of Lumber Roof,
heating, plumbing and electrical services. Ceiling or Floor Joists
Where pipes or wires must be run at right Notches made on the upper side of lumber joists
angles to the framing, wood members may near their ends (Figure 148) must be located
be notched or drilled within strict limitations within one-half the joist depth from the edge
without adversely affecting the structural of the bearing and their depth cannot be more
strength of an assembly. than one-third of the joist depth. Notches are
148 Example of notch limitations
joist size increased

by depth of notch
effective depth of joist
notch located away
from support
maximum 1⁄3 of joist depth

notch located with 1⁄2 of
joist depth of support
Note: never notch the underside of a joist

CHAPTER 19
not permitted on the bottom of joists. If notches engineered wood products must conform to
are necessary elsewhere in the top of a joist, the product manufacturers’ guidelines for size
deeper joists must be used so that the net depth and location.
at the notch is equal to or greater than the joist
depth required for the span and load conditions. Notching and Drilling
The flanges of wood I-joists and truss chords and of Studs
web members must not be notched or cut.
Load-bearing wall studs that have been
Drilled Holes in Joists notched or drilled to more than one-third of
their depth must be reinforced (Figure 150),
Holes drilled in joists must not be larger than usually with 38 mm (2 in. nominal) lumber
one-quarter the joist depth or closer than 50 mm nailed to the side of the studs and extending
(2 in.) to either edge (Figure 149). Holes in
149 Maximum size of holes drilled in joists
joist
pipe
maximum diameter of hole 1⁄4 of joist depth
50 mm (2 in.) minimum distance
150 Notching studs for plumbing
40 mm (19⁄16 in.) ⁄ stud depth

23
minimum minimum
In partitions, notched studs need not In load-bearing walls, notched studs need
be reinforced if remaining portion is not be reinforced if remaining portion is
at least 40 mm (19⁄16 in.). at least 2⁄3 the depth of the studs.

CHAPTER 19
at least 600 mm (24 in.) on each side of the Roof Trusses

notch or hole. Also use reinforcing when
Roof trusses cannot be notched or drilled.
notched partition studs have less than
40 mm (19⁄16 in.) of solid wood remaining.
FRAMING FOR
Notching and Drilling of PLUMBING SYSTEMS
Top Plates The installation of the plumbing system
In load-bearing walls, top plates must be usually begins after the framing is complete.
reinforced with 38 mm (2 in. nominal) The initial work is called “roughing-in” and
lumber when the solid wood remaining in includes installing plumbing vents and drains
the plates is less than 50 mm (2 in.) in width. and all hot and cold water piping that will be
If required reinforcing must be placed on the enclosed in the walls and ceilings and under
face of the plate or stud, sheet metal may be the basement floor. Since the bathtub must be
used to support the wall finish and to protect installed before the wall finish can be applied,
the plumbing and electrical wiring from bathtub installation is usually included in
gypsum board fasteners. roughing-in.
151 Kitchen and bathroom in proximity for minimum pipe length
kitchen sink and laundry tub drainage

connected to combined soil and vent stack
bathtub
toilet cleanout
soil stack cleanout floor drain in

front of laundry
washbasin or vanity tubs in basement
use 140 mm (6 in.) waste disposal piping

stud wall when soil system buried under
stack continues concrete slab and
to upper floors directed outside the
building to the
sanitary sewer
cleanout
exterior face of building

CHAPTER 19
152 Washbasin and bathtub fixtures
washbasin mounted on end profile

brackets to blocking of bathtub
or stud wall
overflow
washbasin
outlet
exposed drainage piping
usually chrome plated or brass
subflooring cut to
drainage piping from receive drain piping
washbasin connected
to soil stack
holes drilled in bottom plate drainage piping

and subflooring for hot and from trap connected
cold water piping to soil stack
Wherever plumbing reduces insulation or Connect plumbing fixtures and accessories

affects an air barrier, provide additional after the installation of the interior finish
insulation on the exterior and ensure that the has been completed. Figures 151 to 154
air barrier is continuous and uninterrupted. show typical plumbing arrangements for
wood-frame construction. Check local or
provincial plumbing requirements.
153 Toilet fixture
drainage piping
from washbasin
bottom plate
toilet
and subflooring
cut for stack
toilet flange secured to subfloor
drainage piping
from bathtub
soil stack

CHAPTER 19
When 75 mm (3 in.) copper or plastic material (Figure 154). Seal around the ceiling
piping is used, the plumbing stack wall may penetration to maintain air barrier continuity
be made of 38 × 89 mm (2 × 4 in. nominal) and prevent air leakage into the attic space
154 Venting for plumbing
vent pipes extend

through to the open air
above the roof
rubber boot
use 140 mm (6 in.) stud partitions

when soil stack continues to
another floor
washbasin
toilet
bathtub
soil stack and

vent pipe
cleanout at basement level
In partitions, holes may be drilled in studs if the

remaining portion totals at least 40 mm (11⁄2 in.);
otherwise studs must be suitably reinforced.
In load-bearing walls, the remaining portion of the

stud must be at least 2⁄3 the depth of the studs;
otherwise, studs must be suitably reinforced.

CHAPTER 19
(Figure 155). A flexible sheet rubber or Where soil stacks or large pipes must run
neoprene flange placed around the vent horizontally at right angles to the joists, it will
stack provides an effective, flexible air seal. be necessary to frame out the joists. To do
It can also move with the vent stack as it this, headers are installed between the joists
contracts and expands with the heat of air (Figure 156). Alternatively, services are
within it. suspended below the joist and enclosed in
a bulkhead or dropped ceiling chase.
155 Sealing a plumbing vent below an attic
polyethylene air and

vapour barrier on
underside of roof framing
wood blocking
between roof framing
seal between vent pipe

flashing and vapour barrier
prefabricated vent pipe flashing
plumbing vent pipe
156 Framing for soil-stack pipes
drainage piping from

washbasin
floor joists
soil stack
header joist
floor flange
drainage piping from toilet
drainage piping from bathtub

CHAPTER 19
FRAMING DETAILS codes usually require that the installation be done

FOR WIRING by a licensed electrician. Owners are advised to
check with the local authority when planning a
The design and installation of the entire wiring installation.
wiring system is usually regulated by a provincial
electrical code, all of which are closely modelled Figures 157 and 158 show the typical
on the Canadian Electrical Code published by the arrangement of electrical service entrance
Canadian Standards Association. The provincial equipment. The limitations for drilling structural
members for wiring are shown in Figure 159.
157 Typical arrangement of service entrance
lead wires
conduit straps
conduit
conduit connector
meter socket
conduit adapter
conduit connector
service panel
entrance ell

CHAPTER 19
158 Service entrance equipment
weather head
overhead wires
service mast
meter base and meter on exterior
3-wire 120-240V
service height above grade in accordance

with electrical code requirements
Note: Capacity 100 to 200 amps. The service

grounding wire wires are brought to the main breaker
located in the basement through a rigid
main breaker conduit. The main breaker and distribution
panel containing branch circuit protection
distribution panel (breakers or fuses) are mounted on a
plywood or OSB back-up panel.
12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) support
panel fixed to wall
floor joists
water supply pipe

fixed to back-up strip
combination service
entrance panel
water meter
ground wire clamped
below shut-off valve
finished basement floor
Note: Service equipment must be grounded. Note: Ground wire from main entrance panel
must be clamped to the water service
entrance pipe below shut-off valve as
shown (metallic pipe only).

CHAPTER 19
159 Drilling of structural members for wiring
blocking
caulking sealant or
rubber grommet
air barrier membrane
truss chord
air barrier system
and vapour barrier
strapping
drywall ceiling finish
surface mounted receptacle
pendant fitting recommended
to reduce heat build-up
metal protection plate

double studs at fixed to edge of stud
door opening member when required
30 mm (11⁄4 in.)
switch box to door framing
with two 100 mm (4 in.) nails holes drilled for wires
wires stapled as shown Note: When holes are drilled closer
than 30 mm (11⁄4 in.) to the
edge of a stud, metal protection
plates are required.
holes drilled in double top plate
to ceiling fixture
1 400 mm (4 ft.–6 in.)
holes drilled in studs for wires
outlet boxes fixed to studs

with two screws or nails
holes for in bottom plate and joists
to service panel

CHAPTER 19
The amperage of the electrical service and the Location of Switches and Outlets
number of circuits and outlets installed should
Plan the location of switches and outlets
take future needs into account. Modern house
carefully. Electrical boxes located in insulated
services usually require 200 amps.
ceilings and exterior walls must be sealed to
Wiring is usually started after the house has prevent air leakage. Solid plastic airtight
been enclosed. The initial phase of wiring is electrical boxes are recommended for use in
called roughing-in and includes the installation exterior walls and ceilings.
of wiring and the boxes for the switches,
lights and outlets. Figure 160 shows some Switches are typically located just inside a
typical electrical equipment. door opening so that they may be easily reached
when the door is opened. Switches may activate
Roughing-in is done before the inside finish a wall outlet for a table or a floor lamp or ceiling
is applied and usually before insulation is or wall lights. Locate switches about 1.4 m
placed in walls and ceilings. Lighting fixtures, (4 ft. 6 in.) above the floor, or 1.2 m (4 ft.)
switches, outlets and cover plates are installed above the floor for a person in a wheelchair
after the interior finish and painting operations (see About Your House fact sheet Accessible
are complete.
160 Typical electrical equipment
octagonal boxes for use with use approved boxes for switches
fixture or junction outlets and outlets in the house
duplex wall outlet and plate toggle switch and plate circuit breaker

CHAPTER 19
Housing by Design: Living Spaces for more Building codes usually require smoke alarms to
information about accessible placement of be permanently connected (hard-wired) to an
switches and outlets). electrical circuit. There must be no disconnect
switch between the smoke alarm and the
Three-way switches can control power from
electrical service panel, and the circuit should
more than one location. For example, a living
not be connected to a wall outlet.
room light could have a switch near one entrance
and one at another door leading to the kitchen Where electric power is not available,
or to a hallway. battery-powered smoke alarms may be used.
These units are designed to operate for at least
In houses with two or more storeys, three-way
one year and provide a seven-day trouble signal
switches must be provided at the bottom and
when the battery runs down.
at the top of the stairway to control stairway
lighting. Three-way switches are required Smoke alarms in houses are not required to
for stairs to finished basements, but not for be interconnected such that one alarm activates
unfinished basements. one or more others. However, smoke alarms in
a house with a secondary suite are required to
Smoke Alarms be wired so that the activation of any one alarm
causes all alarms in both suites to sound.
The National Building Code and most
local building codes require early-warning, Only install smoke alarms that are certified
fire- and smoke-detecting devices in dwellings. by a recognized testing agency such as the
Smoke alarms must be located in or near each Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada.
bedroom on each storey including basements
and mounted on or near the ceiling.
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Maximize natural lighting from windows,

skylights and light tubes to reduce the
■■ Smoke alarms should be wired directly
need for artificial lighting during the day.
to the electrical panel so they always
function, which renders battery ■■ Use compact fluorescent or light-emitting
replacement unnecessary. diode (LED) bulbs to reduce the amount
of electricity needed for lighting.
■■ Additional smoke alarms in bedrooms
can improve safety, especially when ■■ Consider installing a drain water heat
occupants are asleep. recovery stack on shower drain piping.
■■ Install an “all-off” master switch to turn
Energy Efficiency off non-essential power when there are
■■ Select appliances that have low energy no occupants in the house. This can
needs as determined by the EnerGuide reduce phantom electrical loads from
rating, or ENERGY STAR label. appliances and equipment that do not
require continuous power.

CHAPTER 19
Continued
■■ Consider making the house ready to accept showerheads and showerheads with a
solar hot water and photovoltaic systems. built-in on/off valve use about half the
water of conventional types.
Environmental Responsibility ■■ Water-conserving fixtures and appliances
■■ Select water-conserving toilets, also reduce the energy needed for providing
showerheads, dishwashers and clothes potable water and treating waste water.
washers. Low consumption (6 L) and
■■ Consider using landscaping materials or
dual-flush toilets use the least amount
grass species that need less watering than
of water for flushing. Water-saving
standard lawns.
About Your House: Accessible Housing by Design—Living Spaces,

2010 National Plumbing Code of Canada,
Canadian Electrical Code,
Canadian Standards Association, product no. C22.1

CHAPTER 20
Space Conditioning Systems
Houses are equipped with a number of space Dehumidification systems are used to remove
conditioning systems that maintain healthy moisture from the indoor air, usually during
and comfortable indoor conditions. hot and humid summers.
Space heating systems not only keep indoor Air filtration systems are used to remove
air temperatures at a comfortable level throughout particulates from the air to protect occupants
cold winter months, but they also prevent from inhaling potentially problematic particulates,
plumbing systems from freezing. Space heating reduce the proliferation of dust throughout
systems also help control indoor moisture the house and protect air handling equipment
conditions by keeping the relative humidity from dust build-up.
of the indoor air low enough (and surfaces While a house must have a space heating
warm enough) to prevent condensation. and ventilation system, the other systems are
Space cooling systems (typically referred to optional and are based on occupant demand
as “air conditioning” systems) maintain comfort or local trends that may dictate the amenities
conditions through hot summer months and that should be provided in a house to make
can also help control indoor moisture conditions it marketable. While each of the systems may
by reducing humidity levels. be separate, more often than not, they are
integrated. For example, it is common to
Ventilation systems exchange indoor air combine a space heating and cooling system—
with outdoor air and help control moisture particularly when a forced air system is used.
and odours. It is also possible to integrate ventilation and
Humidification systems are used to add humidification systems with forced air space
moisture to the indoor air–particularly in heating systems. Dehumidification systems
regions that experience cold and dry winters. tend to be stand-alone equipment and are
provided on an as-needed basis.

CHAPTER 20
The following sections describe typical house will install space heating systems in accordance
space conditioning and ventilation systems with code, regulations, utility requirements
and identify the wood frame construction and manufacturers’ instructions.
required to accommodate installation, For builders, the main consideration for space
operation and maintenance. heating systems in wood frame construction is
to ensure required clearances between heating
SPACE HEATING SYSTEMS appliances, piping and ductwork and wood
In Canada, natural gas, oil and electricity are the framing and other combustible materials. Builders
most commonly used energy sources. The most must also provide space for the heating appliance
common space heating systems are: forced-air and the supply and return air duct system for
electric, forced-air fuel-fired, electric baseboard forced-air systems or supply and return piping
and forced-flow hot-water (hydronic) heating, for hydronic systems. Wood framing is often
which includes in-floor radiant heating systems, required to support heating system components,
radiators and baseboard convectors. Air, ground and additional support may have to be provided
or water-source heat pumps (typically with electric beyond that simply needed to frame the house.
backup heat) coupled with forced air systems are Accommodations for venting fuel-fired appliances
also available. Solid fuel-burning (wood or wood directly through exterior walls or up through
pellet) furnaces and wood stoves are also used, chimneys must also be carefully planned
particularly in remote locations where other and constructed to ensure safe, effective and
options are limited. Natural gas fireplaces have efficient operation.
become increasingly common, though they
are often supplied for aesthetic and local room Forced Air Heating Systems
comfort purposes, not for house-wide heating. Forced-air heating systems are comprised of
Space heating systems are typically installed a heating appliance such as a furnace, fan-coil,
by qualified mechanical or electrical contractors or heat pump and duct work to carry the heated
that are properly trained and certified for the air to all rooms in the house and return cooler
work involved. A knowledgeable contractor air back to the heating appliance. Figure 161
161 Basement plan showing typical heating layout
bedrooms dining room

basement
up to toe-space in
kitchen counter
return air duct
copper tubing in conduit

encased in concrete floor
basement and connected to burner
bedroom oil feed and vent pipes
bathroom oil storage tank
entrance hall living room

CHAPTER 20
illustrates a typical heating layout, and Figure 162 Furnaces

shows an isometric view of a typical heating
Furnaces heat houses by transferring the heat
system. Work with the heating contractor early
produced from burning natural gas, propane
in the framing process to map out the location
or oil, electric elements, or hydronic coils to air
of the furnace, venting system (if needed) as well
that is distributed throughout the house and
as the supply and return air branches, trunk ducts
circulated within each room by a supply and
and plenums. If space is provided through and
return duct system. Furnaces are controlled
around floor joists and wall framing, and if by thermostats installed in a central location.
any additional supportive framing needed as Today, furnaces tend to be quite compact,
construction proceeds is planned, far less cutting lightweight, and are easily installed in the
and repairs will be required later to accommodate basement or crawl space, or in purpose-built
the air distribution system. service rooms.
162 Isometric view of forced-air heating system
baseboard return air grille

wiring from relay control box return air—one or two joist
extended to thermostatic wall spaces with bottom and end
control outlet generally located boxed in with sheet metal
1.2 m (4 ft.) off first floor level
furnace wiring extended to emergency

switch box normally fixed to underside of
floor joists at bottom of basement stairs
flue pipe
relay control box
heating unit
electrical conduit
fastened to
warm air supply heating unit
warm air takeoff
floor joists
supply trunk
strap supports
Note: Maintain clearance between conbustible materials and heating appliances in accordance with
manufacturer’s instructions

CHAPTER 20
Fuel-fired (oil, natural gas, propane) furnaces For furnaces connected to chimneys and flues,
require a supply of combustion air from a framed space must be provided to allow the
outside. Therefore, a hole of sufficient size passage of the chimney or flue vent up through
has to be roughed into the foundation wall, the house to the roof. Provisions must be made
rim (header) joist or exterior wall through to ensure the continuity of the attic air and
which a combustion air duct can be passed. vapour barrier and insulation around the
It is preferable to provide this hole when framing chimney or flue in such a way that also respects
so that the duct can be properly integrated into the clearances required between the chimney or
the air and vapour barrier, exterior moisture flue and combustible materials. Framed chimney
protection and insulation systems of the building chases may also be provided up an exterior wall,
envelope. If not provided during construction, though the cooler location may undermine
the mechanical contractor may damage the wall venting performance under certain conditions
when the combustion heating appliance air duct (see Chapter 18).
is installed. The air intake must be situated where Earthquake vibrations can rupture fuel
snow and drifting snow will not block airflow supply lines to heating appliances and cause
into the combustion air duct. The air intake appliances to tip or move enough to break
must also be located to avoid contamination fuel lines. In areas subject to earthquake
from local sources such as automobile exhaust vibration, appliances must be secured (strapped
or other exhaust vents including those serving or braced) to the structure to resist overturning
clothes dryers, central vacuums or other fuel-fired and displacement. Even in areas not subject to
appliances. Except for approved concentric earthquakes, local regulations may require the
vents, the separation between the air intake securing of appliances. Therefore, it may be
and other vents must be at least 900 mm necessary to rough in framing or other structural
(36 in. ). Concentric vents must be installed support prior to the installation of the heating
in accordance with CAN/CSA B149.1 Natural appliance. If they are located on an exterior
Gas and Propane Installation Code. wall, also provide the air and vapour barrier
Fuel-fired systems must also be connected and thermal insulation in the support framing
to a combustion venting system that is either so continuity of all materials can be maintained
side-wall vented or vented through a chimney. when the rest of the wall area is finished.
For side-wall vented systems, plan where the Sometimes humidification equipment may be
vent must be passed through the foundation added to the forced air system. It is typically
wall, floor rim (header) joist or exterior wall. connected to the furnace supply and return
Certain clearances from combustible material plenums so that it can add moisture to the air
may be required if the vent conducts hot being circulated around the house through the
combustion gases. As is the case with the forced air system. When a humidifier is added to
combustion air duct, it is important that the maintain specific humidity levels, an automatic
hole for the combustion venting system be humidity control device must be provided.
roughed in such that the vent is easy to install
and that there is continuity of the air and vapour
Ductwork and Grilles
barrier systems, exterior moisture protection and
insulation around the opening. Some fuel-fired The main supply and return air plenums
appliances use one-piece concentric, combustion connected to the furnace are typically suspended
air/combustion venting equipment that helps immediately below the main storey floor joists.
limit the number of holes required in the Branch ducts leading to and from the plenums
building envelope and simplifies the installation. are usually located between studs in partition

CHAPTER 20
walls and between joists in floors. While supply passage between the wall grille and the return
air ducts are always formed from sheet metal, air duct located in the joist below. When a
return air ducts can take advantage of stud partition that houses a supply heating or return
and floor joist spaces to transfer air back to the air duct is supported on doubled floor joists,
furnace. When an enclosed joist or stud space the joists should be separated by blocking to
is used as a return air duct, non-combustible provide room for the duct and to avoid cutting
material such as sheet metal should be used framing members.
to line the joist space that is within 600 mm
A lintel is required when a stud has to be cut to
(24 in.) of the furnace, under floor registers
accommodate a large return air grille. It is framed
and at the bottom of vertical ducts. It should
in the same way as the door opening shown in
be noted that framed spaces tend to be very
Figure 69. Even if no studs are cut, blocking must
leaky and therefore may not return air from
be tightly secured in place within the stud space
the different rooms of the house as expected.
above the return air grille opening to ensure that
Sealed sheet metal return ducts provide more
air is returned from the room and not the wall
predictable and better performance but are less
space above. Return air grilles may also be located
commonly provided due to increased material
at high-wall locations near the ceiling. In this
and installation costs.
case, the wall framing must accommodate the
Where ducts cannot be concealed within the cross section of the return air duct branch from
floor and wall framing, bulkhead chases—typically ceiling to floor. Blocking above the return air
aligned along wall-ceiling intersections—can grille is not required due to the presence of the
be constructed to conceal the ducts where they wall top plate.
pass through finished rooms. Such framing work
A return air grille should be provided in each
should be considered at the design stage to avoid
bedroom, living room, dining room, family room
large and unsightly bulkheads in locations that
and any other space where people may spend
intrude too much on room space and head room.
time—apart from kitchens and bathrooms. As a
Provisions such as access hatches must be made
minimum, one or two return air grilles can be
in the framing and room finishes for access to
located in central locations on each floor, but the
any dampers or other adjustable fittings installed
airflow route between the supply air diffusers
in the ductwork system.
and return air grilles can become restricted
The spread of fire is a major concern for when interior doors are closed. Restricted airflow
ducts and associated fittings. Heating ducts, routes can reduce the amount of heat delivered
duct connectors, associated fittings and plenums to a room, which, in turn, can cause comfort
must be constructed of steel, aluminum alloy, and condensation problems within the room.
copper or appropriate non-combustible material. It can also cause unfavourable air pressures
An exception is made for systems where the air between rooms and across the building envelope.
temperature will not exceed 120°C (250°F), Transom grilles installed above doorways, or air
which is typical for most residential space heating transfer grilles installed in interior doors, can help
systems. This means that polyvinylchloride prevent these problems but sound transmission
pipe-type ducts are permitted for high velocity and privacy problems may result.
heating systems.
The supply air ducts running between the
Return air grilles are usually located on inside main supply air trunk duct and each room
walls at floor level. The bottom plate of the are typically 100 mm (4 in.), 125 mm (5 in.)
wall and subfloor below are cut to make a or 150 mm (6 in.) in diameter, depending on

CHAPTER 20
the heating or cooling requirements of the Hot Water Space

rooms and the number of ducts running to Heating Systems
each room. Plan the framing to allow the
supply ducts to be easily run through joist Whether or not the hot water system is an
spaces and partition walls in as direct a path in-floor radiant heating system, baseboard
as possible between the furnace trunk duct and convectors or radiators, the supply and return
the rooms served. This will help ensure that piping is relatively small so preplanning the
proper airflows are achieved. Supply registers structural framing layout to accommodate
are usually located in the floor under windows the pipes is not usually necessary.
or along outside walls to help counter heat Similar to electric baseboards, hydronic
losses where they occur. Blocking may be baseboard convectors are usually located under
required to support the edges of the floor windows along outside walls so that warm air
opening around a register. reaches the outside walls. Baseboard convectors
High-velocity, forced-air systems that use are positioned on the surface of the wall, and
small diameter flexible duct to deliver air studs or joists need not be cut to install them.
from the furnace to each room are available. An adequate number of studs or blocking should
The smaller diameter ducts can be run more be present in the wall behind the convector so
easily through wall and floor framing with that it can be securely fastened to the wall.
less cutting and blocking. Other framing In-floor radiant heating systems consist of
provisions are similar to conventional forced tubing that is either secured to the underside
air systems. of the subfloor or embedded in a thin layer
Although it is always preferable to run supply of lightweight concrete poured over the floor.
and return air ducting within the building Specialized subflooring is available in which
envelope, any ducts and plenums forming part the tubing can be run to eliminate the need
of a heating, ventilating or air conditioning for concrete topping.
system that are located outside the building Service water heaters, boilers and storage
envelope must be sealed and insulated to the tanks serving hydronic heating systems must
same level required for exterior walls. be insulated. The supply and return pipes
connected to the heater or storage tank must
Electric Baseboard also be insulated. Service water heating systems
Heating Systems with storage tanks must also be equipped with
automatic temperature controls that can be
Electric baseboard heating systems are common
adjusted between the lowest and the highest
in some provinces and territories. They are
acceptable temperature settings for the
installed at the wall-floor intersection in all
intended use.
rooms, typically under windows. Most rooms
have thermostats located on interior walls
Space Heating System Control
to control the baseboard. As baseboards are
connected to the electrical system by conventional Space heating systems must be controlled by
wiring, there are few implications for wood frame at least one thermostatic control that responds
construction. It may be necessary to ensure to the temperature within the heated space.
there are an adequate number of studs in the Except for manually fuelled, solid fuel-fired
walls behind a baseboard to allow it to be firmly appliances, the thermostat must be capable
connected to the wall—otherwise additional of controlling the temperature within 1°C.
blocking may be required. Where heating and cooling are controlled by

CHAPTER 20
separate thermostatic controls, these controls to the exterior wall (or foundation wall) of the
must be designed in a way that one cannot house. A hole is required in the exterior wall for
heat and cool simultaneously. the supply and return refrigerant piping between
the indoor and outdoor units. Advanced planning
with the mechanical contractor should determine
Carbon Monoxide Detectors if structural support is to be added to the exterior
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, wall framing to accommodate a wall-mounted
odourless gas that can accumulate in lethal condenser unit and the location of the conduit
concentrations in enclosed spaces without for the refrigerant piping.
occupants being aware of it. Fuel-fired space
or water heating equipment is a potential Air conditioning systems are typically controlled
source of CO. Most well-tuned heat-producing by the same thermostat that controls the space
appliances do not produce CO and even if heating system. Mini-split systems are controlled
they do, it is removed through the venting by unit-mounted thermostats (on the indoor
system. However, heating appliances can fan-coil unit) or handheld remote controls.
operate poorly and venting systems can fail.
All residential buildings that have fuel-burning VENTILATION SYSTEMS
appliances must have CO detectors located
House ventilation is needed to maintain
either in each bedroom, or located not
acceptable indoor air quality (IAQ) and to
more than 5 m (16 ft.)—measured along
hallways—from each bedroom door. control indoor moisture levels. Air quality is
In addition, CO detectors are required important for human health and well-being.
where a bedroom shares a wall with a High interior moisture levels can promote
garage, or shares a wall with an attic space the growth of mold and mildew and adversely
that abuts a garage. affect human health and the durability of the
building envelope.
Ventilation can be provided naturally, typically
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS through operable windows, and mechanically
with fans and other equipment. Non-heating
Since air conditioning (space cooling) systems
season ventilation can be provided either naturally
are generally coupled with forced air heating
or mechanically. Heating season ventilation
systems, the wood framing considerations
must be provided by a mechanical system.
are much the same. For houses with electric
baseboard or hydronic heating, air conditioning Houses must be designed to make efficient
can be provided by a compact, quiet fan-coil use of energy by using effective heating,
installed in each room (or in as many or few ventilating and air conditioning equipment
rooms as desired) that is connected to an outdoor that is properly sized. Install mechanical
condenser unit. Such systems, often referred equipment inside the plane of insulation or
to as “mini-split systems”, provide local cooling ensure the equipment is suited for installation
but, if strategically placed in a few central outdoors or in unheated space.
locations, can cool an entire house.
NATURAL VENTILATION
A common feature of most residential
air conditioning systems is the outdoor condenser Natural ventilation through operable windows
unit that is either placed on a concrete pad or can meet air change requirements during the
is mounted on metal framework that is secured non-heating season when the air entering the

CHAPTER 20
house is at a comfortable temperature and might otherwise allow fuel gases from fuel-fired
humidity level. However, natural ventilation appliances (for example, furnaces, water heaters
is unpredictable and therefore may not meet and fireplaces) to be drawn back into living spaces.
needs at all times. During the heating season,
Mechanical ventilation systems are required
natural ventilation results in an unacceptable
for occupant health and comfort, as well as to
level of heat loss and comfort problems—hence
a controlled mechanical ventilation system maintain the integrity of the building envelope.
is required. Ventilation systems must be carefully designed to
ensure they can manage the full range of normal
The NBC specifies the minimum unobstructed household activities without overventilating
operable area to the outdoors for rooms that or underventilating.
are not mechanically ventilated. Where air
is exhausted from or supplied to a room by In households with frequent moisture-generating
mechanical means, no operable windows are activities such as cooking, bathing and floor
required. In practice, however, occupants washing, continuous mechanical ventilation at
normally expect operable windows in most a low speed may be needed to control indoor
rooms, and in some cases, operable windows humidity and odours. There may be occasions
are required as a means of egress in case of fire. when operating the mechanical ventilation
system at its peak capacity on a continuous
If the type, location and orientation of basis is needed to control contaminants
operable windows are carefully planned, arising from activities such as painting or
some measure of natural ventilation and social events. In households with sedentary
summer cooling can be achieved. However,
occupants, or when the house is not occupied
in locations where natural ventilation does
for extended periods of time, intermittent
not provide adequate temperature or humidity
operation of the mechanical ventilation system
moderation, mechanical air conditioning can
may be all that is required to maintain acceptable
be used to provide the required level of comfort.
indoor air quality.
MECHANICAL VENTILATION System Design Options
It is well understood that the combination of Though mechanical ventilation systems are often
an airtight building envelope and an effective designed and installed by qualified mechanical
and efficient mechanical ventilation system can contractors, it is important for builders to
outperform a leaky house with no mechanical understand the basics. There are two options
ventilation system. A house that is built tight for designing mechanical ventilation systems
and ventilated right will have lower heating for houses. The first option is to apply the
costs and greater year-round comfort. For this requirements stated in the NBC. The second is to
reason, the NBC requires the installation of a develop a design based on CAN/CSA-F326-M91:
mechanical ventilation system in houses intended Residential Mechanical Ventilation Systems. The
for year-round occupancy. As a minimum, discussion that follows is based on the NBC.
the system must include a principal fan capable
of providing an air flow rate suitable for the There are three types for mechanical
number of bedrooms; in most cases, supplemental ventilation systems:
exhaust fans to ventilate high moisture generation Ventilation system coupled with a forced-air heating
in areas such as kitchens and bathrooms; system—The ventilation and heating system
and protection against depressurization that share ductwork to supply fresh and heated air to

CHAPTER 20
the rooms of the house. The simplest example Exhaust-only ventilation system—This system
is that of a forced air heating system that has a expels air from a house and relies on leakage
duct running from outside to the return air trunk through the building envelope into the
duct. The operation of the furnace fan draws house for replacement air, resulting in some
outdoor air into the forced air system where it depressurization of the house. Consequently,
mixes with the return air and is then distributed exhaust-only ventilation systems should not be
throughout the house by the forced-air system used in houses that have fuel-fired appliances that
ductwork. Exhaust fans are used to vent use natural draft and unsealed venting systems to
bathrooms and the kitchen. A more efficient vent combustion products. This includes wood
option involves connecting a heat recovery fireplaces and woodstoves, naturally aspirated gas
ventilator (HRV) to the furnace ductwork system furnaces with draft hoods and oil furnaces with
so the heat of the air exhausted from the house barometric dampers. It should also be noted that
is recovered to warm the incoming outdoor air. exhaust-only systems rely on the availability of air
The ventilation and heating system controls leakage through the envelope to make-up the air
are interlocked so that the furnace fan mixes being exhausted. As it is not possible to ensure
and circulates the outdoor air that is delivered uniform air leakage around the house, it is also
to the distribution ductwork. Installation costs not possible to predict with any certainty that an
are lower because one duct system serves both exhaust-only system will be able to adequately
heating and ventilation. Operating costs may be ventilate any given room in a house.
higher depending on the efficiency of the furnace In the case where interior pools and tubs are
circulating fan (brushless direct current motors installed, those with an area less than 10 m2
are best). If an HRV is not used, proper design (107 sq. ft.) must be equipped with a pool
is necessary to ensure that outside air is mixed cover, and those with larger areas are required
and adequately warmed before entering the to have exhaust fans capable of recovering at
furnace heat exchanger so that it is not damaged. least 40 per cent of sensible heat.
Ventilation system not coupled with a with a
forced-air heating system (stand-alone ventilation Heat and Energy
system)—This system consists of fans, ducts, Recovery Ventilators
grilles and controls that exhaust air from selected A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) is a device
rooms in a house and supply air to rooms that designed to recover heat from the exhaust air
are not being exhausted. It is usually installed and transfer this heat to the incoming outdoor
in houses with baseboard, radiator and in-floor air during the winter. In air conditioned houses
radiant heating systems that do not use forced-air in the summer, the process is reversed where
heat distribution. It is designed for ventilation the cold is recovered from the outgoing exhaust
only, independent of the need to deliver heating air and helps reduce the temperature of the
or cooling. Incoming outdoor air must be incoming air. This not only brings down heating
tempered (warmed) during the cold season to and costs, but, in the winter it also helps bring
maintain a comfortable air supply temperature. the temperature of the incoming outdoor air
Heat recovery ventilators are often used as it is up to a point where it can be introduced into
important to raise the temperature of the outdoor the occupied space with little risk of comfort
air as much as possible before it is delivered to a problems. In addition, HRVs temper incoming
room to prevent comfort problems and reduce air and reduce the risks of the colder outdoor
heating costs. air damaging furnace heat exchangers for coupled
systems. Numerous studies have concluded

CHAPTER 20
that in the long-term, HRVs are cost-effective Plate heat exchangers—In plate heat exchangers,
because energy savings more than offset their outdoor air and indoor exhaust air flow through
higher initial capital costs. channels in alternate, adjacent plates (Figure 163).
An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) is a device During the winter, heat is passed from the
designed to recover heat and moisture from warm exhaust air to the incoming outside air.
the outgoing airstream and transfer it to the ERV plate heat exchangers transfer both heat
incoming outdoor air. In the winter, this not and moisture while HRV plate heat exchangers
only reduces heating costs, but it also helps transfer heat only. The latter must be connected
prevent the indoor house air from becoming to the plumbing system or floor drain since the
drier than it otherwise would be due to exchange of heat between adjacent plates causes
continuous ventilation. In the summer, moisture from the indoor exhaust air to condense
the ERV helps reduce the temperature and and drip out of the heat recovery core where it
humidity of the incoming outdoor air, must be collected and drained.
bring down cooling costs and increase comfort.
163 Common types of heat recovery ventilators
Plate heat exchanger
exhaust exhaust fan plate heat exchanger

to outside
fresh air to house
stale air from house
air supply condensate drain

from outside supply fan
Wheel heat exchanger
exhaust exhaust fan heat wheel

to outside
stale air from house
fresh air to house
air supply supply fan

from outside

CHAPTER 20
Heat or rotary wheel heat exchanger—This type of possible to limit pressure losses along the system.
heat exchanger is used to transfer both heat and Ventilation system motor fan sets do not have
moisture. Indoor air passing through the heat the same pressure flow characteristics as forced
wheel deposits heat and moisture into a desiccant air furnace fans, and they are particularly sensitive
material. As the wheel rotates into the outside air to pressure losses due to turns, abrupt transitions
stream, the moisture and heat are released into and leakage.
the air supply (Figure 163).
Penetrations of the building envelope for exhaust
ERVs or HRVs may be installed as a stand-alone fan ducts or HRV ducts should be carefully
ventilation system or as a ventilation system planned to ensure the continuity of the air and
coupled to a forced-air heating system. In most vapour barriers, external moisture protection and
areas of Canada, high indoor relative humidity insulation in the building envelope. Except for
is more of a problem than low indoor relatively exhaust ducts, all ducts and plenums forming
humidity. For this reason, heat recovery part of a heating, ventilating or air conditioning
ventilators tend to be the ventilator of choice. system and located outside the building envelope
Properly installed, HRVs and ERVs deliver must be sealed and insulated to the same level
a balanced flow of supply and exhaust air, required for exterior walls. Ducts or openings
neither pressurizing nor depressurizing the intended to discharge air to the outdoors must
house. Moreover, some types of HRVs can be equipped with a motorized damper or gravity
operate in a recirculation mode to even out or spring-operated backflow damper.
room to room temperature and humidity
conditions. Recirculation mode can also help Operation and Maintenance
distribute heat from wood-burning appliances
To be effective, mechanical ventilation
throughout the house.
systems must be appropriately maintained and
operated by occupants. This typically includes
Ventilation System Ductwork cleaning screens and filters, as well as servicing
The installation of mechanical ventilation the equipment according to manufacturer’s
system ductwork involves many of the same instructions. It is important to provide enough
considerations for builders as do forced air space to access the equipment. Consult with the
heating systems. Supply and exhaust duct heating contractor prior to finalizing the house
runs through joist spaces and wall stud design so that the mechanical ventilation system
cavities must be as direct and straight as may be properly integrated within the house.
Healthy Indoor Environment ■■ Houses equipped with electric baseboards

would benefit from a fully ducted ventilation
■■ Keep construction drywall dust and debris
system to supply outdoor air to each
out of ductwork.
room and to exhaust air from kitchen
■■ Ventilation is required to remove stale air and bathroom areas.
and excessively moist air.

CHAPTER 20
Continued
■■ The comfort zone for relative humidity is ■■ To operate efficiently, space-heating,

30 to 40%. Lower levels may be necessary space-cooling and water-heating equipment
in winter to reduce condensation on should be the proper size for the heating
windows. Dehumidifiers can reduce and cooling requirements and for hot
humidity to a comfortable level. water demand.
■■ Provide CO detectors in or near bedrooms
and in rooms adjacent to an attached garage.
■■ Seek ways to use renewable energy
Energy Efficiency sources such as geothermal and solar
energy, and use non-renewable sources
■■ Heat recovery ventilators (HRVs) and
such as natural gas, oil and propane
energy recovery ventilators (ERVs) can
less frequently.
substantially reduce heat loss in tightly
constructed houses.
Affordability
■■ Use high-efficiency heating appliances. ■■ Energy efficient mechanical systems
Specify high-efficiency motor fan sets
reduce operating costs
for continuously operating equipment.

CAN/CSA-F326-M91: Residential Mechanical Ventilation Systems,
CAN/CSA B149.1-10: Natural gas and propane installation,

CHAPTER 21
Interior Wall and Ceiling Finishes
Interior wall and ceiling finishes should have a and longer. The edges along the length of the
pleasing appearance and resist normal wear and sheet are tapered on one face to receive joint
tear. The most common interior finish used in compound and tape. To obtain an even surface,
house construction is painted gypsum board install gypsum on studs and ceiling joists and
(drywall). Plywood, hardboard, simulated veneer furring strips that are straight and aligned.
hardboard and lumber are also used occasionally.
Although 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) thick gypsum board
may be used on walls with support spacings up
GYPSUM BOARD FINISH to 400 mm (16 in.) on centre when the boards
Gypsum board is the most widely used interior are oriented perpendicular to the framing,
finish because of its speed of installation, 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board is more commonly
low cost, consistent result and fire resistance. used because of its extra stiffness and strength.
Several types have special characteristics such Where supports are spaced at 600 mm (24 in.)
as additional fire resistance or water resistance on centre, the minimum thickness should be
for use in humid areas such as bathrooms. 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.). When gypsum board supports
Various accessories such as corner beads and insulation, it must be at least 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.)
coves are also available. thick. Some ceiling gypsum board is specially
designed to resist sagging when water-based
Gypsum board is a sheet material composed textured finishes are applied to a ceiling.
of gypsum filler between two layers of A 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) panel can be installed
paper. Sheets are 1.22 m (4 ft.) wide and perpendicular to supports at spacings up
are supplied in various lengths, 2.44 m (8 ft.) to 600 mm (24 in.).

CHAPTER 21
Gypsum board is usually applied in single sheets Nail Attachment

directly on the framing members. On ceilings,
Gypsum board panels can be attached to
the board is applied with the long dimension at
wood members by nails or screws (Figure 164).
right angles to the trusses or joists. When ceilings
Nails should be ringed, with 2.3 mm (3⁄32 in.)
are strapped with 19 × 89 mm (1 × 4 in. nominal)
shanks and 5.5 mm (7⁄32 in.) diameter heads.
lumber, the long dimension would run parallel to
The nails should be long enough to penetrate
the trusses or joists.
at least 20 mm (3⁄4 in.) into wood supports.
On walls it is more common to apply the sheets Screws should be long enough to penetrate
horizontally because horizontal joints are located at least 15 mm (5⁄8 in.) into wood supports.
at a convenient height for taping and sanding.
The fastener heads are set slightly below the
Ends of sheets should terminate at a corner and
surface without damaging the paper so that a
always on a support.
slight dimple is formed in the face of the board,
164 Application of drywall finish

Vertical application
and single nailing
moderate contact
space 150-200 mm
(6 to 8 in.) o. c.
recessed edge
stud
Horizontal application
and double nailing
double-nailing pattern
nail 50 mm (2 in.) apart
300 mm (12 in.) intervals
nail or screw to stud
recessed edge
stud

CHAPTER 21
which will be filled with joint compound Screw Attachment

(Figure 165). The fasteners at the recessed
Special drywall screws are often used to fasten
edge of the sheet may be driven with the heads
gypsum board using screw guns. Screws are
flush since they will be covered with tape and
usually spaced 300 mm (12 in.) on centre at both
joint compound.
the edge and intermediate supports. The distance
Gypsum board may be “double-nailed,” that can be increased to 400 mm (16 in.) on walls
is, nails are driven in pairs about 50 mm (2 in.) when the supports are not more than 400 mm
apart at the required intervals (Figure 164). (16 in.) on centre. Where gypsum board provides
For ceilings, double nails are spaced no more required bracing in braced wall panels in areas
than 300 mm (12 in.) on centre along the exposed to high wind or earthquake forces,
supports. For walls, double nails are spaced the screw spacing must not be more than
no more than 300 mm (12 in.) on centre. 300 mm (12 in.).
For single-nailing, the ceiling nails are spaced
If two layers of gypsum board are needed,
no more than 180 mm (7 in.) on centre and
such as for sound control or additional fire
for walls, at 200 mm (8 in.) on centre.
rating, fasten the boards in the usual manner
Where gypsum board provides required bracing with nails or screws. The fasteners for the
in braced wall panels in areas exposed to high second layer must penetrate as much as for
wind or earthquake forces, the nail spacing the first layer.
must not be more than 200 mm (8 in.).
165 Finishing of gypsum board
Indent nail or drywall screw Taping inside corner
sharp fold
stud
Typical joint
gypsum board
recessed edge
joint cement
tape
joint cement
feather edge

CHAPTER 21
If gypsum board is not to be directly attached to Nail and Screw Popping

the structural members but instead to channels
Popping can occur with both drywall nails
(for example, resilient metal channels) for sound
and screws. It results from wood shrinkage
control and/or fire resistance, the channel must
and will likely occur, if at all, during the first
be secured to the structure and the gypsum board
heating season as the moisture content in the
affixed to the channel.
wood acclimatizes to the average humidity level
in the house. Popping can be minimized by using
Finishing Joints framing lumber with a moisture content of not
The taping and finishing of gypsum board should more than 19 per cent as stipulated in the NBC
be done at 10°C (50°F) or higher. Before the and nails or screws that are just long enough
joints are taped, remove all loose paper and to meet code requirements so that a minimum
clean the joints. Fill all joints wider than 3 mm length of fastener is embedded in the area where
(1⁄8 in.) with joint compound and let it dry. shrinkage takes place.
Protect external corners with metal corner
beads, and tape inside corners using paper WALL TILE FINISHES
tape folded as shown in Figure 165.
Ceramic, porcelain, glass, marble and granite
Joint compound is supplied premixed or in tiles are used for wall finishes in bathrooms and
powder form that is mixed with water to a soft kitchen areas. Ceramic, porcelain, marble and
putty consistency. Apply the first layer of joint granite tiles can be applied with an adhesive
compound in a band 125 mm (5 in.) wide along or in a mortar base. Glass tiles are installed
the joint. Apply the tape and press it into the with adhesive. Porcelain tile on walls around
wet compound with a trowel or wide-blade putty showers or bathtubs must be installed over a
knife. Remove excess compound, smooth the moisture-resistant backing. Typically, adhesive
tape and feather the compound band to zero is used to affix tiles to a moisture-resistant
thickness at its outer edges. gypsum board in these areas.
After the first layer has dried, apply a second The joint between a bathtub or shower stall and
layer in a band 200 mm (8 in.) wide on recessed wall finish is an obvious location for water leakage.
joints and 250 mm (10 in.) wide where the edges Joints must be caulked with sealants that conform
of the board are not recessed. Feather the edges. to CGSB standard CAN/CGSB-19.22-M:
Mildew-Resistant Sealing Compound for Tubs
Apply a third layer and feather to a band 250 to
and Tiles.
300 mm (10 to 12 in.) wide on recessed joints
and 400 mm (16 in.) on joints that are not
recessed. Make this layer as smooth as possible OTHER FINISHES
to reduce sanding. When the third layer has set, Other products such as plywood, OSB,
sand the feathered edges lightly with fine sand particleboard and lumber can be used for interior
paper and avoid damaging the paper surface of finishes. Lumber, plywood and medium density
the gypsum board. fibreboard (MDF) wainscoting are often used as
Nail and screw heads and indentations in the decorative finishes. In this application, they are
centre of the board are filled with two layers installed over and attached to the gypsum board
of joint compound. finish. Typical softwood species include cedar,
pine or hemlock; hardwoods include maple,
birch or cherry.

CHAPTER 21
Insulating fibreboard tiles are occasionally and grooved and supported by concealed nails,
used to finish ceilings in basements. Tiles vary clips or staples. They should be 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.)
in size from about 300 mm (12 in.) square to thick when supported not more than 400 mm
400 × 800 mm (16 × 32 in.). The tiles are tongue (16 in.) on centres.
Healthy Indoor Environment Resource Efficiency

■■ Use low pollutant-emitting, water-based ■■ Use local materials where possible and
paint to finish gypsum board surfaces. avoid those that must be transported
long distances.
Energy Efficiency
Affordability
■■ Gypsum board is an effective air barrier
when sealed to other components of the ■■ Drywall is a durable and cost-effective finish
air barrier system, and can reduce heat for walls and ceilings. It is inexpensive to
lost through air leakage. repair and maintain and is the preferred
covering for most occupants.
■■ Ensure that the various construction
activities do not damage the air
barrier system.
About Your House: Accessible Housing by Design—Living Spaces,

CAN/CGSB-19.22-M: Mildew-Resistant Sealing Compound for Tubs and Tiles,
Canadian General Standard Board

CHAPTER 22
Floor Coverings
Finished flooring includes products such as is shown in Table 41 (Appendix A). When wood
wood strip flooring, engineered (laminate) strip flooring at least 19 mm (3⁄4 in.) thick is
flooring, resilient flooring, ceramic tile and laid perpendicular to the joists, no underlay
carpet. The two essential properties of finished or sub-floor is required for joist spacings
flooring are durability and ease of cleaning. up to 400 mm (16 in.), but all end joints
must be staggered and be located over joists.
Hardwoods such as birch, maple, beech and oak When the wood strips must be run parallel
are used in a variety of widths and thicknesses as to lumber subflooring, an underlay is required
strip flooring. Parquet flooring is also made from to provide support. When lumber subflooring
some of these species. Floor coverings should not is used under wood strip flooring, it must
be laid until interior wall and ceiling finishes be laid diagonally and the wood strips can
are completed. be laid either parallel or at right angles to
the joists.
SUB-FLOOR AND
UNDERLAY REQUIREMENTS Sub-flooring is required under laminate flooring,
parquet flooring, resilient flooring, ceramic tile
Sub-flooring is required under any finish and carpet. A panel-type underlay is also required
flooring that is not capable of supporting for these types of flooring when the sub-flooring
specified live loads. The thickness of wood-strip is lumber. Some engineered wood flooring does
flooring required for various support conditions not require an underlay.

CHAPTER 22
Floor Coverings
Ceramic tile must be set in a mortar hemlock are sometimes used. The flooring
bed. For ceramic tile applied with an may be stained and finished after installation
adhesive, the edges of the sub-floor must or it may be factory finished.
be supported by means of tongue-and
Wood-strip flooring, which is manufactured
groove panel edges or blocking. In either
in various widths and thicknesses, comes in
case, underlay is recommended.
several grades and is bundled in random lengths.
Plywood or OSB sheets at least 6 mm
Strip flooring looks best when laid lengthwise
(1⁄4 in.) thick commonly serve as underlay
in a rectangular room. The tongue-and-groove
and particleboard may also be used. Ensure
strips are profiled on the back to control cupping
that the particleboard is approved for use
and checking. The top face is slightly wider than
with the finished flooring material by
the bottom so that when the strips are driven
checking the manufacturer’s installation
together the upper edges touch, but the lower
instructions.
edges are slightly apart. A tight fit is necessary
Attach the underlay to the subfloor with to avoid squeaks.
annular grooved nails spaced not more than
Wood strip flooring should not be brought
150 mm (6 in.) apart along the edges and
into a house until the concrete in basements
at 200 mm (8 in.) centres in both directions
has cured (shed moisture) and the gypsum
over the rest of the panel. Use nails at least
board finishing has been completed so that
19-mm (3⁄4 in.) long for 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) sheets
the house humidity level has moderated.
and at least 22 mm (7⁄8 in.) long for 7.9 mm
The flooring should be kept in a warm,
(5⁄16 in.) sheets.
dry place until it is installed. If installed
Staples or screws may also be used. Fill joints with a high moisture content, it will be
between the underlay and any surface defects prone to shrinkage as it dries and may
with non-shrinking filler compound that will develop openings between the joints.
bond to the underlay. Sand the filler smooth
Various types of nails, including annular and
after it has set.
spiral-grooved types, are used to attach the
flooring. Minimum nail lengths and nail
WOOD STRIP FLOORING spacing are listed in Table 42 (Appendix A).
Wood-finish flooring is widely used in Staples applied with manual and pneumatic
living and dining rooms, bedrooms and tools are also used.
hallways. Hardwoods such as birch,
Many installers use a mallet-driven nailing
maple, beech and oak are used in a variety
tool that drives the nail in the proper location,
of widths and thicknesses as strip flooring.
at the correct angle, and sets the head to the
Vertical-grain softwoods such as fir or
proper depth.

CHAPTER 22
Floor Coverings
Figure 166 shows the method of nailing To avoid splitting the wood, nail holes
the first strip of flooring with the nail driven sometimes have to be drilled through the
down through the board at the grooved edge. tongue. For all courses of flooring after the
Drive the nails into the subfloor or joist and first, the pieces should be selected by length
near enough to the edge so that the base or so that the butt joints are well separated from
shoe moulding will cover the nail heads. those in the previous course. Use a piece of
Also nail the first strip of flooring through scrap flooring to force each piece against the
the tongue. previous course.
Succeeding strips of flooring can be fastened
with a hammer by driving nails into each
LAMINATE AND
strip at a 45° angle at the spot where the ENGINEERED FLOORING
tongue adjoins the shoulder. Use a nail Laminate flooring, an economical option,
set for the final driving so that the wood is made of a melamine-infused paper laminated
is not damaged. to a particleboard substrate and comes with
166 Application of strip flooring
General arrangement
stagger butt joints
subfloor
joist
Starter strip
shoe mould
base
wall finish
plate
6 mm (1⁄4 in.) expansion space

or as recommended by the
flooring manufacturer
when face-nailed and set,

shoe mould will cover nail
Nailing method
finish floor
fasteners angled at 45º

CHAPTER 22
Floor Coverings
interlocking joints that make it easy to install the flooring product. Waterproof adhesives
with instructions included in the packaging. are preferable to the non-waterproof types,
The thin decorative surface cannot be easily especially in kitchens, bathrooms, entranceways
repaired if it is scratched. and laundry rooms.
Engineered flooring is made by gluing wood Both tile and sheet material should be
veneer to a plywood substrate and applying a installed according to the manufacturer’s
factory finish. It is generally more economical recommendations. Immediately after the
than wood strip flooring because only a small flooring is laid, it should be rolled in
proportion of high-quality wood is used. It is both directions.
made with interlocking joints that make it
easy to install according to the instructions Resilient flooring applied over concrete
that come with the packaging. slabs must be a type recommended by the
manufacturer for this use and must be affixed
with a compatible waterproof adhesive.
PARQUET FLOORING
Parquet flooring is made of small pieces of CARPET
wood arranged in a pattern and glued to a
backing to make tiles. Typical species used for Carpet is commonly used in living rooms,
parquet flooring are birch, maple, beech and bedrooms and family rooms. It should not
oak. The tiles have mating edges. Flooring be used in areas where water damage or staining
manufacturers have developed a wide variety is likely to occur. When carpet is desired in
of special patterns of flooring referred to as such areas, a synthetic-fibre type should be
parquet flooring with specific installation used. For hygienic reasons, carpet is not
directions. If parquet flooring is placed over recommended for use in rooms containing
lumber subflooring or panel subflooring a toilet.
whose edges are not supported (blocked Except for cushion-backed carpeting, felt or
or tongue-and-groove), panel underlay polymeric carpet underlay should be used.
is required.
When a subfloor is not constructed as a
RESILIENT FLOORING combination subfloor and underlay as described
in Chapter 9, an underlay must be installed.
Resilient flooring is water-resistant and is
used in bathrooms, kitchens, laundry rooms, CERAMIC, PORCELAIN,
entrance halls and general storage areas.
The more common types of resilient floor GRANITE AND MARBLE TILE
covering are vinyl and rubber. Both types Ceramic, porcelain, granite and marble tile
are available in tile and sheet form. If resilient is water-resistant and is typically used in
flooring is placed over lumber subflooring or bathrooms, kitchens, entrances and for
panel subflooring whose edges are not supported fireplace hearths. It is available in different
(blocked or tongue-and-groove), panel underlay colours either with glazed or unglazed surfaces.
is required.
Tile may be laid either directly on a concrete,
Resilient flooring is usually cemented to the plywood or OSB base with an adhesive or in a
underlay with an adhesive recommended by mortar bed about 30 mm (13⁄16 in.) thick over
the manufacturer for its compatibility with

CHAPTER 22
Floor Coverings
a concrete or wood-frame floor (Figure 167). Tile applied to a wood floor with an adhesive is
If ceramic tile is to be placed over lumber particularly sensitive to deflection. The base must
subflooring or panel subflooring whose edges are be smooth and free from surface irregularities.
not supported (blocked or tongue-and-groove), The adhesive is applied to both the tile and the
panel underlay is required. The edges of the base, and each tile is then pressed firmly in place.
subfloor joints must be offset. After the adhesive is well set, the joints between
the tiles are filled with grout recommended by
Bedding mortar may consist of 1 part Portland
the tile manufacturer.
cement, 1⁄4 part lime and 3 to 5 parts coarse sand.
A number of manufacturers have pre-packaged Ceramic, porcelain, granite and marble tiles in
mortar mixes formulated for various subfloor shower bases should be laid on a proprietary
conditions. The tiles are pressed into the fresh or site-constructed, waterproof liner that is
mortar. To ensure a good bond between the connected to the shower drain. This will prevent
joint material and base, the joints between water damage to the ceiling below, should the
the tiles should be filled the same day the tile tile and its cement base develop a crack.
is installed.
167 Installation of ceramic tile floor
ceramic tile
mortar setting bed
concrete topping
sheathing paper
ledger strips (cleats)
subfloor
floor joists
ceramic tile
plywood underlay
adhesive
subfloor
floor joists

CHAPTER 22
Floor Coverings
Healthy Indoor Environment Environmental Responsibility

■■ Carpet collects dust and dirt and can be ■■ Select adhesives that are compatible with
unsuitable for people with respiratory the materials and have low emissions.
ailments. Solid-surface finishes, such as
■■ Bamboo and cork flooring are natural
hardwood, ceramic and vinyl are easy
alternatives to wood, vinyl composite
to clean and are suitable for most people
tile and ceramic tile.
with environmental sensitivities.
■■ Wood and engineered wood flooring are Affordability
durable and easy to clean, and are less likely
■■ Floors are high-use surfaces and using
to retain dust and allergens than carpet.
better quality flooring materials may
■■ Use prefinished flooring or water-based result in lower costs over time.
floor varnish for hardwood flooring.

CHAPTER 23
Interior Doors, Frames and Trim
This chapter covers interior doors, trim and wide. The standard thickness of interior doors
cabinetry installed in the finishing stages of is 35 mm (13⁄8 in.). They are available in various
house construction. widths and heights.
The decorative treatment for interior doors Install doors so that they open in the direction
and trim may be paint or natural finish with of natural entry. Doors should also swing against
stain and varnish. Prefinished products are a blank wall wherever possible and not be
also available. The finish selected for woodwork obstructed by other swinging doors.
in various rooms may determine the type or
Interior doors are usually made of wood,
species of wood to be used.
wood composites or plastic. There are two
general types of interior doors: flush and panel.
INTERIOR DOORS
The flush door is made up of facings of
Interior doors are used to separate living areas
plywood or other sheet material glued to a
and provide privacy. Options include single
light framework. For a natural or varnished
and double swinging doors, and pocket doors.
finish, the face plies are selected for quality
Sliding doors and folding doors are popular
and colour. For a painted finish, the face plies
choices for clothes closets.
may be less expensive or non-select grades.
Bedroom and passageway doors must be at least
The panel door consists of solid stiles and
760 mm (30 in.) wide and 1.98 m (6 ft. 8 in.)
rails with panel fillers of various materials.
high. Doors providing access to laundry and
These create relief panels in the door and
utility rooms must be at least 810 mm (32 in.)
are available in a number of designs.

CHAPTER 23
Door Installation the thickness of the finished wall and usually

shaped at the mill, with doorstops and head
Interior doors are most often purchased
cut to size (Figure 168). Frames may also be
as “pre-hung,” meaning that the door,
rabbeted to form the stop, in which case the
hardware and frame are provided and holes
thickness of the frame is usually increased to
and notches for the hardware are ready for
32 mm (11⁄4 in.). If frames come unassembled,
installation into the framing rough opening.
attach them with nails or screws at each corner.
Door frames are made up of two jambs and a
Use shims (usually wood shingles) between
head, together with separate mouldings called
the jamb and rough-opening studs (Figure 169)
doorstops. Stock jambs are made of 19 mm
to align the frame. Place shims at the ends of
(3⁄4 in. nominal) lumber, cut to widths to suit
168 Interior door frame showing typical connection between jamb and head
head
dado
jamb
stop
169 Door frame and trim showing frame blind-nailed under doorstop
framing studs
wall finish
shingle wedge
nails (under doorstop)
jamb
doorstop
door thickness
casing
5-6 mm (3⁄16 - 1⁄4 in.)

CHAPTER 23
the jambs and at hinge and latch locations. The clearance between the door and frame
Set the frame so that it is plumb and square, allows for smooth operation even if the
and then screw or nail the jambs securely to door expands during humid weather and
the studs through the wedges. After nailing, when clearance is reduced from painting.
the wedges are sawed flush with the face of the The clearance at the bottom may have to be
wall. Drive nails in pairs. increased to clear carpet.
Doorstops are usually 10 × 32 mm (3⁄8 × 11⁄4 in.) Casing is the framing or edging trim used around
and nailed to the jamb with finishing nails after door openings and comes in several patterns.
the door is hung. Casing is made from wood, finger-jointed wood
and pre-primed medium density fibreboard,
Figure 170 shows standard clearances and the
which can be cut and worked like wood. The top
location of door hardware. Where three hinges
casing joints are usually mitred but other designs
are used, the centre one is spaced midway
such as corner blocks may be used.
between the top and bottom hinges. Standard
knob height is 860 to 960 mm (34 to 38 in.) Place the casings 5 to 6 mm (3⁄16 to 1⁄4 in.)
from the floor, and locks or latches should from the inner edge of the jamb and nail them
be installed accordingly. Lever-type handles to framing studs and jambs with finish nails.
permit easier operation by persons with Space nails about 400 mm (16 in.) apart,
limited dexterity. countersink and fill them with wood filler.
170 Suggested dimensions and location of hardware
2 mm (1⁄16 in.)
175 mm (7 in.)
hinge
2 mm (1⁄16 in.)
knob
1 mm (1⁄32 in.)
900 mm (36 in.)
hinge
275 mm (11 in.)
19 mm (3⁄4 in.)

CHAPTER 23
HARDWARE INSTALLATION Place the door in the opening and shim it at

the bottom to provide the proper clearance.
Hinges must be the proper size for the weight
Mark the jamb at the hinge locations and
of door they support. For 35 mm (1 3⁄8 in.)
mortise it to accept the other hinge halves
thick interior doors, use two 76 × 76 mm
and screw them into place. Place the door
(3 × 3 in.) butt hinges. For heavier doors,
into the frame and insert the hinge pins.
use three hinges. Fit the door into the jamb
opening to ensure it has the proper clearances, To install the knob/handle and latch, mortise
then remove it and install the hinges. an inset for the latch and attach the latch and
knob/handle. Mark the latch location on the
If not factory prepared, mortise the door to
jamb, and mortise an inset for the strike
nest the half hinges. The edge of each hinge
plate (Figure 171) and affix it so it is flush
should be at least 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) back from the
with or slightly below the face of the jamb.
face of the door. When the hinge halves are
When the door is latched, the face of the door
screwed in place, they must be flush with the
should be flush with the edge of the jamb.
surface and square.
171 Door installation
Strike plate
stop
wall finish
casing
strike plate
Door stops
casing
jamb
stop
slight bevel
door
hinge
1 mm (1⁄32 in.)

CHAPTER 23
Nail the doorstop permanently in place. Finger-jointed wood trim is acceptable for
Affix the stop at the jamb on the latch side painted applications. MDF can be purchased
first (Figure 170). Then attach the doorstop finished or primed.
on the hinge side by leaving a 1 mm (1⁄32 in.)
Window trim is usually the same pattern
clearance from the door face to prevent rubbing
selected for the doors. Casing is applied with
when the door is opened or closed. Nail the
finishing nails on all four sides of the window,
head doorstop in place. Use finishing nails,
except where a sill is used. In this instance,
and countersink and fill them.
the casing terminates on top of the sill, and an
Locks are not required for interior doors but apron is added as a finish trim below the sill.
are often installed when privacy is an issue
Base moulding (baseboard) is applied at the
(bathrooms, for example).
base of walls. Many shapes and sizes are
available in solid wood, finger-jointed wood
TRIM AND MOULDINGS and MDF. A two-piece base moulding consists
Trim is usually made from solid or finger-jointed of a baseboard fitted with a shoe mould at the
wood or from medium density fibreboard (MDF). bottom (Figure 172). A one-piece base is milled
Wood trim is manufactured at a moisture content with a thickened edge at the bottom to cover
of around 12 per cent and should be kept dry the flooring joint. Another type of two-piece
during storage. moulding consists of a baseboard and a cap
that fits smoothly against the finished wall.
Solid wood trim should be smooth and
knot-free and used if the trim will have a When a two-piece base is used, the baseboard is
clear finish. Common species are oak, pine, nailed through to the wall plate and studs, high
fir, basswood and poplar. enough so that the lower edge clears the finish
172 Base moulding

Two-piece floor moulding
nail
baseboard
mitred or coped joint
shoe mould
nail
mitre joint
finish flooring
One-piece floor moulding

one-piece moulding

CHAPTER 23
floor. The shoe mould is later nailed to the floor MILLWORK

using a long thin nail driven at an angle that
Kitchen cabinets, shelving, mantels and other
holds the shoe mould tightly against both the
items of millwork are often installed at the
baseboard and the finish floor. A one-piece base
same time as the interior trim, usually before
is fitted tightly to the finish floor and nailed to
strip flooring is sanded or resilient flooring is
the wall plate or studs. The one-piece base or the
laid. Most cabinets are shop-built to order
shoe mould is installed after the resilient floor
based on customized layouts and desired
or carpet has been laid or after strip flooring has
wood species, finish and hardware.
been sanded.
Joints at interior corners may either be mitred or Kitchen Cabinets
butted and coped. Butted and coped corners are
An efficient arrangement of kitchen cabinets,
made by butting the first piece of trim against the
sink, refrigerator and appliances, such as
corner. The second piece is then coped to match
microwave ovens and range, provides an
the profile of the first piece. Exterior corners are
efficient work area and saves steps.
mitred. Fasten with finishing nails with heads
countersunk and filled. Base units of kitchen cabinets are approximately
900 mm (36 in.) high, and countertops are
625 mm (25 in.) deep (Figure 173). Various
173 Kitchen cabinets
refrigerator wall cabinet

45° corner wall cabinet
refrigerator
corner base cabinet
double sink
range wall cabinet
range hood exhaust
wall cabinet (3 shelves)
light valence
backsplash
sink base cabinet
drawer cabinet
base cabinet (2 shelves)
range/oven
dishwasher
pantry (7 shelves)
bar counter
toe space
island base cabinet

CHAPTER 23
combinations of drawers and doors may be Closets

included in the base. A corner cabinet can be
Clothes closets are commonly provided
fitted with revolving shelves to maximize space
with shelves and a closet rod or metal
utilization. The countertop and backsplash
track. Manufactured storage units may
are usually one piece and faced with plastic
be used in lieu of a site-built closet or may
laminate or other impervious covering.
be installed in closets to maximize storage
To provide workspace, wall cabinets are set room. Built-in cabinets may also be used
about 400 mm (16 in.) above the counter. in bedrooms. Larger houses may have
Cabinets above the stove and sink are usually small rooms (walk-in closets) for clothes
higher. The finishes and cabinetry installed storage. Closets on exterior walls should
directly above cooktop burners must be at be avoided—the lack of air circulation and
least 750 mm (30 in.) from the elements or presence of clothing and other items act
burners. Where the cabinets are protected by as unintentional insulation, lowering the
non-combustible surfaces or are fitted with a interior wall temperature and increasing
metal hood projecting 125 mm (5 in.) beyond the risk of condensation.
the edge of the cabinets, the distance between
them and the burners can be reduced to A standard interior door (Figure 174),
600 mm (24 in.). sliding doors, multiple doors or bi-fold
doors can be used in pairs or other multiple
Kitchen cabinet shelves are usually 275 to combinations to provide optimum access
300 mm (11 to 12 in.) deep. Wall cabinets to closet space.
may extend to the ceiling or a space may be
left above the cabinets.
174 Storage closets
Linen closet with shelves Built-in dresser
shelves drawers
Clothes closet
shelf
closet rod
finger pull
sliding doors
rack

CHAPTER 23
Healthy Indoor Environment residue, which reduces the number of trees

that need to be harvested. Consider using
■■ Select cabinetry built with materials having
low pollutant-emitting products.
low VOC emissions.
■■ If MDF is used in doors, cabinets and trims,
■■ Deeply-profiled surfaces and projections
all holes and cuts should be sealed to
can collect dirt and dust. Consider choosing
prevent off-gassing.
doors, trim and cabinets with easy-to-clean
surfaces, hardware and finishes that prevent
Affordability
the accumulation of dust and dirt.
■■ Solid doors and trims intended to have
Environmental Responsibility a paint finish can be made from MDF or
finger-jointed wood, options that are less
■■ High-density fibreboard (HDF),
costly than solid wood.
medium-density fibreboard (MDF) and
particleboard are made from wood

CHAPTER 24
Coating Finishes
The choice of coatings and coating techniques effect on the physical properties of the cured
can seem overwhelming. Moreover, terminology paint film. Water and mineral spirit solvents
can vary from one manufacturer to another. are the types of solvent in most house coatings.
This chapter explains the properties and Water solvent is more environmentally benign
applications for the major coatings used than mineral spirit solvent. Water solvent
in house construction: paint, varnish, paint, varnish, stain and even lacquer products
stain and lacquer. are available.
These types of coatings provide varying Pigment: The primary purpose of pigment in
degrees of protection by retarding moisture a coating is to provide colour and hiding ability,
fluctuation, reducing the effect of ultraviolet but some pigments are used to make sanding
light, or providing increased resistance to easier, control gloss level or simply act as a filler.
abrasion. These products also accentuate Colour pigments give paint colour and opacity.
wood grain and texture or give partial or Those dispersed by the tinting machines used
full colour to wood surfaces. in paint stores allow colour matching and mixing
to produce any conceivable colour for both
COMPOSITION OF COATINGS water- and solvent-based products.
Paint, varnish, stain and lacquer have three Extender pigments are used to control the
major components: gloss of a coating. Gloss is the ability of a
coating to reflect light. Generally, the higher
Solvent: The solvent in a coating product the gloss of paint coating, the more washable
thins the pigment/resin mixture to make it and wear-resistant it is. Terms such as flat, satin,
flowable (easy to apply). During the drying eggshell, semi-gloss and gloss describe gloss levels
process, the solvent evaporates and has no ranging from none to high. Since these terms

CHAPTER 24
Coating Finishes
do differ from one manufacturer to another, Sealers and primers are specially formulated
it is advisable to test a sample to make sure it to seal the grain in wood, or the surface of
has the desired reflectance. interior finishes such as drywall or plaster.
They also prepare surfaces to accept paints,
Pigment also provides resistance to ultraviolet
stains or varnishes.
light. For this reason, paint lasts longer in outdoor
exposures than stain or varnish. Rust-inhibiting
pigments are used in conjunction with other Varnish and polyurethane
pigments in metal primers to provide Varnish is a clear coating used as a topcoat over
corrosion protection. natural or stained wood for interior trim and
Resin: Resin is the film-forming ingredient architectural woodwork. It also has some exterior
that binds the pigment particles together applications. Varnish is like paint but, because
after the paint has dried and gives physical it is used as a clear finish, lacks hiding pigment.
characteristics such as adhesion and durability. Most varnishes contain a resin combining alkyd
Alkyd, latex and polyurethane are the resins with polyurethane. Water-reducible polyurethane
used most frequently in coatings. Nitrocellulose is also available.
is used most often for lacquer.
Stain
As the resin content increases, gloss and
durability increase, but the ability of a coating to Stain is a coating with a high solvent content
conceal imperfections decreases. For this reason, that causes colouring to be absorbed into the cell
a high resin content coating would be the desired openings of wood surfaces. The degree to which
option where a lot of wear is anticipated, and a a stain penetrates can be adjusted for specific
low resin content coating is advisable where flaws applications. Although some stains penetrate
must be masked in a prepared surface such as to the extent that they leave no surface residue,
gypsum board (drywall). most penetrate but leave some surface coating.
Stains are specially formulated to meet the
TYPES OF COATINGS specific requirements of interior and exterior
uses. For exterior applications, stain is usually
Paint used alone but, in some instances, it may
be top-coated with exterior quality varnish.
Paint is a coating that provides solid colour.
When used alone, stain will alter the colour
The vast majority of residential-quality paints
of the wood and provide a degree of protection
use alkyd or latex as their principal resin
from sun and water.
ingredients. Properties such as gloss, sheen,
hardness, durability (including ability to be For interior applications, stain is used to alter
scrubbed without burnishing) and hiding the colour of wood and to accent grain and
ability are attained by adjusting the texture. A transparent topcoat is usually applied
pigment/resin ratio. to seal the surface.
The suitability of paint for exterior or interior
application is determined by the chemical
Lacquer
composition of the resin. Resin for exterior Lacquer is a fast-drying, protective top-coating
paint provides the elasticity to accommodate used for fine finishing of architectural woodwork
temperature and dimensional changes, and and furniture. It is normally used as a transparent
permeability to allow moisture movement finish, like varnish, to display the wood grain,
without blistering the paint. but is also available in solid colours.

CHAPTER 24
Coating Finishes
Alkyd and Latex Coatings used for interior applications. For high quality
interior paint, a blend of PVA and acrylic or
Most paints, varnishes and stains used for
straight acrylic is used.
the interior and exterior protection of walls,
trim and other general purposes can be Acrylic has better adhesion qualities than PVA.
categorized generally as having either an Acrylic latex paint would therefore be better for
alkyd or a latex resin base. coating over alkyd paint than PVA resin latex.
Alkyd coatings: Alkyd (oil) resins are used Comparison of Alkyd and Latex
for the manufacture of general purpose paint,
varnish, and stain. Alkyd paints containing a Most alkyd paints contain some vegetable
large amount of linseed oil give paints flexibility oils such as linseed oil that have a tendency
properties, which are important when they are to yellow with time. Because latex coatings do
used as exterior primers and paints. not contain any oil, they have better gloss and
colour retention.
Increasing the amount of alkyd and reducing
the amount of linseed oil results in a hard Latex coatings dry faster and give less noxious
interior/exterior enamel desirable for high-wear odour than alkyd coatings and cleanup is done
surfaces. Mixing alkyd and polyurethane resins with water rather than the spirit or oil based
further increases the hardness, which produces solvents use for alkyd paints.
a polyurethane enamel. Enamel paint has a high Flat latex paint tends to be more durable on
degree of durability and therefore a fairly exterior surfaces than alkyd finishes because
high gloss. the latex is permeable and allows the moisture
Latex coatings: Latex formulations contain latex content of wood to adjust rather than blister the
as the resin, water as the solvent, and pigment paint. This is not the case for gloss latex paints
such as titanium dioxide, extender pigments that have a permeability similar to alkyds.
and colour pigments similar to those found Alkyd coatings are still preferred for trim such
in alkyd paints. Latex is used as the resin for as doors, frames and baseboards because they are
paint, varnish and solid stains, but not for harder, and flow better, thereby leaving fewer
semi-transparent stains. brush marks than latex coatings.
Latex resin is comprised of small spheres of Because latex coatings are more environmentally
plastic material suspended in a water solvent. benign than oil-based products, their use
As the paint dries, the spheres coalesce to form a is encouraged.
film that covers the painted surface. The amount
of resistance the finished surface has to abrasion APPLICATION
from wear and scrubbing depends on the extent
Proper surface preparation is essential to a
to which the pigment is covered by latex. As the
successful coating finish. The application
latex resin content increases relative to the
temperature is critical. Apply at temperatures
pigment, the gloss and durability increase,
above 10 °C (50°F) to surfaces that are dry,
but the hiding power of the coating to conceal clean and dust free.
subsurface irregularities decreases.
If latex paint is applied at a low temperature,
Exterior and interior latex coatings differ in proper film formation will not occur, making it
the type of latex used for the resin. Acrylic latex susceptible to peeling. At low temperatures,
is the most used resin for exterior products. alkyd paint dries too slowly and is susceptible
More economical PVA latex is commonly to damage.

CHAPTER 24
Coating Finishes
Exterior Coatings is a high-maintenance coating for exterior

applications with 4 or 5 coats required initially
The durability of exterior coatings depends
and annual coatings afterward.
on whether the coating permits the movement
of moisture, thereby avoiding blistering, and
Interior Coatings
excludes the ultraviolet portion of sunlight,
which causes the coating to deteriorate. Interior surfaces are painted to provide a
pleasing appearance and to protect them
Wood products treated with water-borne from damage by moisture that is prevalent
wood preservatives can be coated using the in the kitchen, bathroom and laundry rooms.
same products and techniques as for untreated Painted surfaces are also easier to clean.
materials. As is the case with all wood products
Wall and ceiling gypsum board finishes are
used in exterior applications, coating performance
painted. Doors, trim, and interior millwork
will be best if the moisture content of the
may be painted, stained or varnished.
underlying material is 19 per cent or less.
To prevent running or sagging, varnish should
Primer provides some early protection and not be applied in thick coats. Two thin coats,
ensures adhesion between wood and topcoats. with light sanding and sufficient drying time
Prime surfaces for painting as quickly as possible between, are adequate for most residential
after installation. As wood weathers, it takes applications. Items such as stair treads and
on a grey appearance that can seriously affect handrails may warrant a third coat.
adhesion of paint. Sand it off before priming.
When performing interior painting, provide
Use alkyd paints for doors and trim where sufficient ventilation and lighting. Solvent-based
durability is needed, and latex paints for wood paints and cleaners should be stored outside the
cladding to allow moisture movement and living space. Dispose of all rags, paints, stains and
minimize the potential for blistering. thinners in an appropriate manner, usually at
special depots for toxic wastes.
Varnish made for exterior use contains no
In all cases, follow the manufacturer’s application
colour pigment and has only limited ability
instructions to attain proper finish appearance
to screen ultraviolet light. This means varnish
and performance.
Healthy Indoor Environment Affordability

■■ Use water-based low VOC paint, ■■ Paint, stain and varnish are low-cost finishes
stain and varnish. that can be easily changed without damage
to materials.
■■ The fumes from oil-based paint, stain and
varnish are flammable and containers ■■ Exterior paint, stain and varnish must be
should be stored away from sources of periodically inspected and repaired to
heat and flame. protect the house from deterioration
and prevent costly replacement.
■■ Store products outside the living space.

CHAPTER 25
Eavestroughs and Downspouts
Eavestroughs and downspouts are not required Metal brackets fitted inside the trough are
by the NBC but are recommended because used to attach eavestroughs. Corrosion-resistant
they direct roof water away from the house, spikes 150 mm (6 in.) long and spaced about
resulting in reduced groundwater adjacent 750 mm (30 in.) apart may be used. A metal
to the foundation. However, in sub-zero spacer tube is placed between the interior surfaces
temperatures, they can impede removal of of the eavestrough, and the spike is driven
roof water and contribute to ice-damming through the eavestrough and the spacer into
problems (see Figure 100 in Chapter 12). the fascia board and supports.
Metal eavestroughs are available in continuous, Downspouts may be rectangular or round.
one-piece lengths or in segments that are Those made from metal are usually rectangular
joined and sealed on-site. Fittings such and corrugated for added strength. The corrugated
as inside and outside corners, downspout patterns are also less likely to burst when plugged
connectors and elbows are available in sizes with ice.
and angles to suit installation requirements.
Goosenecks, composed of elbows and short
Plastic materials are also used for eavestroughs
sections of downspout piping, are used to bring
and downspouts.
the downspout in line with the wall.
Install eavestroughs after the exterior finish
Downspouts are fastened to the wall with
is complete. Mount them on the fascia board
straps and hooks. At least two hooks or straps
as close as possible to the shingle overhang,
should be used with each 3 m (10 ft.) length
with a slight slope toward the downspouts.
of downspout.

CHAPTER 25
Eavestroughs and Downspouts
Where downspouts are not connected to a from the foundation wall and to avoid erosion.
storm sewer, an elbow with an extension or The final grading of the lot should ensure
a splash block is used to direct the water away positive drainage away from the building.

■■ Eavestroughs and downspouts should ■■ Connect downspouts to a storage
collect rainwater and direct it away from container such as a rain barrel or cistern,
the foundation walls, which will help to and use this water for watering lawns.
keep the basement dry.

CHAPTER 26
Decks, Porches and Balconies
Decks, porches and balconies must be calculations show that lesser sizes are adequate.
designed to carry snow and occupant They should be wide enough to fully support
loads, braced to ensure lateral stability all beam plies.
and supported by a solid foundation.
Decks, porches and balconies over 600 mm
They must also be equipped with adequate
(24 in.) and less than 1800 mm (71 in.)
guards and constructed to resist exposure
above the finished ground level are required
to water. They may be free-standing or
to have guards at least 900 mm (36 in.)
attached to a building.
high. Decks higher than 1800 mm (71 in.)
must have guards at least 1070 mm
LOADS AND SIZING OF (42 in.) high.
FRAMING MEMBERS
Figure 175 shows a common arrangement
A 1.9 kPa (40 psf) live snow load and for a deck foundation, framing and guard.
0.5 kPa (10 psf) dead load are the minimum Outdoor decks differ from standard floor
design loads for sizing wood members for construction in that individual deck planks
outdoor decks in Canada. If specified roof can carry the entire load—there is no subfloor
snow loads in a given area exceed 1.9 kPa to distribute the load. For this reason, it is
(40 psf), the snow load must be used in important to ensure that the decking is thick
the deck design. For the sizing of deck enough and adequately supported to withstand
joists and beams, refer to Tables 43 and 44 the anticipated loads. Wood decking should
(Appendix A). Posts should be a minimum be at least 32 mm (11⁄4 in.) thick if supported
of 140 × 140 mm (6 × 6 in. nominal) unless at 400 mm (16 in.) centres and at least 38 mm

CHAPTER 26
(2 in. nominal) thick if supported at 600 mm All deck planks should be oriented so that the
(24 in.) centres. Common widths are 89 and ends of the annual rings on the ends of the planks
140 mm (4 and 6 in.). face down. Thus, any cupping that takes place
Low-level decks must be built so that the will drain rather than puddle. Provide a 3 mm
bottoms of the deck joists are at least 150 mm (1⁄8 in.) space between the deck planks to permit
(6 in.) above the ground to prevent moisture drainage and drying.
being transferred to the decking from grass or Because decks, balconies, verandas and similar
ground cover. Wood materials should be pressure platforms support people, they are considered to
treated or made from durable species like eastern be parts of buildings. Usually, pier-type columns
or western cedar. are used to support decks.
175 Wood deck detail
Guards 100 mm (4 in.)

Height of deck Guard height maximum opening
600 mm (2 ft.) guard not required
> 600 mm (2 ft.) 1,800 mm (5 ft. 11 in.) 900 mm (36 in.)
> 1 800 mm (5 ft. -11 in.) 1 070 mm (42 in.)
handrail (or cap) guard

height
baluster
post
slope away from building
decking overhangs rim joist 1"
joists
height
beam of deck
post bolted to joists

200 mm (8 in.)
post bolted through block
above grade
between joists to rim joist
angle bracket depth of
foundation
140 x 140 mm (6 x 6 in.) post
post saddle
concrete pier supported by
rock, drained granular material
or below the frost line for
decks > 600 mm (2 ft.) above
ground or with more than 3 risers

CHAPTER 26
If the underside of the joists of decks or other installed behind the siding and lapped over the
accessible exterior platforms is located more header joist or ledger (Figure 176). Alternatively,
than 600 mm (24 in.) above the ground, the use other means such as wood blocking for
foundation must be below frost level so that special-purpose deck hangers for the ledger to
movement does not cause drainage to be provide a drainage space between the decking
directed into the house. and the siding.
If the joists are more than 600 mm (24 in.) Foundations for decks and other accessible
above the ground or support a superstructure exterior platforms need not be below the frost
such as a canopy, the piers must be braced. level if the deck or platform is not more than one
storey, is 55 m2 (590 sq. ft.) or less in area does
Special attention is required when decks are
not support a roof, and its movement will not
bolted to the building envelope. The surface
affect the structure to which it is attached.
of the deck should be located at least 19 mm
(3⁄4 in.) below the floor level of the building Where these conditions are met and a shallow
and should slope a minimum of one per cent foundation is constructed, there must be means
away from the building to remove rain and for levelling the structure. Access must be
snowmelt. Decks attached directly to the sides of provided by either a passageway below at least
buildings with siding should have flashing 600 mm (24 in.) high or with removable decking.
176 Deck connection to house
sheathing
air space between

vertical strapping
exterior cladding
lap building paper over flashing
continue flashing over first deck board
3 mm (1⁄8 in.) gap between deck boards
deck sloped 1% or 10 mm (1⁄8 in.)

per metre (foot)
deck joist
spacer washers and caulking
joist hanger
treated wood ledger
bolts or lag screws

CHAPTER 26
Environmental Responsibility Affordability

■■ When treated wood is used, use fasteners ■■ To postpone replacement cost, choose
that are resistant to treatment chemicals. materials that will be durable and easy
Stainless steel fasteners are recommended to maintain outdoors.
for treated wood.
■■ Consider using wood composite decking,
steps, handrails and balusters, which have
superior resistance to weather and require
less maintenance than wood.

CHAPTER 27
Garages and Carports
As built-in or attached garages and carports GARAGES

are considered part of the dwelling unit to
Garages can be attached or detached. Built-in
which they are attached, they have essentially
garages with living accommodation over the
the same structural requirements. This also
garage area are common in two-storey houses.
applies to garages that are separated from a
In an attached garage, a complete air barrier
house by a breezeway. The footings for garages
is required in walls and ceiling separating the
and carports must be below frost as required
garage from occupied spaces. Doors separating
for the rest of the house (see Chapter 7).
a garage from the house are required to be
A parking structure is considered to be a carport weatherstripped and be self-closing to keep
if more than 60 per cent of its perimeter wall garage exhaust and vapours from contaminating
area is open. Certain requirements apply only living areas. The operation of motor vehicles in
to garages and not to carports. For example, garages is a potential source of carbon monoxide
garages are required to have features to prevent (CO), a colourless, odourless gas that can
them from exposing the remainder of the accumulate in lethal concentrations in enclosed
building to exhaust fumes, whereas carports spaces without occupants being aware of it. If a
are considered to be naturally vented due to garage is heated, the heating system should be
the open perimeter. separate from the house heating system to reduce
the risk of garage fumes entering the house.

CHAPTER 27
A garage should be long and wide enough to house, but there must be a smoke and an air
leave space to walk around the stored vehicle. barrier in the separating walls to ensure fumes
This requires at least 5.6 m (18 ft. 4 in.) do not enter the living area. The essential features
between the inside face of the front and rear of garages are shown in Figure 177.
walls. Additional length may be required to
Every bedroom that shares a wall or floor with
accommodate storage or a work area.
a garage or an attic space that abuts a garage
The clear width should be at least 3.05 m must be protected by a CO alarm located
(10 ft.) and 3.5 m (11 ft. 6 in.) or more is either in the bedroom or not more than 5 m
better so that doors on either side of a vehicle (16 ft.) (measured along hallways) from the
can be opened freely. A two-car garage should bedroom door.
be at least 5.56 m (18 ft. 4 in.) wide.
Common walls between the house and the
The framing and exterior finish of the garage’s garage must be insulated and fitted with air
sidewalls and roof are similar to that of the barriers and vapour barriers. If the garage is to
house. Interior finish is largely a matter of be heated, the walls and ceiling should include
choice. For single dwellings, a fire separation insulation and an air barrier and should be
is not required between the garage and the covered to protect the barrier from damage.
177 Essential features of attached garages
Essential features of attached garages
CO alarms required in
adjacent living spaces living space
air barrier system, vapour
barrier and insulation
between conditioned and
unconditioned spaces
air barrier system also
serves as a smoke barrier
tight-fitted door and

weather-stripped with garage living
a closer as a barrier to space
gas and exhaust fumes
garage door
sloped driveway
slope to door 1%-2% slope
footings on solid rock or on

undisturbed soil below frost level

CHAPTER 27
Electrical and mechanical systems that connect CARPORTS

between a garage and a living area must be
Carport roofs are usually supported by posts
designed to keep fumes and exhaust from
located on top of concrete piers. Piers should be at
entering the house.
least 190 × 190 mm (8 × 8 in.). Cylindrical piers
There are many types of doors for garages. are often used for this purpose. The base of the
The sectional overhead door is the most pier should be sufficiently large to ensure that
common. It has rollers at each section fitted the safe bearing pressure for the soil is not
into a track up each side of the door and exceeded and far enough below grade to prevent
along the ceiling. It also has a counterbalance frost heaving.
spring to ease the operation of the door.
Where wood posts are used, the concrete piers
These doors are usually fitted with
should extend at least 150 mm (6 in.) above
automatic openers.
the ground to protect the posts from ground
moisture. Anchor posts securely to both piers
and roof framing to resist wind uplift.
Healthy Indoor Environment

■■ Attached garages are required to have
an airtight barrier and weather-stripped,
self-closing doors between them and living
spaces. Carbon monoxide (CO) detectors
are required for adjacent bedrooms.

CHAPTER 28
Surface Drainage, Driveways and Walkways
Site planning and grading must be considered Slope all surfaces away from the foundation walls
at the initial planning stage (see Chapter 2). at least 5 per cent, and provide a 10 per cent
To create a successful landscape plan, the needs slope for the first 2 m (6 ft. 6 in.) to ensure a
for surface drainage, driveways and walkways positive slope after foundation backfill settles.
must be assessed. Driveways and walkways Impermeable surfaces adjacent to the house,
should be made of materials in character such as driveways, should have a slope of at
with the house and yard. least 2 per cent.
Build a swale (a gently sloping ditch) where the
SURFACE DRAINAGE drainage slope around the house meets a reverse
Consider drainage in the initial planning slope. For example, if a lot slopes up from the
stage to remove rain and snowmelt from the front to the rear, the swale should be located
site, and give consideration to the location of at the sides of the house so that the surface
the house on a property, its elevation relative water flows along the swale, around the house,
to the site and utilities. and out toward the street or roadside ditch
(see Figure 3 in Chapter 2).
Establish a surface drainage pattern that will
drain the entire lot and direct water away
from the house (see Figure 3 in Chapter 2).
DRIVEWAYS
Driveways and walkways should help drainage, A driveway should be at least 2.4 m (8 ft.) wide
not interfere with it. If a house uses well water, and 3 m (10 ft.) wide when it also serves as a
all surface drainage must be directed away walkway. It should have a slope suitable for
from the well to avoid contaminating the traction in winter conditions, provide good
water supply. visibility at the street intersection and be

CHAPTER 28
Surface Drainage, Driveways and Walkways
graded so that water will not accumulate on Place control joints in concrete driveways
the surface. The suggested maximum gradient 3 to 3.5 m (10 to 12 ft.) apart. Use 6 to
along the length is 5 per cent with a cross slope 12 mm (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 in.) thick pre-moulded joint
of 2 per cent. filler to isolate the concrete surface from curbs,
the garage floor and the house foundation wall.
Common surfacing materials for driveways
are concrete, asphalt and interlocking pavers.
Proprietary systems are available that will WALKWAYS
support vehicle loads but allow water to Cast-in-place concrete, interlocking pavers and
dissipate and allow grass or ground cover flagstones are commonly used for walkways.
to grow. Gravel surfacing is often used for They should be built on a well-compacted
rural driveways. base with a slight slope to drain surface water.
The recommended maximum gradient for a
An area to be paved must be graded to a
walkway along its length is 5 per cent with a
uniform smooth surface and be well compacted.
maximum cross-slope of 2 per cent. Concrete
Provide gravel or crushed stone at least 100 mm
walks should be at least 100 mm (4 in.) thick.
(4 in.) thick after compaction. Asphalt should be
Locate control joints spaced about 1.5 times
at least 40 mm (11⁄2 in.) thick and concrete
the walkway width.
at least 100 mm (4 in.) deep.
Interlocking pavers and flagstones should be
Concrete placing, finishing and curing should
placed over a compacted levelling bed of sand
be carried out as described in Chapter 7.
or stone dust.

■■ Good drainage away from the foundation ■■ Use porous paving materials wherever
helps prevent indoor quality-related possible to allow storm water to be
moisture problems. absorbed in the ground.
Landscape Guide for Canadian Homes,

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (publication no. 63523)

CHAPTER 29
Maintenance
A house built with suitable material and wall. This should be corrected by placing
construction details will require far less additional fill material to restore a proper
maintenance than one that is not. While modern slope to carry water away from the foundation.
materials have reduced maintenance requirements, Regular maintenance will reduce repair and
some maintenance can be expected, even during replacement costs, and increase service life
the first year of occupancy. and resale value. Provide new buyers with a
For example, settling may occur in the ground maintenance manual that outlines operating
around the foundation, which can cause surface and maintenance instructions, particularly for
water to pond against the basement or foundation mechanical systems.
Affordability ■■ Perform required maintenance to

prolong service life.
■■ Build to minimize upkeep
Maintenance Matters (bulletins),

Homeowner Protection Office, Branch of BC Housing

APPENDIX A
Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 2 Concrete mixes (by volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 3 Minimum depths of foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 4 Minimum footing sizes (Length of supported joists 4.9 m [16 ft.] or less)
(Design floor load 2.4 kN/m2 [50 lb./ft.2] maximum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Table 5 Minimum thickness of foundation walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Table 6 Mortar mix proportions (by volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Table 7 Dimension lumber – grades and uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Table 8 Sizes for dimension lumber and boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Table 9 Facsimiles of lumber grade marks approved for use in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Table 10 Commercial species of lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 11 Effective thermal resistance of assemblies in buildings with a
heat-recovery ventilator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Table 12 Effective thermal resistance of assemblies in buildings without a heat
recovery ventilator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Table 13 Required thermal characteristics of windows, doors and skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Table 14 Comparison of typical window thermal efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Table 15 Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than one floor . . . 277

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 16 Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than two floors . . 279
Table 17 Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than three floors . . 281
Table 18 Spans for steel floor beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Table 19 Maximum spans for glue-laminated floor beams – 20f-E grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Table 20 Maximum spans for floor joists – general cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Table 21 Maximum spans for floor joists – special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Table 22 Minimum thickness of subflooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Table 23 Sheathing and subfloor attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Table 24 Nailing for framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Table 25 Size and spacing of studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Table 26 Maximum spans for spruce, pine or fir lintels – No. 1 or
No. 2 grade – non-structural sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Table 27 Maximum spans for built-up ridge beams and lintels supporting roof and
ceiling only. No. 1 or No. 2 grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Table 28 Minimum thickness of wall sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Table 29 Maximum spans for roof joists – specified roof snow loads 1.0 to 2.0 kPa
(20.9 to 41.8 psf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Table 30 Maximum spans for roof joists – specified roof snow loads 2.5 and 3.0 kPa
(52.2 and 62.7 psf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Table 31 Maximum spans for roof rafters – specified roof snow loads 1.0 to 2.0 kPa
(20.9 to 41.8 psf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Table 32 Maximum spans for roof rafters – specified roof snow loads 2.5 and 3.0 kPa
(52.2 and 62.7 psf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Table 33 Maximum spans for ceiling joists – attic not accessible by a stairway . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Table 34 Minimum rafter-to-joist nailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Table 35 Minimum thickness of roof sheathing for sloping roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Table 36 Roofing types and slope limits for roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Table 37 Exposure and thickness of wood shingles and machine-grooved shakes – walls . . . 307
Table 38 Stapling table, mm (in.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Table 39 Stucco mixes (by volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Table 40 Minimum thickness of flashing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Table 41 Dimensions for wood-strip flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Table 42 Nailing of wood-strip flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Table 43 Built-up beams for exterior decks (lumber not incised) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Table 44 Joists for exterior decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 1
Conversion factors
Framing terms
Imperial - nominal
Metric - dimension (unplaned) dimensions
Lumber 38 x 38 mm 2 x 2 in.
38 x 89 mm 2 x 4 in.
38 x 140 mm 2 x 6 in.
38 x 184 mm 2 x 8 in.
38 x 235 mm 2 x 10 in.
38 x 286 mm 2 x 12 in.
Panels 600 x 2,400 mm 2 x 8 ft.
1,200 x 2,400 mm 4 x 8 ft.
Spacings 300 mm 12 in. O.C.
400 mm 16 in. O.C.
600 mm 24 in. O.C.
Units of Measure
°C x 1.8 + 32 = °F
kg x 2.205 = lb
kPa x 0.1450 = lbf/in2 (psi)
kPa x 20.88 = lbf/ft2
L x 0.2200 = gal (imp.)
L/s x 13.20 = gal/min (gmp)
lx x 0.09290 = ft-candle
m x 3.281 = ft
m2 x 10.76 = ft2
m3 x 35.31 = ft3
mm x 0.03937 = in.
m3/h x 0.5886 ft3/min (cfm)
m/s x 196.8 = ft/min
MJ x 947.8 = Btu
N x 0.2248 lbf
Watts x 3.412 = Btu/h
ng/(Pa.s.m2) x 0.0174 Perms
Pa x 0.004014 = in. of water

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 2
Concrete mixes (by volume)
Concrete Strength Cement (part) Water (not more than) Sand (parts) Coarse Aggregate
2,200 psi 1 20 L (4.4 imp. gal.) per 2 4 parts up to

(15 MPa) 40 kg (88 lb.) bag of cement 50 mm (2 in.) in size
1 20 L (4.4 imp. gal.) per - 6 parts pit

40 kg(88 lb.) bag of cement run gravel
3,000 psi 1 18 L (4.0 imp. gal.) per 13⁄4 3 parts up to

(20 MPa) 40 kg(88 lb.) bag of cement 40 mm (11⁄2 in.)
in size
1 18 L (4.0 imp. gal.) per - 43⁄4 parts pit

40 kg (88 lb.) bag of cement run gravel
Note to Table 2
1. For higher strength concretes, use commercial suppliers to ensure strength and air entrainement requirements are met
Table 3
Minimum depths of foundations
Foundations containing heated Foundations containing
Type of Soil basement or crawl space no heated space
Good soil drainage Poor soil Good soil drainage Poor soil
to at least the depth drainage to at least the depth drainage
of frost penetration of frost penetration
Clay or soils 1.2 m (4 ft.) 1.2 m (4 ft.) 1.2 m (4 ft.) but not 1.2 m (4 ft.) but not
not clearly less than the depth less than the depth
defined of frost penetration of frost penetration
Silt No limit No limit Below the depth of Below the depth

frost penetration of frost penetration
Coarse No limit No limit No limit Below the depth

grained soils of frost penetration
Rock No limit No limit No limit No limit

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 4
Minimum footing sizes (Length of supported joists 4.9 m [16 ft.] or less)
(Design floor load 2.4 kN/m2 [50 lb./ft.2] maximum)
Minimum Widths of Strip Footings, mm (in.)
Minimum Area of
No. of Floors Supporting Supporting Column Footings1,
Supported Exterior Walls Interior Walls m2 (sq. ft.)
1 250 (10)2 200 (8)3 0.4 (4.3)
2 350 (14)2 350 (14)3 0.75 (8)
3 450 (18)2 500 (20)3 1.0 (11)
Notes to Table 4
1. Sizes are based on columns spaced 3 m (9 ft., 10 in.) (on centre). For other column spacings, footing areas must be adjusted
in proportion to the distance between columns.
2. For each storey of masonry veneer over wood-frame construction, footing widths must be increased by 65 mm (21⁄2 in.).
For each storey of masonry construction other than foundation walls, the footing width must be increased by 130 mm (51⁄8 in.).
3. For each storey of masonry supported by the footing, the footing width must be increased by 100 mm (4 in.).
Table 5
Minimum thickness of foundation walls
Maximum Height of Exterior Finish Grade Above
Basement Floor or Inside Grade, m (ft.–in.)
Type of Minimum Wall Foundation Wall Laterally Foundation Wall Laterally
Foundation Wall Thickness, mm (in.) Unsupported at the Top1 to 4 Supported at the Top1 to 4
Solid concrete, 150 (6) 0.80 (2–7) 1.50 (4–11)
15 MPa (2,200 psi) 200 (8) 1.20 (3–11) 2.15 (7–0)
minimum strength
250 (10) 1.40 (4–7) 2.30 (7–6)
300 (12) 1.50 (4–11) 2.30 (7–6)
Solid concrete, 150 (6) 0.80 (2–7) 1.80 (5–10)
20 MPa (2,900 psi) 200 (8) 1.20 (3–11) 2.30 (7–6)
minimum strength
250 (10) 1.40 (4–7) 2.30 (7–6)
300 (12) 1.50 (4–11) 2.30 (7–6)
Unit masonry 140 (51⁄2) 0.60 (1–11) 0.80 (2–7)
240 (97⁄16) 1.20 (3–11) 1.80 (5–10)
290 (117⁄16) 1.40 (4–7) 2.20 (7–2)
Notes to Table 5
1. Foundation walls are considered laterally supported at the top if the floor joists are embedded in the top of the foundation
walls, or if the floor system is anchored to the top of the foundation walls with anchor bolts, in which case the joists may
run either parallel or perpendicular to the foundation wall.
2. When a foundation wall contains an opening of more than 1.2 m (3 ft.–11 in.) in length or openings in more than 25 per cent
of its length, the portion of the wall beneath such openings is considered laterally unsupported unless the wall around the
opening is reinforced to withstand the earth pressure.
3. When the length of solid wall between windows is less than the average length of the windows, the combined length of
such windows is considered a single opening.
4. When foundation walls support solid masonry walls, the foundation wall is considered laterally supported by the first floor.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 6
Mortar mix proportions (by volume)
Masonry
Permissible Portland Cement
Use of Mortar Cement (Type H) Lime Aggregate
All locations1 1
⁄2 to 1 1 —
1 — ⁄4 to 1⁄2
1
All locations1, — 1 — Not less than

except foundation 21⁄4 and not
walls and piers 1 — ⁄2 to 11⁄4
1
more than
3 times the
All locations, 1 — 11⁄4 to 21⁄2 sum of the
except loadbearing volumes of
walls of hollow units the cement
and lime
All non-loadbearing 1 — 21⁄4 to 4
partitions and all
loadbearing walls — — 1
of solid units except
foundation walls
Note to Table 6
1. Must not be used for sand-lime brick or concrete brick.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 7
Dimension lumber – grades and uses
Common Grade
Sizes, mm (in.) Grades Grade Mix1 Principal Uses Category
38 to 89 mm Select No. 2 Most common; used in most Structural
(2 to 4 in.) thick; structural and better construction. Shows high strength, light
38 to 89 mm No. 1 and (No. 2 & Btr.) stiffness and good appearance. framing
(2 to 4 in.) wide No. 2 Preferred for trusses, rafters and
roof joists.
No. 33 — Used in construction where
high strength and appearance
are not important, such as studs
in non-loadbearing walls.
Construction3 Standard Most common, used in general Light
Standard3 and better framing work. Has less strength framing
(Std. & Btr.) than No. 2 and better structural
light framing, but is stronger and
allows longer spans than No. 3.
Utility2 — Used most economically where
high strength is not important,
such as studs and plates in partition
walls, blocking and bracing.
Economy2 — Used in temporary or low-cost
construction where strength and
appearance are not important.
38 to 89 mm Select No. 2 & Btr. Most common; used in most Structural
(2 to 4 in.) thick; Structural construction where high strength joists and
114 mm (5 in. ) No. 1 and and stiffness are desired such as planks
and wider No. 2 floor joists, roof joists and rafters.
No. 33 — Used in general construction
where strength is not important.
Economy2 — Used in temporary or low-cost
construction where strength and
38 to 89 mm Stud3 — Most common; special purpose Stud
(2 to 4 in.) thick; grade intended for all stud uses,
38 mm (2 in.) including bearing walls
and wider Economy — Used in temporary or low-cost
stud2 construction where strength and
Notes to Table 7
1. For ease in grade sorting at the mill, the higher grades are combined and sold as a grade mix. Pieces of lumber in the grade
mix are still individually grade stamped.
2. Except for the utility and economy grades, all grades are stress graded, which means specified strengths have been assigned
and span tables calculated.
3. Construction, Standard, Stud and No. 3 Grades are typically used in designs that are not composed of 3 or more essentially
parallel members spaced on 600 mm (24 in.) centres or less, so arranged or connected to mutually support loading.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 8
Sizes for dimension lumber and boards
Metric Equivalents, mm Metric Actual Sizes, in.
Nomenclature, Nominal
Dry Green mm Sizes, in. Dry Green
38 x 38 40 x 40 38 x 38 2x2 11⁄2 x 11⁄2 19⁄16 x 19⁄16
64 65 64 3 21⁄2 29⁄16
89 90 89 4 31⁄2 39⁄16
140 143 140 6 51⁄2 55⁄8

Dimension
Lumber
184 190 184 8 71⁄4 71⁄2
235 241 235 10 91⁄4 91⁄2
286 292 286 12 111⁄4 111⁄2
64 x 64 65 x 65 64 x 64 3 x 3, etc. 21⁄2 x 21⁄2 29⁄16 x 29⁄16
89 x 89 90 x 90 89 x 89 4 x 4, etc. 31⁄2 x 31⁄2 39⁄16 x 39⁄16
19 x 38 21 x 40 19 x 38 1x2 ⁄4 x 11⁄2
3
⁄16 x 19⁄16
13
64 65 64 3 21⁄2 29⁄16
89 90 89 4 31⁄2 39⁄16
114 117 114 5 41⁄2 45⁄8
140 143 140 6 51⁄2 55⁄8

Boards
184 190 184 8 71⁄4 71⁄2
235 241 235 10 91⁄4 91⁄2
286 292 286 12 111⁄4 111⁄2
25 x 38 26 x 40 25 x 38 11⁄4 x 2, etc. 1 x 11⁄2 11⁄32 x 19⁄16
32 x 38 33 x 40 32 x 38 11⁄2 x 2, etc. 11⁄4 x 11⁄2 19⁄32 x 19⁄16

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 9
Facsimiles of lumber grade marks approved for use in Canada
Alberta Forest Products Association

900, 10707 100 Avenue
Edmonton, Alberta T5J 3M1
Tel: 780-452-2841
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.albertaforestproducts.ca
Canadian Mill Services Association

#200, 601-6th Street
New Westminster, British Columbia V3L 3C1
Tel: 604-523-1288
Website: www.canserve.org
Canadian Softwood Inspection Agency Inc.

Brookswood RPO
P.O. Box 61599
Langley, British Columbia V3A 8C8
Tel: 604-535-6192
Website: www.canadiansoftwood.com
Central Forest Products Association

c/o Alberta Forest Products Association
(see above for contact info)
Council of Forest Industries

1501-700 West Pender Street
Pender Place, Business Building
Vancouver British Columbia V6C 1G8
Tel: 604-684-0211
Website: www.cofi.org
Macdonald Inspection Service

211-1548 Johnston Road
White Rock, British Columbia V4B 3Z8
Tel: 604-535-6192
Website: www.gradestamp.com
Continued on p. 271

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 9 (continued)
Facsimiles of lumber grade marks approved for use in Canada
Maritime Lumber Bureau

P.O. Box 459
Amherst, Nova Scotia B4H 4A1
Tel: 902-667-3889
Website: www.mlb.ca
Newfoundland and Labrador

Lumber Producers Association
P.O. Box 8
Glovertown
Newfoundland and Labrador A0G 2L0
Tel: 709-533-2206
Ontario Forest Industries Association

(Home of CLA Grading and Inspection)
8 King Street East, Suite 1704
Toronto, Ontario M5C 1C3
Tel: 416-368-6188
Website: www.ofia.com
Ontario Lumber Manufacturers Agency

244 Viau Road
Noelville, Ontario P0M 2N0
Tel: 705-618-3403
Website: www.olma.ca
Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau

P.O. Box 19118
4th Avenue Postal Outlet
Vancouver, British Columbia V6K 4R8
Tel: 604-732-1782
Website: www.plib.org
Québec Forest Industry Council

1175, avenue Lavigerie, bureau 200
Québec City, Quebec G1V 4P1
Tel: 418-657-7916
Website: www.qfic.qc.ca

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 10
Commercial species of lumber
Commercial Species Grade Stamp Species in
Group Designation Identification Combination Wood Characteristics
Spruce – S–P–F Spruce (all species Woods of similar characteristics.

Pine – Fir except coast sitka They work easily, take paint easily and
spruce), lodgepole hold nails well. Generally white to pale
pine, jack pine, yellow in colour.
alpine fir, balsam fir
Douglas Fir – D. Fir – L Douglas fir, High degree of hardness and good
Larch Western larch resistance to decay. Good nail holding,
gluing and painting qualities. Colour ranges
from reddish-brown to yellowish white.
Hem – Fir Hem – Fir Pacific coast They work easily, take paint well and
hemlock, hold nails well. Good gluing characteristics.
amabilis fir Colour range pale yellow-brown to white.
Northern North Western Wood with exceptional resistance to decay.

Species red cedar Moderate in strength. High in appearance
qualities, it works easily and takes fine
finishes. Colour varies from reddish-brown
heartwood to light sapwood.
North Red pine, Fairly strong and easy-to-work woods that

ponderosa pine take a good finish and hold nails and screws
well. Moderately durable, they season with
little checking or cupping. Sapwood is a pale
yellow colour; heartwood pale brown to
reddish tinge.
Western white Softest of the Canadian pines, they work

pine, eastern and finish exceptionally well. Not as
white pine strong as most pines but do not tend
to split or splinter. Good nail holding
properties. Low shrinkage, better than
all other Canadian species except the
cedars. Take stains, paints and varnishes
well. Colour of sapwood almost white;
heartwood creamy white to light
straw brown.
Trembling aspen, Light woods of moderate strength,

largetooth aspen, they work easily, finish well and hold
balsam poplar nails well. Generally light in colour,
varying from almost white to greyish white.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 11
Effective thermal resistance of assemblies in buildings with a
heat-recovery ventilator
Climate Zone Heating degree-days of building location,1 in celsius degree-days
Heating-degree Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7A Zone 7B Zone 8
days <3000 3000 - 3999 4000 - 4999 5000 - 5999 6000 - 6999 >7000
Typical Vancouver, Kamloops, Prince Calgary, AB Cold Lake, NWT and
Locations BC BC Rupert, BC Regina, SK AB Nunavut
Kelowna, BC Lethbridge, Winnipeg, Whitehorse,
Toronto, ON BC MB YK
Ottawa, ON Quebec City,
Montreal, QC
QC Edmundston,
Halifax, NS NB
Minimum Effective Thermal Resistance
RSI m2•K/W (R ft2•˚F•h/Btu)
Building assembly above ground
Ceilings 10.43
6.91 (39.2) 6.91 (39.2) 8.67 (49.2) 8.67 (49.2) 10.43 (59.22)
below attics (59.22)
Cathedral
ceilings and 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5)
flat roofs
Walls2 2.78 (15.8) 2.97 (16.9) 2.97 (16.9) 2.97 (16.9) 3.08 (17.5) 3.08 (17.5)
Floors over
unheated 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5)
spaces
Building assembly below grade or in contact with the ground1
Foundation
1.99 (11.3) 2.98 (16.9) 2.98 (16.9) 2.98 (16.9) 2.98 (16.9) 2.98 (16.9)
walls
Unheated
floors3
• below frost Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated
line 4, 5
1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1)
• above frost
line5
Heated and
unheated floors n/a n/a n/a n/a 4.44 (25.2) 4.44 (25.2)
on permafrost
Heated floors6 2.32 (13.2) 2.32 (13.2) 2.32 (13.2) 2.84 (16.1) 2.84 (16.1) 2.84 (16.1)
Slabs-on-grade
with an integral 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 2.84 (16.1) 2.84 (16.1) 3.72 (21.1)
footing 6
Notes to Table 11
1. See NBC 1.1.3.1.
2. See NBC 9.36.2.8.(3) for requirements concerning the above-ground portion of foundation walls.
3. Does not apply to below-grade floors over heated crawl spaces.
4. Typically applies to floors-on-ground in full-height basements.
5. Refers to undisturbed frost line before house is constructed.
6. See NBC 9.25.2.3.(5) for requirement on placement of insulation. The design of slabs-on-grade with an integral footing
is addressed in NBC Part 4 (see Article 9.16.1.2.).

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 12
Effective thermal resistance of assemblies in buildings without a heat
recovery ventilator
days <3000 3000 - 3999 4000 - 4999 5000 - 5999 6000 - 6999 >7000
Montreal, QC
QC Edmundston,
Halifax, NS NB
Minimum Effective Thermal Resistance
RSI m2•K/W (R ft2•˚F•h/Btu)
Building assembly above ground
Ceilings
6.91 (39.2) 8.67 (49.2) 8.67 (49.2) 10.43 (59.2) 10.43 (59.2) 10.43 (59.2)
below attics
Cathedral
ceilings and 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5)
flat roofs
Walls2 2.78 (15.8) 3.08 (17.5) 3.08 (17.5) 3.08 (17.5) 3.85 (21.9) 3.85 (21.9)
Floors over
unheated 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 4.67 (26.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5) 5.02 (28.5)
spaces
Building assembly below grade or in contact with the ground1
Foundation
1.99 (11.3) 2.98 (16.9) 2.98 (16.9) 3.46 (19.6) 3.46 (19.6) 3.97 (22.5)
walls
Unheated
floors3
• below frost Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated Uninsulated
line 4, 5
1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1)
• above frost
line5
Heated and
unheated floors n/a n/a n/a n/a 4.44 (25.2) 4.44 (25.2)
on permafrost
Heated floors6 2.32 (13.2) 2.32 (13.2) 2.32 (13.2) 2.84 (16.1) 2.84 (16.1) 2.84 (16.1)
Slabs-on-grade
with an integral 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 1.96 (11.1) 3.72 (21.1) 3.72 (21.1) 4.59 (26.1)
footing 6
Notes to Table 12
1. See NBC 1.1.3.1.
2. See NBC 9.36.2.8.(3) for requirements concerning the above-ground portion of foundation walls.
3. Does not apply to below-grade floors over heated crawl spaces.
4. Typically applies to floors-on-ground in full-height basements.
5. Refers to undisturbed frost line before house is constructed.
6. See NBC 9.25.2.3.(5) for requirement on placement of insulation. The design of slabs-on-grade with an integral footing
is addressed in NBC Part 4 (see Article 9.16.1.2.).

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 13
Required thermal characteristics of windows, doors and skylights

days <3000 3000 - 3999 4000 - 4999 5000 - 5999 6000 - 6999 >7000

Montreal, QC
QC Edmundston,
Halifax, NS NB
Maximum U-value, W/(m2•K)

Thermal Characteristics
Windows 1.80 1.80 1.60 1.60 1.40 1.40

and
Doors2 Minimum Energy Rating
21 21 25 25 29 29
Maximum Overall Thermal Transmittance

Skylights
2.90 2.90 2.70 2.70 2.40 2.40
Notes to Table 13
1. See NBC 1.1.3.1.
2. Except skylights and glass block assemblies

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 14
Comparison of typical window thermal efficiencies
Thermal performance of a typical casement window with low conductivity edge seal
Aluminum frame
with thermal break Wood or vinyl frame Fibreglass frame
RSI R U ER RSI R U ER RSI R U ER
Double glazed
0.28 1.59 0.62 0.6 0.36 2.04 0.49 15.1 0.42 2.38 0.42 21.0
clear with air fill
Double glazed
0.35 1.99 0.50 7.3 0.47 2.67 0.37 22.9 0.55 3.12 0.32 28.5
low-E with air fill
Double glazed
0.37 2.10 0.48 11.0 0.51 2.90 0.34 26.7 0.61 3.46 0.29 32.0
low-E with argon
Triple glazed
0.35 1.99 0.50 7.3 0.50 2.84 0.35 28.2 0.56 3.18 0.31 29.2
clear with air fill
Triple glazed
0.39 2.21 0.45 12.1 0.60 3.41 0.29 30.5 0.68 3.86 0.26 33.8
low-E with air fill
Triple glazed
0.41 2.33 0.43 14.8 0.65 3.69 0.27 33.2 0.75 4.25 0.24 34.6
low-E with argon

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 15
Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than one floor1, 2
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)3, 4
Size of Built-up Beam, mm (in.)
Supported
Length,5, 6 38 x 184 38 x 235 38 x 286
Commercial m 2x8 2 x 10 2 x 12
Designation Grade ft. 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply
Douglas No. 1 2.4 2.97 3.42 3.82 3.63 4.19 4.68 4.21 4.86 5.43
Fir – Larch and 8 9–8 11–2 12–6 11–10 13–8 15–3 13–8 15–10 17–8
No. 2 3.0 2.65 3.06 3.42 3.24 3.75 4.19 3.76 4.35 4.86
10 8–8 10–0 11–2 10–7 12–2 13–8 12–3 14–2 15–10
3.6 2.42 2.80 3.13 2.96 3.42 3.82 3.44 3.97 4.44
12 7–11 9–1 10–2 9–8 11–2 12–5 11–2 12–11 14–5
4.2 2.24 2.59 2.89 2.74 3.17 3.54 3.18 3.67 4.11
14 7–4 8–5 9–5 8–11 10–4 11–6 10–4 11–11 13–4
4.8 2.10 2.42 2.71 2.56 2.96 3.31 2.98 3.44 3.84
16 6–10 7–11 8–10 8–4 9–8 10–9 9–8 11–2 12–6
5.4 1.98 2.28 2.55 2.42 2.79 3.12 2.81 3.24 3.62
18 6–5 7–5 8–4 7–10 9–1 10–2 9–2 10–7 11–9
6.0 1.88 2.17 2.42 2.29 2.65 2.96 2.66 3.07 3.44
20 6–1 7–1 7–11 7–6 8–7 9–8 8–8 10–0 11–2
Hem – Fir No. 1 2.4 3.11 3.55 3.82 3.80 4.39 4.88 4.41 5.10 5.70
and 8 10–1 11–7 12–6 12–5 14–4 15–11 14–4 16–07 18–7
No. 2 3.0 2.78 3.21 3.55 3.40 3.93 4.39 3.95 4.56 5.10
10 9–1 10–5 11–7 11–1 12–9 14–4 12–10 14–10 16–7
3.6 2.54 2.93 3.28 3.11 3.59 4.01 3.60 4.16 4.65
12 8–3 9–7 10–8 10–1 11–8 13–1 11–9 13–7 15–2
4.2 2.35 2.72 3.04 2.88 3.32 3.71 3.34 3.85 4.31
14 7–8 8–10 9–11 9–4 10–10 12–1 10–10 12–6 14–0
4.8 2.20 2.54 2.84 2.69 3.11 3.47 3.12 3.60 4.03
16 7–2 8–3 9–3 8–9 10–1 11–4 10–2 11–9 13–1
5.4 2.07 2.39 2.68 2.54 2.93 3.27 2.94 3.40 3.80
18 6–9 7–10 8–9 8–3 9–6 10–8 9–7 11–1 12–4
6.0 1.97 2.27 2.54 2.41 2.78 3.11 2.79 3.22 3.60
20 6–5 7–5 8–3 7–10 9–0 10–1 9–1 10–6 11–9
Spruce – No. 1 2.4 3.07 3.38 3.64 3.92 4.32 4.65 4.57 5.25 5.59
Pine – Fir and 8 10–0 11–0 11–11 12–10 14–1 15–2 14–11 17–2 18–3
No. 2 3.0 2.85 3.14 3.38 3.52 4.01 4.32 4.09 4.72 5.25
10 9–4 10–3 11–0 11–6 13–1 14–1 13–4 15–4 17–2
3.6 2.63 2.95 3.18 3.22 3.71 4.06 3.73 4.31 4.82
12 8–7 9–8 10–5 10–6 12–1 13–3 12–2 14–0 15–8
4.2 2.44 2.80 3.02 2.98 3.44 3.84 3.46 3.99 4.46
14 7–11 9–2 9–10 9–8 11–2 12–6 11–3 13–0 14–6
4.8 2.28 2.63 2.89 2.79 3.22 3.60 3.23 3.73 4.17
16 7–5 8–7 9–5 9–1 10–6 11–8 10–6 12–2 13–7
5.4 2.15 2.48 2.77 2.63 3.03 3.39 3.05 3.52 3.93
18 7–0 8–1 9–0 8–7 9–10 11–0 9–11 11–5 12–10
6.0 2.04 2.35 2.63 2.49 2.88 3.22 2.89 3.34 3.73
20 6–8 7–8 8–7 8–1 9–4 10–6 9–5 10–10 12–2
Continued on p. 278

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 15 (continued)
Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than one floor1, 2
Supported
Length,5, 6 38 x 184 38 x 235 38 x 286
Commercial m 2x8 2 x 10 2 x 12
Northern No. 1 2.4 2.59 2.99 3.29 3.16 3.65 4.08 3.67 4.24 4.74
Species and 8 8–5 9–9 10–9 10–3 11–11 13–3 11–11 13–9 15–5
No. 2 3.0 2.31 2.67 2.99 2.83 3.27 3.65 3.28 3.79 4.24
10 7–6 8–8 9–9 9–2 10–8 11–11 10–8 12–4 13–9
3.6 2.11 2.44 2.73 2.58 2.98 3.33 3.00 3.46 3.87
12 6–10 7–11 8–10 8–5 9–8 10–10 9–9 11–3 12–7
4.2 1.95 2.26 2.52 2.39 2.76 3.09 2.77 3.20 3.58
14 6–4 7–4 8–3 7–9 9–0 10–1 9–0 10–5 11–8
4.8 1.83 2.11 2.36 2.24 2.58 2.89 2.59 3.00 3.35
16 5–11 6–10 7–8 7–3 8–5 9–5 8–5 9–9 10–11
5.4 1.72 1.99 2.23 2.11 2.43 2.72 2.45 2.82 3.16
18 5–7 6–6 7–3 6–10 7–11 8–10 8–0 9–2 10–3
6.0 1.64 1.89 2.11 2.00 2.31 2.58 2.32 2.68 3.00
20 5–4 6–2 6–10 6–6 7–6 8–5 7–7 8–9 9–9
Notes to Table 15
1. Spans apply only where the floors serve residential areas.
2. When the floors have a concrete topping of not more than 51 mm (2 in.), the spans must be multiplied by 0.8.
3. Spans are clear spans between supports. For total span, add two bearing lengths.
4. 3-ply beams with supported lengths greater than 4.2 m (13 ft.–8 in.) require 114 mm (41⁄2 in.) of bearing. All other beams
require 76 mm (3 in.) bearing.
5. Supported length means half the sum of the joist spans on both sides of the beam.
6. Straight interpolation may be used for other supported lengths.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 16
Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than two floors1, 2
Supported
Length, 38 x 184 38 x 235 38 x 286
Commercial m5, 6 2x8 2 x 10 2 x 12
Designation Grade ft 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply
Douglas No. 1 2.4 2.22 2.56 2.87 2.72 3.14 3.51 3.15 3.64 4.07
Fir – Larch and 8 7–3 8–4 9–4 8–10 10–2 11–5 10–3 11–10 13–3
No. 2 3.0 1.99 2.29 2.56 2.43 2.80 3.14 2.82 3.25 3.64
10 6–6 7–6 8–4 7–11 9–2 10–2 9–2 10–7 11–10
3.6 1.81 2.09 2.34 2.22 2.56 2.86 2.57 2.97 3.32
12 5–11 6–10 7–7 7–3 8–4 9–4 8–4 9–8 10–10
4.2 1.68 1.94 2.17 2.05 2.37 2.65 2.38 2.75 3.07
14 5–6 6–4 7–1 6–8 7–9 8–7 7–9 8–11 10–0
4.8 1.57 1.81 2.03 1.92 2.22 2.48 2.23 2.57 2.88
16 5–1 5–11 6–7 6–3 7–3 8–1 7–3 8–4 9–4
5.4 1.48 1.71 1.91 1.81 2.09 2.34 2.10 2.43 2.71
18 4–10 5–7 6–3 5–11 6–10 7–7 6–10 7–11 8–10
6.0 1.40 1.62 1.81 1.72 1.98 2.22 1.99 2.30 2.57
20 4–7 5–3 5–11 5–7 6–5 7–3 6–6 7–6 8–4
Hem – Fir No. 1 2.4 2.33 2.69 3.01 2.85 3.29 3.68 3.30 3.82 4.27
and 8 7–7 8–9 9–9 9–3 10–8 12–0 10–9 12–5 13–11
No. 2 3.0 2.08 2.41 2.69 2.55 2.94 3.29 2.96 3.41 3.82
10 6–9 7–10 8–9 8–3 9–7 10–8 9–7 11–1 12–5
3.6 1.90 2.20 2.45 2.33 2.68 3.00 2.70 3.12 3.48
12 6–2 7–2 8–0 7–7 8–9 9–9 8–9 10–2 11–4
4.2 1.76 2.03 2.27 2.15 2.49 2.78 2.50 2.88 3.22
14 5–9 6–7 7–5 7–0 8–1 9–1 8–2 9–5 10–6
4.8 1.65 1.90 2.13 2.01 2.33 2.60 2.30 2.70 3.02
16 5–4 6–2 6–11 6–7 7–7 8–6 7–6 8–9 9–10
5.4 1.55 1.79 2.00 1.86 2.19 2.45 2.11 2.54 2.84
18 5–1 5–10 6–6 6–0 7–2 8–0 6–10 8–3 9–3
6.0 1.44 1.70 1.90 1.72 2.08 2.33 1.96 2.41 2.70
20 4–8 5–6 6–2 5–7 6–9 7–7 6–4 7–10 8–9
Spruce – No. 1 2.4 2.41 2.79 3.03 2.95 3.41 3.81 3.42 3.95 4.42
Pine – Fir and 8 7–10 9–1 9–11 9–7 11–1 12–5 11–2 12–10 14–5
No. 2 3.0 2.16 2.49 2.79 2.64 3.05 3.41 3.06 3.53 3.95
10 7–0 8–1 9–1 8–7 9–11 11–1 10–0 11–6 12–10
3.6 1.97 2.27 2.54 2.41 2.78 3.11 2.79 3.23 3.61
12 6–5 7–5 8–3 7–10 9–1 10–1 9–1 10–6 10–9
4.2 1.82 2.11 2.35 2.23 2.57 2.88 2.59 2.99 3.34
14 5–11 6–10 7–8 7–3 8–5 9–4 8–5 9–9 10–10
4.8 1.71 1.97 2.20 2.09 2.41 2.69 2.42 2.79 3.12
16 5–7 6–5 7–2 6–9 7–10 8–9 7–11 9–1 10–2
5.4 1.61 1.86 2.08 1.97 2.27 2.54 2.28 2.63 2.95
18 5–3 6–1 6–9 6–5 7–5 8–3 7–5 8–7 9–7
6.0 1.53 1.76 1.97 1.86 2.15 2.41 2.11 2.50 2.79
20 5–0 5–9 6–5 6–0 7–0 7–10 6–10 8–2 9–1
Continued on p. 280

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than two floors1, 2
Supported
Length, 38 x 184 38 x 235 38 x 286
Designation Grade ft 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply 3-ply 4-ply 5-ply
Northern No. 1 2.4 1.94 2.24 2.50 2.37 2.73 3.06 2.75 3.17 3.55
Species and 8 6–4 7–3 8–2 7–8 8–11 9–11 8–11 10–4 11–6
No. 2 3.0 1.73 2.00 2.24 2.12 2.44 2.73 2.46 2.84 3.17
10 5–8 6–6 7–3 6–11 7–11 8–11 8–0 9–3 10–4
3.6 1.58 1.83 2.04 1.93 2.23 2.50 2.24 2.59 2.90
12 5–2 5–11 6–8 6–3 7–3 8–1 7–4 8–5 9–5
4.2 1.46 1.69 1.89 1.79 2.07 2.31 2.08 2.40 2.68
14 4–9 5–6 6–2 5–10 6–9 7–6 6–9 7–10 8–9
4.8 1.37 1.58 1.77 1.67 1.93 2.16 1.94 2.24 2.51
16 4–5 5–2 5–9 5–5 6–3 7–0 6–4 7–4 8–2
5.4 1.29 1.49 1.67 1.58 1.82 2.04 1.83 2.11 2.36
18 4–2 4–10 5–5 5–2 5–11 6–8 6–0 6–11 7–8
6.0 1.22 1.41 1.58 1.50 1.73 1.93 1.74 2.01 2.24
20 4–0 4–7 5–2 4–10 5–8 6–3 5–8 6–6 7–4
Notes to Table 16

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 17
Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than three floors1, 2
Supported
Length, 38 x 184 38 x 235 38 x 286
Douglas No. 1 2.4 1.85 2.14 2.39 2.26 2.61 2.92 2.63 3.03 3.39
Fir – Larch and 8 6–0 6–11 7–9 7–4 8–6 9–6 8–7 9–10 11–0
No. 2 3.0 1.66 1.91 2.14 2.02 2.34 2.61 2.35 2.71 3.03
10 5–5 6–3 6–11 6–7 7–7 8–6 7–8 8–10 9–10
3.6 1.51 1.74 1.95 1.85 2.13 2.39 2.14 2.48 2.77
12 4–11 5–8 6–4 6–0 6–11 7–9 7–0 8–1 9–0
4.2 1.40 1.62 1.81 1.71 1.98 2.21 1.99 2.29 2.56
14 4–7 5–3 5–11 5–7 6–5 7–2 6–6 7–6 8–4
4.8 1.31 1.51 1.69 1.60 1.85 2.07 1.86 2.14 2.40
16 4–3 4–11 5–6 5–3 6–0 6–9 6–1 7–0 7–10
5.4 1.23 1.42 1.59 1.51 1.74 1.95 1.75 2.02 2.26
18 4–0 4–8 5–2 4–11 5–8 6–4 5–8 6–7 7–4
6.0 1.17 1.35 1.51 1.43 1.65 1.85 1.66 1.92 2.14
20 3–10 4–5 4–11 4–8 5–5 6–0 5–5 6–3 7–0
Hem – Fir No. 1 2.4 1.94 2.24 2.51 2.37 2.74 3.06 2.75 3.18 3.56
and 8 6–4 7–4 8–2 7–9 8–11 10–0 9–0 10–4 11–7
No. 2 3.0 1.74 2.00 2.24 2.12 2.45 2.74 2.46 2.84 3.18
10 5–8 6–6 7–4 6–11 8–0 8–11 8–0 9–3 10–4
3.6 1.58 1.83 2.05 1.92 2.24 2.50 2.18 2.60 2.90
12 5–2 5–11 6–8 6–3 7–3 8–2 7–1 8–5 9–5
4.2 1.43 1.69 1.89 1.71 2.07 2.32 1.95 2.40 2.69
14 4–8 5–6 6–2 5–7 6–9 7–6 6–4 7–10 8–9
4.8 1.30 1.58 1.77 1.56 1.92 2.17 1.77 2.18 2.51
16 4–2 5–2 5–9 5–1 6–3 7–1 5–9 7–1 8–2
5.4 1.19 1.47 1.67 1.44 1.76 2.04 1.64 2.00 2.35
18 3–10 4–9 5–5 4–8 5–8 6–8 5–4 6–6 7–8
6.0 1.11 1.36 1.58 1.34 1.63 1.92 1.53 1.85 2.18
20 3–7 4–5 5–2 4–4 5–3 6–3 5–0 6–0 7–1
Spruce – No. 1 2.4 2.01 2.32 2.60 2.46 2.84 3.17 2.85 3.29 3.68
Pine – Fir and 8 6–7 7–7 8–5 8–0 9–3 10–4 9–3 10–9 12–0
No. 2 3.0 1.80 2.08 2.32 2.20 2.54 2.84 2.55 2.95 3.29
10 5–10 6–9 7–7 7–2 8–3 9–3 8–4 9–7 10–9
3.6 1.64 1.90 2.12 2.01 2.32 2.59 2.33 2.69 3.01
12 5–4 6–2 6–11 6–6 7–7 8–5 7–7 8–9 9–9
4.2 1.52 1.75 1.96 1.85 2.15 2.40 2.10 2.49 2.78
14 4–11 5–9 6–5 6–0 7–0 7–10 6–10 8–1 9–1
4.8 1.40 1.64 1.84 1.68 2.01 2.24 1.91 2.33 2.60
16 4–6 5–4 6–0 5–5 6–6 7–4 6–2 7–7 8–6
5.4 1.28 1.55 1.73 1.54 1.89 2.12 1.76 2.16 2.46
18 4–2 5–0 5–8 5–0 6–2 6–11 5–9 7–0 8–0
6.0 1.19 1.47 1.64 1.44 1.76 2.01 1.64 2.00 2.33
20 3–10 4–9 5–4 4–8 5–8 6–6 5–4 6–6 7–7
Continued on p. 282

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for built-up floor beams supporting not more than three floors1, 2
Supported
Length, 38 x 184 38 x 235 38 x 286
Northern No. 1 2.4 1.61 1.86 2.08 1.97 2.28 2.55 2.29 2.64 2.96
Species and 8 5–3 6–1 6–9 6–5 7–5 8–3 7–5 8–7 9–7
No. 2 3.0 1.44 1.67 1.86 1.76 2.04 2.28 2.05 2.36 2.64
10 4–8 5–5 6–1 5–9 6–8 7–5 6–8 7–8 8–7
3.6 1.32 1.52 1.70 1.61 1.86 2.08 1.87 2.16 2.41
12 4–3 4–11 5–6 5–3 6–1 6–9 6–1 7–0 7–10
4.2 1.22 1.41 1.57 1.49 1.72 1.93 1.73 2.00 2.23
14 4–0 4–7 5–1 4–10 5–7 6–3 5–8 6–6 7–3
4.8 1.14 1.32 1.47 1.40 1.61 1.80 1.62 1.87 2.09
16 3–9 4–3 4–10 4–6 5–3 5–10 5–3 6–1 6–10
5.4 1.08 1.24 1.39 1.32 1.52 1.70 1.53 1.76 1.97
18 3–6 4–1 4–6 4–3 4–11 5–6 5–0 5–9 6–5
6.0 1.02 1.18 1.32 1.25 1.44 1.61 1.45 1.67 1.87
20 3–4 3–10 4–3 4–1 4–8 5–3 4–9 5–5 6–1
Notes to Table 17

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 18
Spans for steel floor beams
Supported Joist Length, m (ft.), (half the sum of joist spans for both sides of the beam)
7 ft. 9 ft. 11 ft. 13 ft. 15 ft. 17 ft. 19 ft.

Section 2.4 m 10 in. 3m 9 in. 3.6 m 9 in. 4.2 m 9 in. 4.8 m 8 in. 5.4 m 8 in. 6.0 m 11 in.
One storey supported
W150 x 22 5.5 18-0 5.2 17-1 4.9 16-1 4.8 15-8 4.6 15-1 4.5 14-9 4.3 14-1
W200 x 21 6.5 21-3 6.2 20-3 5.9 19-5 5.7 18-8 5.4 17-8 5.1 16-8 4.9 16-1
W200 x 27 7.3 23-10 6.9 22-7 6.6 21-7 6.3 20-8 6.1 20-0 5.9 19-4 5.8 19-0
W200 x 31 7.8 25-7 7.4 24-3 7.1 23-3 6.8 22-3 6.6 21-7 6.4 21-0 6.2 20-3
W250 x 24 8.1 26-7 7.6 24-10 7.3 23-10 7.0 23-0 6.6 21-7 6.2 20-3 5.9 19-4
W250 x 33 9.2 30-2 8.7 28-6 8.3 27-2 8.0 26-2 7.7 25-3 7.5 24-7 7.3 23-10
W250 x 39 10.0 32-9 9.4 30-9 9.0 29-6 8.6 28-2 8.4 27-7 8.1 26-7 7.9 25-10
W310 x 31 10.4 34-1 9.8 32-1 9.4 30-9 8.9 29-2 8.4 27-7 8.0 26-2 7.6 24-10
W310 x 39 11.4 37-4 10.7 35-1 10.0 32-9 9.8 32-1 9.5 31-2 9.2 30-2 9.0 29-6
Two storeys supported
W150 x 22 4.9 16-1 4.4 14-3 4.1 13-3 3.8 12-6 3.5 12-6 3.4 11-2 3.2 10-6
W200 x 21 5.6 18-4 5.1 16-8 4.6 15-1 4.3 14-1 4.1 13-4 3.8 12-6 3.7 12-1
W200 x 27 6.4 21-0 6.1 20-0 5.6 18-4 5.3 17-4 4.9 16-1 4.7 15-4 4.4 14-4
W200 x 31 6.9 22-7 6.5 21-3 6.2 20-3 5.8 19-0 5.4 17-8 5.1 16-8 4.9 16-1
W250 x 24 6.8 22-3 6.1 20-0 5.6 18-4 5.2 17-1 4.9 16-1 4.6 15-1 4.4 14-4
W250 x 33 8.2 26-10 7.7 25-3 7.0 23-0 6.5 21-3 6.1 20-0 5.8 19-0 5.5 18-0
W250 x 39 8.8 28-10 8.3 27-2 7.8 25-7 7.2 23-7 6.8 22-3 6.4 21-0 6.1 20-0
W310 x 31 8.7 28-6 7.8 25-7 7.2 23-7 6.7 22-0 6.2 20-3 5.9 19-4 5.6 18-4
W310 x 39 10.0 32-9 9.3 30-6 8.5 27-10 7.9 25-10 7.4 24-3 7.0 23-0 6.7 22-0
Note to Table 18
1. The section information provides the beam depth and weight in metric units. For example, a W150 x 22 beam is
150 mm (6 in.) deep and weighs 22 kg. per metre (14.8 lbs. per foot)

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 19
Maximum spans for glue-laminated floor beams – 20f-E grade1
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)2 to 5
Beam Depth, mm (in.)
Beam Supported
Number Width, Length,
of Floors mm m6, 7 228 266 304 342 380 418 456
Supported (in.) ft 9 101⁄2 12 131⁄2 15 161⁄2 18
1 80 (3) 2.4 4.32 5.04 5.76 6.48 7.20 7.92 8.64
8 14–1 16–5 18–9 21–1 23–5 25–9 28–2
3.0 3.87 4.51 5.15 5.80 6.44 7.09 7.73
10 12–7 14–8 16–9 18–10 21–0 23–1 25–2
3.6 3.53 4.12 4.70 5.29 5.88 6.47 7.06
12 11–6 13–5 15–4 17–3 19–2 21–1 23–0
4.2 3.27 3.81 4.36 4.90 5.44 5.99 6.53
14 10–8 12–5 14–2 15–11 17–9 19–6 21–3
4.8 3.06 3.57 4.07 4.58 5.09 5.60 6.11
16 9–11 11–7 13–3 14–11 16–7 18–3 19–11
5.4 2.88 3.36 3.84 4.32 4.80 5.28 5.76
18 9–5 10–11 12–6 14–1 15–8 17–2 18–9
6.0 2.73 3.19 3.64 4.10 4.56 5.01 5.47
20 8–11 10–5 11–10 13–4 14–10 16–4 17–10
1 130 (5) 2.4 5.51 6.43 7.35 8.26 9.18 10.10 11.02
8 17–11 20–11 23–11 26–11 29–11 32–11 35–10
3.0 4.93 5.75 6.57 7.39 8.21 9.03 9.86
10 16–0 18–9 21–5 24–1 26–9 29–5 32–1
3.6 4.50 5.25 6.00 6.75 7.50 8.25 9.00
12 14–8 17–1 19–6 22–0 24–5 26–10 29–3
4.2 4.16 4.86 5.55 6.25 6.94 7.64 8.33
14 13–7 15–10 18–1 20–4 22–7 24–10 27–1
4.8 3.90 4.54 5.19 5.84 6.49 7.14 7.79
16 12–8 14–10 16–11 19–0 21–2 23–3 25–4
5.4 3.67 4.28 4.90 5.51 6.12 6.73 7.35
18 11–11 13–11 15–11 17–11 19–11 21–11 23–11
6.0 3.48 4.07 4.65 5.23 5.81 6.39 6.97
20 11–4 13–3 15–1 17–0 18–11 20–10 22–8
2 80 (3) 2.4 3.28 3.83 4.37 4.92 5.47 6.01 6.56
8 10–8 12–5 14–3 16–0 17–9 19–7 21–4
3.0 2.93 3.42 3.91 4.40 4.89 5.38 5.87
10 9–7 11–2 12–9 14–4 15–11 17–6 19–1
3.6 2.68 3.12 3.57 4.02 4.46 4.91 5.36
12 8–9 10–2 11–7 13–1 14–6 16–0 17–5
4.2 2.48 2.89 3.31 3.72 4.13 4.54 4.96
14 8–1 9–5 10–9 12–1 13–5 14–10 16–2
4.8 2.32 2.71 3.09 3.48 3.86 4.25 4.64
16 7–7 8–10 10–1 11–4 12–7 13–10 15–1
5.4 2.19 2.55 2.91 3.28 3.64 4.01 4.37
18 7–1 8–4 9–6 10–8 11–10 13–1 14–3
6.0 2.07 2.42 2.77 3.11 3.46 3.80 4.15
20 6–9 7–11 9–0 10–2 11–3 12–5 13–6
Continued on p. 285

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for glue-laminated floor beams – 20f-E grade1
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)2 to 5
Beam Depth, mm (in.)
Beam Supported
Number Width, Length,
of Floors mm m6, 7 228 266 304 342 380 418 456
Supported (in.) ft 9 101⁄2 12 131⁄2 15 161⁄2 18
2 130 (5) 2.4 4.18 4.88 5.57 6.27 6.97 7.66 8.36
8 13–7 15–10 18–2 20–5 22–8 24–11 27–3
3.0 3.74 4.36 4.99 5.61 6.23 6.85 7.48
10 12–2 14–2 16–3 18–3 20–3 22–4 24–4
3.6 3.41 3.98 4.55 5.12 5.69 6.26 6.83
12 11–1 13–0 14–10 16–8 18–6 20–4 22–3
4.2 3.16 3.69 4.21 4.74 5.27 5.79 6.32
14 10–3 12–0 13–9 15–5 17–2 18–10 20–7
4.8 2.96 3.45 3.94 4.43 4.93 5.42 5.91
16 9–7 11–3 12–10 14–5 16–0 17–8 19–3
5.4 2.79 3.25 3.72 4.18 4.64 5.11 5.57
18 9–1 10–7 12–1 13–7 15–1 16–8 18–2
6.0 2.64 3.08 3.53 3.97 4.41 4.85 5.29
20 8–7 10–0 11–6 12–11 14–4 15–9 17–3
3 80 (3) 2.4 2.75 3.21 3.66 4.12 4.58 5.04 5.50
8 8–11 10–5 11–11 13–5 14–11 16–5 17–11
3.0 2.46 2.87 3.28 3.69 4.10 4.51 4.92
10 8–0 9–4 10–8 12–0 13–4 14–8 16–0
3.6 2.24 2.62 2.99 3.37 3.74 4.11 4.49
12 7–4 8–6 9–9 10–11 12–2 13–5 14–7
4.2 2.08 2.42 2.77 3.12 3.46 3.81 4.15
14 6–9 7–11 9–0 10–2 11–3 12–5 13–6
4.8 1.94 2.27 2.59 2.91 3.24 3.56 3.89
16 6–4 7–5 8–5 9–6 10–6 11–7 12–8
5.4 1.83 2.14 2.44 2.75 3.05 3.36 3.66
18 6–0 6–11 7–11 8–11 9–11 10–11 11–11
6.0 1.74 2.03 2.32 2.61 2.90 3.19 3.48
20 5–8 6–7 7–7 8–6 9–5 10–4 11–4
3 130 (5) 2.4 3.50 4.09 4.67 5.25 5.84 6.42 7.01
8 11–5 13–4 15–2 17–1 19–0 20–11 22–10
3.0 3.13 3.66 4.18 4.70 5.22 5.74 6.27
10 10–2 11–11 13–7 15–4 17–0 18–8 20–5
3.6 2.86 3.34 3.81 4.29 4.77 5.24 5.72
12 9–4 10–10 12–5 14–0 15–6 17–1 18–7
4.2 2.65 3.09 3.53 3.97 4.41 4.85 5.30
14 8–7 10–1 11–6 12–11 14–4 15–10 17–3
4.8 2.48 2.89 3.30 3.72 4.13 4.54 4.95
16 8–1 9–5 10–9 12–1 13–5 14–9 16–1
5.4 2.34 2.72 3.11 3.50 3.89 4.28 4.67
18 7–7 8–10 10–2 11–5 12–8 13–11 15–2
6.0 2.22 2.58 2.95 3.32 3.69 4.06 4.43
20 7–3 8–5 9–7 10–10 12–0 13–3 14–5
Notes to Table 19
2. Spans are valid for glue-laminated timber conforming to CAN/CSA-O122-M and CAN/CSA-O177-M.
4. Provide a minimum bearing length of 89 mm (31⁄2 in.).
5. Top edge of beam assumed to be fully laterally supported by joists.
7. Straight interpolation may be used for other supported lengths

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 20
Maximum spans for floor joists – general cases1, 2
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)
Joist Spacing, mm (in.)
Joist With Strapping
With Strapping With Bridging
Size, and Bridging
Commercial mm 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
Designation Grade in. 12 16 24 12 16 24 12 16 24
Douglas fir – larch No. 1 38 x 140 3.09 2.91 2.62 3.29 2.99 2.62 3.29 2.99 2.62
(includes Douglas fir and 2x6 10–2 9–7 8–7 10–10 9–10 8–7 10–10 9–10 8–7
and western larch) No. 2 38 x 184 3.71 3.53 3.36 4.00 3.76 3.44 4.19 3.90 3.44
2x8 12–2 11–7 11–0 13–1 12–4 11–3 13–9 12–10 11–3
38 x 235 4.38 4.16 3.96 4.66 4.38 4.11 4.84 4.51 4.20
2 x 10 14–4 13–8 13–0 15–3 14–4 13–6 15–10 14–10 13–10
38 x 286 4.99 4.75 4.52 5.26 4.94 4.65 5.43 5.06 4.72
2 x 12 16–5 15–7 14–10 17–2 16–2 15–3 17–10 16–7 15–6
Hem – fir (includes No. 1 38 x 140 3.09 2.91 2.62 3.29 2.99 2.62 3.29 2.99 2.62
western hemlock and 2x6 10-2 9–7 8–7 10–10 9–10 8–7 10–10 9–10 8–7
and amabilis fir) No. 2 38 x 184 3.71 3.53 3.36 4.00 3.76 3.44 4.19 3.90 3.44
2x8 12–2 11–7 11–0 13–1 12–4 11–3 13–9 12–10 11–3
38 x 235 4.38 4.16 3.96 4.66 4.38 4.11 4.84 4.51 4.20
2 x 10 14–4 13–8 13–0 15–3 14–4 13–6 15–10 14–10 13–10
38 x 286 4.99 4.75 4.52 5.26 4.94 4.65 5.43 5.06 4.72
2 x 12 16–5 15–7 14–10 17–2 16–2 15–3 17–10 16–7 15–6
Spruce, pine, or fir No. 1 38 x 140 2.92 2.71 2.49 3.14 2.85 2.49 3.14 2.85 2.49
(includes spruce and 2x6 9–7 8–11 8–2 10–4 9–4 8–2 10–4 9–4 8–2
[all species except No. 2 38 x 184 3.54 3.36 3.20 3.81 3.58 3.27 3.99 3.72 3.27
coast sitka spruce],
2x8 11–7 11–0 10–6 12–5 11–9 10–9 13–1 12–2 10–9
jack pine, lodgepole
pine, balsam fir 38 x 235 4.17 3.96 3.77 4.44 4.17 3.92 4.60 4.29 4.00
and alpine fir) 2 x 10 13–8 13–0 12–4 14–6 13–8 12–10 15–1 14–1 13–2
38 x 286 4.75 4.52 4.30 5.01 4.71 4.42 5.17 4.82 4.49
2 x 12 15–7 14–10 14–1 16–4 15–5 14–6 17–0 15–10 14–9
Northern species No. 1 38 x 140 2.51 2.33 2.16 2.83 2.57 2.25 2.83 2.57 2.25
(includes any and 2x6 8–3 7–8 7–1 9–3 8–5 7–5 9–4 8–5 7–5
Canadian species No. 2 38 x 184 3.19 3.04 2.84 3.44 3.23 2.96 3.60 3.36 2.96
covered by the
2x8 10–6 10–0 9–4 11–3 10–7 9–8 11–10 11–0 9–8
NLGA Standard
Grading Rules) 38 x 235 3.76 3.58 3.41 4.01 3.77 3.54 4.16 3.88 3.62
2 x 10 12–4 11–9 11–2 13–1 12–4 11–7 13–8 12–9 11–10
38 x 286 4.29 4.08 3.88 4.53 4.25 4.00 4.67 4.35 4.06
2 x 12 14–1 13–5 12–9 14–9 13–11 13–1 15–4 14–4 13–4
Note to Table 20
2. Subfloor must comply with minimum requirements from Tables 18 and 19.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 21
Maximum spans for floor joists – special cases1, 2
Joists with ceilings Joists with
attached to Wood Furring concrete topping
Joist Spacing, mm (in.) Joist Spacing, mm (in.)
Joist With or Without
Without Bridging With Bridging
Size, Bridging3
Commercial mm 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
(includes Douglas fir and 2x6 10-10 9-10 8-7 10-10 9-10 8-7 10-10 9-10 8-5
and western larch) No. 2 38 x 184 4.06 3.83 3.44 4.33 3.93 3.44 4.33 3.81 3.11
2x8 13-4 12-7 11-3 14-2 12-11 11-3 14-2 12-6 10-2
38 x 235 4.78 4.50 4.11 5.24 4.98 4.31 5.37 4.65 3.80
2 x 10 15-8 14-9 13-6 17-2 16-4 14-2 17-8 15-3 12-6
38 x 286 5.44 5.12 4.68 5.93 5.64 5.00 6.24 5.40 4.41
2 x 12 17-10 16-10 15-4 19-5 18-6 16-5 20-6 17-9 14-6
Hem – fir (includes No. 1 38 x 140 3.29 2.99 2.62 3.29 2.99 2.62 3.29 2.99 2.62
western hemlock and 2x6 10-10 9-10 8-7 10-10 9-10 8-7 10-10 9-10 8-7
and amabilis fir) No. 2 38 x 184 4.06 3.83 3.44 4.33 3.93 3.44 4.33 3.93 3.26
2x8 13-4 12-7 11-3 14-2 12-11 11-3 14-2 12-11 10-8
38 x 235 4.78 4.50 4.11 5.24 4.98 4.39 5.53 4.88 3.99
2 x 10 15-8 14-9 13-6 17-2 16-4 14-5 18-2 16-0 13-1
38 x 286 5.44 5.12 4.68 5.93 5.64 5.25 6.54 5.66 4.63
2 x 12 17-10 16-10 15-4 19-5 18-6 17-3 21-6 18-7 15-2
(includes spruce and 2x6 10-4 9-4 8-2 10-4 9-4 8-2 10-4 9-4 8-2
[all species except No. 2 38 x 184 3.87 3.64 3.27 4.12 3.75 3.27 4.12 3.75 3.27
coast sitka spruce], 2x8 12-8 11-11 10-9 13-6 12-4 10-9 13-6 12-4 10-9
jack pine, lodgepole 38 x 235 4.55 4.28 3.91 4.99 4.75 4.18 5.27 4.79 4.13
pine, balsam fir 2 x 10 14-11 14-1 12-10 16-4 15-7 13-9 17-3 15-8 13-7
and alpine fir)
38 x 286 5.18 4.88 4.46 5.65 5.37 5.06 6.23 5.81 4.79
2 x 12 17-0 16-0 14-7 18-6 17-7 16-7 20-5 19-1 15-9
(includes any and 2x6 9-4 8-5 7-5 9-4 8-5 7-5 9-4 8-5 7-4
Canadian species No. 2 38 x 184 3.50 3.29 2.96 3.72 3.38 2.96 3.72 3.32 2.71
covered by the 2x8 11-6 10-10 9-8 12-3 11-1 9-8 12-3 10-11 8-11
NLGA Standard 38 x 235 4.11 3.87 3.54 4.51 4.29 3.76 4.69 4.06 3.31
Grading Rules) 2 x 10 13-6 12-8 11-7 14-9 14-1 12-4 15-4 13-4 10-10
38 x 286 4.68 4.40 4.03 5.10 4.85 4.36 5.44 4.71 3.84
2 x 12 15-4 14-5 13-2 16-9 15-11 14-4 17-10 15-5 12-7
Notes to Table 21
2. Subfloor must comply with minimum requirements from Tables 18 and 19.
3. No bridging is assumed for spans for floor joists with concrete topping.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 22
Minimum thickness of subflooring
Minimum Subflooring Thickness, mm (in.),
for Maximum Joist Spacing at
400 (16) 500 (20) 600 (24)
Plywood and OSB, O-2 grade 15.5 (5⁄8) 15.5 (5⁄8) 18.5 (23⁄32)
OSB, O-1 grade, and waferboard, R-1 Grade 15.9 (5⁄8) 15.9 (5⁄8) 19.0 (3⁄4)
Particleboard 15.9 (5⁄8) 19.0 (3⁄4) 25.4 (1)
Panel mark (performance-rated panels) sub-floor only 1F16 1F20 1F24
Panel mark (performance-rated panels) sub-floor and

2F16 2F20 2F24
underlay
Lumber 17.0 (11⁄16) 19.0 (3⁄4) 19.0 (3⁄4)
Table 23
Sheathing and subfloor attachment
Minimum Length of Fasteners for Sheathing
and Subfloor Attachment, mm (in.)
Common Ring Thread Minimum No. or

or Spiral Nails or Roofing Maximum Spacing
Element Nails Screws Nails Staples of Fasteners
Plywood, OSB or waferboard

51 (2) 45 (13⁄4) N/A 38 (11⁄2)
up to 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) thick
Plywood, OSB or waferboard

10 mm (3⁄8 in.) to 51 (2) 45 (13⁄4) N/A 51 (2)
20 mm (13⁄16 in.) thick 150 mm (6 in.) o.c.
along edges and
Plywood, OSB or waferboard 300 mm (12 in.) o.c.
57 (21⁄4) 51 (2) N/A N/A
over 20 mm (13⁄16 in.) thick along intermediate
supports
Fibreboard sheathing up to
N/A N/A 44 (13⁄4) 28 (11⁄8)
13 mm (1⁄2 in.) thick
Gypsum sheathing up to
N/A N/A 44 (13⁄4) N/A
13mm (1⁄2 in.) thick
Board lumber 184 mm (8 in.)

51 (2) 45 (13⁄4) N/A 51 (2) 2 per support
or less wide
Board lumber more than

51 (2) 45 (13⁄4) N/A 51 (2) 3 per support
184 mm (8 in.) wide

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 24
Nailing for framing1
Minimum Length Minimum Number or
Construction Detail of Nails, mm (in.) Maximum Spacing of Nails
Floor joist to plate – toe nail 82 (31⁄4) 2
Wood or metal strapping to underside of floor joists 57 (21⁄4) 2
Cross bridging to joists 57 (21⁄4) 2 at each end
Double header or trimmer joists 76 (3) 300 mm (12 in.) (o.c.)
Floor joist to stud (balloon construction) 76 (3) 2
Ledger strip to wood beam 82 (31⁄4) 2 per joist
Joist to joist splice (See Table 29) 76 (3) 2 at each end
Tail joist to adjacent header joist (end nailed) 82 (31⁄4) 5

around openings 101 (4) 3
Each header joist to adjacent trimmer joist 82 (31⁄4) 5

(end nailed) around openings 101 (4) 3
63 (21⁄2) 4
Stud to wall plate (each end) toe nail or end nail
82 (31⁄4) 2
Doubled studs at openings, or studs at walls or

76 (3) 750 mm (30 in.) (o.c.)
wall intersections and corners
Doubled top wall plates 76 (3) 600 mm (24 in.) (o.c.)
Bottom wall plate or sole plate to joists or blocking

82 (31⁄4) 400 mm (16 in.) (o.c)
(exterior walls)1
Interior walls to framing or subflooring 82 (31⁄4) 600 mm (24 in.) (o.c.)
Horizontal members over openings in non-loadbearing

82 (31⁄4) 2
walls – each end
Lintels to studs 82 (31⁄4) 2 at each end
Ceiling joist to plate – toe nail each end 82 (31⁄4) 2
Roof rafter, roof truss or roof joist to plate – toe nail 82 (31⁄4) 3
Continued on p. 290

APPENDIX A
Tables
Nailing for framing1
Minimum Length Minimum Number or
Construction Detail of Nails, mm (in.) Maximum Spacing of Nails
Rafter plate to each ceiling joist 101 (4) 2
Rafter to joist (with ridge supported) 76 (3) 3
Rafter to joist (with ridge unsupported) 76 (3) See Table 30
Gusset plate to each rafter at peak 57 (21⁄4) 4
Rafter to ridge board – toe nail – end nail 82 (31⁄4) 3
Collar tie to rafter – each end 76 (3) 3
Collar tie lateral support to each collar tie 57 (21⁄4) 2
Jack rafter to hip or valley rafter 82 (31⁄4) 2
Roof strut to rafter 76 (3) 3
Roof strut to loadbearing wall – toe nail 82 (31⁄4) 2
38 mm x 140 mm (2 in. x 6 in.) or less plank decking

82 (31⁄4) 2
to support
Plank decking wider than 38 mm x 140 mm (2 in. x 6 in.)

82 (31⁄4) 3
to support
38 mm (2 in.) edge laid plank decking to support (toe nail) 76 (3) 1
38 mm (2 in.) edge laid plank to each other 76 (3) 450 mm (18 in.) (o.c.)
Note to Table 24
1. Where the bottom wall plate or sole plate of an exterior wall is not nailed to joists or blocking, the exterior wall is
permitted to be fastened to the floor framing by plywood, OSB, or waferboard sheathing that extends down over the
floor framing and is fastened to that framing by nails or staples. The wall can also be fastened by tying the wall framing to
the floor framing with galvanized strips that are 50 mm (2 in.) wide, 0.41 mm (0.016 in.) in thickness or more, spaced not
more than 1.2 m (48 in.) apart and fastened at each end with at least two 63 mm (21⁄2 in.) nails.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 25
Size and spacing of studs
Minimum Maximum Maximum
Type of Supported Loads Stud Size Stud Spacing, Unsupported
Wall (including dead loads) mm (in.) mm (in.) Height m (ft.–in.)
38 x 38 (2 x 2) 400 (16) 2.4 (8–0)

No load 38 x 89 (2 x 4) flat1 400 (16) 3.6 (11–10)
38 x 64 (2 x 3) 600 (24) 3.0 (9–10)

38 x 64 (2 x 3) flat1 400 (16) 2.4 (8–0)
Attic not accessible 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 600 (24) 3.6 (11–10)
by a stairway 38 x 89 (2 x 4) flat1 400 (16) 2.4 (8–0)
Attic accessible by a stairway

plus one floor
Roof load plus one floor
Attic not accessible by a
Interior stairway plus two floors 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 400 (16) 3.6 (11–10)
Roof load
Attic not accessible by a 38 x 64 (2 x 3) 400 (16) 2.4 (8–0)
stairway plus one floor 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 600 (24) 3.6 (11–10)

plus two floors 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 300 (12) 3.6 (11–10)
Roof load plus two floors 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 400 (16) 4.2 (13–9)

plus three floors 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 300 (12) 4.2 (13–9)
Roof with or without 38 x 64 (2 x 3) 400 (16) 2.4 (8–0)

attic storage 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 600 (24) 3.0 (9–10)
Roof with or without attic 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 400 (16) 3.0 (9–10)

storage plus one floor 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 600 (24) 3.0 (9–10)
Exterior
Roof with or without attic 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 300 (12) 3.0 (9–10)
storage plus two floors 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 400 (16) 3.6 (11–10)
Roof with or without attic

storage plus three floors 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 300 (12) 1.8 (6–0)
Note to Table 25
1. Studs on the flat are permitted to be used in gable ends of roofs that contain only unfinished space or in non-loadbearing
interior walls within the limits described in the National Building Code of Canada. Studs supporting only a load from an attic
not accessible from a stairway are permitted to be placed on the flat, in accordance with this table, if they are clad on not
less than one side with plywood, OSB, or waferboard sheathing fastened to the face of the studs with a structural adhesive,
and if the portion of the roof supported by the studs does not exceed 2.1 m (6 ft.–10 in.) in width.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 26
Maximum spans for spruce, pine or fir lintels – No. 1 or No. 2 grade –
non-structural sheathing7
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)2,3
Exterior Walls
Lintel Size, Specified Snow Load, kPa (psf)6
Lintel mm 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Interior
Supporting in.4 20.9 31.3 41.8 52.2 62.7 Walls
2-ply
Limited attic 2-38 x 89 1.27
storage and 2-2 x 4 4–2
ceiling 2-38 x 140 1.93
2-2 x 6 6–4
2-38 x 184 2.35
This area intentionally left blank
2-2 x 8 7–9
2-38 x 235 2.88
2-2 x 10 9–5
2-38 x 286 3.34
2-2 x 12 11–0
Lintel Supporting 2-38 x 89 2.55 2.23 2.02 1.88 1.77 1.88
Roof and ceiling 2-2 x 4 8-4 7-4 6-8 6-2 5-10 6-2
only (tributary 2-38 x 140 4.01 3.50 3.18 2.96 2.78 2.96
width 0.6 m 2-2 x 6 13-2 11-6 10-5 9-8 9-2 9-8
(2 ft.))6 2-38 x 184 5.27 4.61 4.18 3.88 3.66 3.88
2-2 x 8 17-4 15-1 13-9 12-9 12-0 12-9
2-38 x 235 6.37 5.76 5.34 4.96 4.67 4.96
2-2 x 10 20-11 18-11 17-6 16-3 15-4 16-3
2-38 x 286 7.38 6.67 6.21 5.87 5.61 5.87
2-2 x 12 24-3 21-11 20-4 19-3 18-5 19-3
Roof and ceiling 2-2 x 4 4-2 3-8 3-4 3-1 2-10 3-1
only (tributary 2-38 x 140 1.93 1.66 1.48 1.35 1.25 1.35
width 4.9 m 2-2 x 6 6-4 5-5 4-10 4-5 4-1 4-5
(16 ft. 0 in.))1 2-38 x 184 2.35 2.02 1.80 1.64 1.52 1.64
2-2 x 8 7-9 6-8 5-11 5-5 5-0 5-5
2-38 x 235 2.88 2.47 2.20 2.01 1.84 2.01
2-2 x 10 9-5 8-1 7-3 6-7 6-1 6-7
2-38 x 286 3.34 2.87 2.56 2.33 2.09 2.33
2-2 x 12 11-0 9-5 8-5 7-8 6-10 7-8
Roof, ceiling and 2-2 x 4 3-5 3-2 2-11 2-9 2-7 2-5
1 storey1,2,5 2-38 x 140 1.49 1.37 1.27 1.19 1.13 1.02
2-2 x 6 4-11 4-6 4-2 3-11 3-8 3-4
2-38 x 184 1.82 1.67 1.55 1.44 1.33 1.20
2-2 x 8 6-0 5-6 5-1 4-9 4-4 3-11
2-38 x 235 2.22 2.04 1.89 1.73 1.59 1.45
2-2 x 10 7-3 6-8 6-2 5-8 5-3 4-9
2-38 x 286 2.58 2.36 2.15 1.96 1.81 1.66
2-2 x 12 8-5 7-9 7-1 6-5 5-11 5-5
Continued on p. 293

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for spruce, pine or fir lintels – No. 1 or No. 2 grade –
non-structural sheathing7
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)2,3
Exterior Walls
Lintel Size, Specified Snow Load, kPa (psf)6
Lintel mm 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Supporting in.4 20.9 31.3 41.8 52.2 62.7 Interior
2-ply Walls
Roof ceiling and 2-2 x 4 3-1 2-11 2-9 2-7 2-6 2-1
2 storeys1,2,5 2-38 x 140 1.34 1.26 1.19 1.13 1.06 0.88
2-2 x 6 4-5 4-2 3-11 3-8 3-6 2-11
2-38 x 184 1.63 1.53 1.44 1.33 1.25 1.05
2-2 x 8 5-4 5-0 4-9 4-4 4-1 3-5
2-38 x 235 1.99 1.87 1.72 1.60 1.50 1.27
2-2 x 10 6-6 6-2 5-8 5-3 4-11 4-2
2-38 x 286 2.31 2.12 1.96 1.82 1.71 1.45
2-2 x 12 7-7 6-11 6-5 6-0 5-7 4-9
Roof ceiling and 2-2 x 4 2-11 2-9 2-7 2-6 2-5 1-11
3 storeys1,2,5 2-38 x 140 1.25 1.19 1.14 1.08 1.02 0.81
2-2 x 6 4-1 3-11 3-9 3-7 3-4 2-8
2-38 x 184 1.52 1.44 1.35 1.27 1.21 0.97
2-2 x 8 5-0 4-9 4-5 4-2 3-11 3-2
2-38 x 235 1.86 1.73 1.62 1.53 1.45 1.17
2-2 x 10 6-1 5-8 5-4 5-0 4-9 3-10
2-38 x 286 2.11 1.96 1.84 1.74 1.66 1.35
2-2 x 12 6-11 6-5 6-1 5-9 5-5 4-5
Notes to Table 26
1. Lintel spans are calculated based on a maximum floor joist, roof joist or rafter span of 4.9 m (16 ft.–0 in.) and a maximum
roof truss span of 9.8 m (32 ft.–0 in.). Lintel spans may be increased by 5 per cent if rafter and joist spans are no greater
than 4.3 m (14 ft.–1 in.), and roof truss spans are no greater than 8.6 m (28 ft.–3 in.). Spans may be increased by 10 per cent
if rafter and joist spans are no greater than 3.7 m (12 ft.–2 in.), and roof truss spans are no greater than 7.4 m (24 ft.–3 in.).
2. If floor joists span the full width of the building without support, lintel spans shall be reduced by 15 per cent for “Roof,
ceiling and 1 storey”, by 20 per cent for “Roof, ceiling and 2 storeys” and by 25 per cent for “Roof, ceiling and 3 storeys”.
3. For ends of lintels fully supported by walls, provide minimum 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) of bearing for lintel spans up to 3 m (10 ft.),
or minimum 76 mm (3 in.) of bearing for lintel spans greater than 3 m (10 ft.).
4. A single piece of 89 mm (31⁄2 in.) thick lumber may be used in lieu of 2 pieces of 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) thick lumber on edge.
6. Spans for 0.6 m (2 ft.) tributary width are calculated for lintels in end walls that support only a 0.6 m (2 ft.) width of roof
and ceiling, but do not support roof joists, roof rafters or roof trusses.
7. When structural sheathing is used, lintel spans may be increased by 15 per cent. Structural sheathing consists of a minimum
9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) thick structural panel conforming to CSA O121, CSA O151, CSA O437 or CSA O325 fastened with
at least two rows of fasteners conforming to Table 20 to the exterior face of the lintel, and a single row to the top
plates and studs.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 27
Maximum spans for built-up ridge beams and lintels supporting roof and ceiling
only. No. 1 or No. 2 grade
Maximum Span, m (ft.–in.)1, 2,3
Specified Snow Load, kPa (psf)

Lintel Size,
mm 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Commercial
Designation in. 20.9 31.3 41.8 52.2 62.7
Spruce, pine, or fir 2.88 2.48 2.21 2.01 1.86

(includes Spruce 3-ply
[all species except 9–6 8–2 7–3 6–7 6–1
Coast Sitka
Spruce], Jack Pine, 38 x 184 3.30 2.86 2.55 2.32 2.14
Lodgepole Pine, 4-ply
2x8 10–10 9–5 8–4 7–7 7–0
Balsam Fir and
Alpine Fir) 3.55 3.10 2.82 2.59 2.40
5-ply
11–8 10–2 9–3 8–6 7–10
3.53 3.03 2.70 2.46 2.27

3-ply
11–7 9–11 8–10 8–1 7–5
38 x 235 4.07 3.50 3.12 2.84 2.62

4-ply
2 x 10 13–4 11–6 10–3 9–4 8–7
4.54 3.91 3.43 3.17 2.93

5-ply
14–11 12–10 11–5 10–5 9–7
4.09 3.52 3.13 2.85 2.63

3-ply
13–9 11–6 10–3 9–4 8–8
38 x 286 4.72 4.06 3.62 3.29 3.04

4-ply
2 x 12 15–6 13–4 11–10 10–10 10–0
5.28 4.54 4.04 3.68 3.40

5-ply
17–4 14–11 13–3 12–1 11–2
Notes to Table 27
1. Beam and lintel spans are calculated based on a maximum supported length of 4.9 m (16 ft.–0 in.). Spans may be increased
by 5 per cent for supported lengths not more than 4.3 m (14 ft.–1 in.), by 10 per cent for supported lengths not more than
3.7 m (12 ft.–2 in.) and by 25 per cent for supported lengths not more than 2.4 m (7 ft.–10 in.).
2. For ridge beams, supported length means half the sum of the rafter, joist or truss span on both sides of the beam. For lintels,
supported length means half the sum of truss, roof joist or rafter spans supported by the lintel plus the length of the
overhang beyond the lintel.
3. Provide minimum 76 mm (3 in.) bearing.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 28
Minimum thickness of wall sheathing
Minimum Thickness, mm (in.)
With Supports With Supports With Supports

Type of Sheathing 400 (16) o.c. 500 (20) o.c. 600 (24) o.c. Material Standards
Structural
Fibreboard (insulating) 9.5 (3⁄8) - 11.1 (7⁄16) CAN/CSA-A247
Gypsum sheathing 9.5 (3⁄8) - 12.7 (1⁄2) CAN/CSA-A82.27-M
Plywood (exterior type) 6.0 (1⁄4) - 7.5 (5⁄16) CSA O121-M
CSA O151-M
CSA O153-M
OSB, O-1 grade, and

6.35 (1⁄4) - 7.9 (5⁄16) CSA O437.0
waferboard, R-1 grade
Panel mark
W16 W20 W24 CSA O325.0
(performance-rated panels)
Lumber 17.0 (11⁄16) - 17.0 (11⁄16) See Table 7
Mineral fibre,
25 (1) - 25 (1) CSA A101-M
rigid board, type 2
OSB, O-2 grade 6.0 (1⁄4) - 7.5 (5⁄16) CSA O437.0
Phenolic, faced 25 (1) - 25 (1) CAN/CGSB-51.25-M
Non-Structural
Expanded polystyrene
38 (11⁄2) 38 (11⁄2) CAN/CGSB-51.20-M
(Types 1 and 2)
Expanded polystyrene
25 (1) 25 (1) CAN/CGSB-51.20-M
(Types 3 and 4)
Urethane and isocyanurate

38 (11⁄2) 38 (11⁄2) CGSB 51-GP-21M
(Types 1, 2 and 4)

25 (1) 25 (1) CGSB 51-GP-21M
(Type 3)

25 (1) 25 (1) CAN/CGSB-51.26-M
(Types 1 and 2), faced

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 29
Maximum spans for roof joists – specified roof snow loads 1.0 to 2.0 kPa
(20.9 to 41.8 psf)
Specified Snow Load, kPa (psf)1
1.0 1.5 2.0

(20.9) (31.3) (41.8)
Joist Spacing, Joist Spacing, Joist Spacing,

Joist mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
(includes Douglas and
fir and western No. 2 2x4 8–6 7–9 6–9 7–5 6–9 5–11 6–9 6–2 5–4
larch) 38 x 140 4.08 3.71 3.24 3.57 3.24 2.83 3.24 2.94 2.57
2x6 13–5 12–2 10–8 11–8 10–8 9–3 10–8 9–8 8–5
38 x 184 5.36 4.87 4.26 4.69 4.26 3.72 4.26 3.87 3.38
2x8 17–7 16–0 14–0 15–4 14–0 12–2 14–0 12–8 11–1
38 x 235 6.85 6.22 5.44 5.98 5.44 4.74 5.44 4.94 4.22
2 x 10 22–6 20–5 17–10 19–8 17–10 15–7 17–10 16–2 13–10
38 x 286 8.34 7.57 6.40 7.28 6.62 5.50 6.62 6.00 4.90
2 x 12 27–4 24–10 21–0 23–11 21–9 18–1 21–9 19–8 16–1
Hem – fir No. 1 38 x 89 2.59 2.36 2.06 2.27 2.06 1.80 2.06 1.87 1.63
(includes western and
hemlock and No. 2 2x4 8–6 7–9 6–9 7–5 6–9 5–11 6–9 6–2 5–4
amabilis fir) 38 x 140 4.08 3.71 3.24 3.57 3.24 2.83 3.24 2.94 2.57
2x6 13–5 12–2 10–8 11–8 10–8 9–3 10–8 9–8 8–5
38 x 184 5.36 4.87 4.26 4.69 4.26 3.72 4.26 3.87 3.38
2x8 17–7 16–0 14–0 15–4 14–0 12–2 14–0 12–8 11–1
38 x 235 6.85 6.22 5.44 5.98 5.44 4.75 5.44 4.94 4.32
2 x 10 22–6 20–5 17–10 19–8 17–10 15–7 17–10 16–2 14–2
38 x 286 8.34 7.57 6.62 7.28 6.62 5.77 6.62 6.01 5.25
2 x 12 27–4 24–10 21–9 23–11 21–9 18–11 21–9 19–9 16–10
Continued on p. 297

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for roof joists – specified roof snow loads 1.0 to 2.0 kPa
(20.9 to 41.8 psf)
1.0 1.5 2.0

(20.9) (31.3) (41.8)
Joist Spacing, Joist Spacing, Joist Spacing,

Joist mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
(includes spruce and
[all species except No. 2 2x4 8–1 7–4 6–5 7–1 6–5 5–7 6–5 5–10 5–1
coast sitka 38 x 140 3.89 3.53 3.08 3.40 3.08 2.69 3.08 2.80 2.45
spruce], jack pine,
lodgepole pine, 2x6 12–9 11–7 10–1 11–2 10–1 8–10 10–1 9–2 8–0
balsam fir and
alpine fir) 38 x 184 5.11 4.64 4.05 4.46 4.05 3.54 4.05 3.68 3.22
2x8 16–9 15–3 13–4 14–8 13–4 11–7 13–4 12–1 10–7
38 x 35 6.52 5.93 5.18 5.70 5.18 4.52 5.18 4.70 4.11
2 x 10 21–5 19–5 17–0 18–8 17–0 14–10 17–0 15–5 13–6
38 x 286 7.94 7.21 6.30 6.94 6.30 5.50 6.30 5.73 5.00
2 x 12 26–1 23–8 20–8 22–9 20–8 18–1 20–8 18–9 16–5
(includes any and
Canadian species No. 2 2x4 7–4 6–8 5–10 6–5 5–10 5–1 5–10 5–3 4–7
covered by the 38 x 140 3.51 3.19 2.79 3.07 2.79 2.43 2.79 2.53 2.21
NLGA Standard
Grading Rules) 2x6 11–6 10–6 9–2 10–1 9–2 8–0 9–2 8–4 7–3
38 x 184 4.61 4.19 3.66 4.03 3.66 3.20 3.66 3.33 2.91
2x8 15–2 13–9 12–0 13–3 12–0 10–6 12–0 10–11 9–6
38 x 235 5.89 5.35 4.68 5.15 4.68 4.09 4.68 4.25 3.68
2 x 10 19–4 17–7 15–4 16–11 15–4 13–5 15–4 13–11 12–1
38 x 286 7.17 6.52 5.58 6.26 5.69 4.80 5.69 5.17 4.27
2 x 12 23–6 21–5 18–4 20–7 18–8 15–9 18–8 17–0 14–0
Note to Table 29
1. To determine the specified snow load in your location, contact your municipal building department.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 30
Maximum spans for roof joists – specified roof snow loads 2.5 and 3.0 kPa
(52.2 and 62.7 psf)
2.5 (52.2) 3.0 (62.7)

Joist Joist Spacing, mm (in.) Joist Spacing, mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
Designation Grade in. 12 16 24 12 16 24
Douglas fir – larch No. 1 38 x 89 1.91 1.74 1.52 1.80 1.63 1.43
fir and western No. 2 2x4 6–3 5–8 5–0 5–11 5–4 4–8
larch) 38 x 140 3.01 2.73 2.39 2.83 2.57 2.25
2x6 9–10 9–0 7–10 9–3 8–5 7–4
38 x 184 3.95 3.59 3.14 3.72 3.38 2.90
2x8 13–0 11–9 10–3 12–2 11–1 9–6
38 x 235 5.05 4.59 3.84 4.75 4.32 3.55
2 x 10 16–7 15–1 12–7 15–7 14–2 11–8
38 x 286 6.14 5.46 4.46 5.78 5.05 4.12
2 x 12 20–2 17–11 14–8 19–0 16–7 13–6
Hem – fir No. 1 38 x 89 1.91 1.74 1.52 1.80 1.63 1.43

hemlock and No. 2 2x4 6–3 5–8 5–0 5–11 5–4 4–8
amabilis fir) 38 x 140 3.01 2.73 2.39 2.83 2.57 2.25
2x6 9–10 9–0 7–10 9–3 8–5 7–4
38 x 184 3.95 3.59 3.14 3.72 3.38 2.95
2x8 13–0 11–9 10–3 12–2 11–1 9–8
38 x 235 5.05 4.59 4.01 4.75 4.32 3.72
2 x 10 16–7 15–1 13–2 15–7 14–2 12–3
38 x 286 6.14 5.58 4.68 5.78 5.25 4.32
2 x 12 20–2 18–4 15–4 19–0 17–3 14–2
Continued on p. 299

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for roof joists – specified roof snow loads 2.5 and 3.0 kPa
(52.2 and 62.7 psf)
2.5 (52.2) 3.0 (62.7)
Joist Spacing, Joist Spacing,

Joist mm (in.) mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
Spruce, pine, or fir No. 1 38 x 89 1.82 1.65 1.44 1.71 1.56 1.36
[all species except No. 2 2x4 6–0 5–5 4–9 5–7 5–1 4–6
coast sitka 38 x 140 2.86 2.60 2.27 2.69 2.45 2.14
spruce], jack pine,
lodgepole pine, 2x6 9–5 8–6 7–5 8–10 8–0 7–0
balsam fir and
alpine fir) 38 x 184 3.76 3.42 2.99 3.54 3.22 2.81
2x8 12–4 11–3 9–10 11–7 10–7 9–3
38 x 235 4.81 4.37 3.82 4.52 4.11 3.59
2 x 10 15–9 14–4 12–6 14–10 13–6 11–9
38 x 286 5.85 5.31 4.64 5.50 5.00 4.37
2 x 12 19–2 17–5 15–3 18–1 16–5 14–4
Northern species No. 1 38 x 89 1.64 1.49 1.31 1.55 1.41 1.23

(includes any and
Canadian species No. 2 2x4 5–5 4–11 4–3 5–1 4–7 4–0
covered by the 38 x 140 2.59 2.35 2.05 2.43 2.21 1.93
NLGA Standard
Grading Rules) 2x6 8–6 7–9 6–9 8–0 7–3 6–4
38 x 184 3.40 3.09 2.70 3.20 2.91 2.53
2x8 11–2 10–2 8–10 10–6 9–6 8–4
38 x 235 4.34 3.94 3.35 4.09 3.71 3.10
2 x 10 14–3 12–11 11–0 13–5 12–2 10–2
38 x 286 5.28 4.76 3.89 4.97 4.40 3.59
2 x 12 17–4 15–7 12–9 16–4 14–5 11–9
Note to Table 30

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 31
Maximum spans for roof rafters – specified roof snow loads 1.0 to 2.0 kPa
(20.9 to 41.8 psf)
1.0 1.5 2.0

(20.9) (31.3) (41.8)
Rafter Spacing, Rafter Spacing, Rafter Spacing,

Rafter mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
2x4 10–9 9–9 8–6 9–4 8–6 7–5 8–6 7–9 6–9
fir and western No. 2
larch) 38 x 140 5.14 4.67 3.95 4.49 4.08 3.34 4.08 3.60 2.94
2x6 16–10 15–4 12–11 14–9 13–5 10–11 13–5 11–10 9–8
38 x 184 6.76 5.88 4.80 5.74 4.97 4.06 5.06 4.38 3.58
2x8 22–2 19–4 15–9 18–10 16–4 13–4 16–7 14–5 11–9
38 x 235 8.30 7.19 5.87 7.02 6.08 4.96 6.19 5.36 4.38
2 x 10 27–3 23–7 19–3 23–0 19–11 16–3 20–4 17–7 14–4
38 x 286 9.63 8.34 6.81 8.14 7.05 5.76 7.18 6.22 5.08
2 x 12 31–7 27–5 22–4 26–9 23–2 18–11 23–7 20–5 16–8
Hem – fir No. 1 38 x 89 3.27 2.97 2.59 2.86 2.59 2.27 2.59 2.36 2.06
2x4 10–9 9–9 8–6 9–4 8–6 7–5 8–6 7–9 6–9
hemlock and No. 2
amabilis fir) 38 x 140 5.14 4.67 4.08 4.49 4.08 3.50 4.08 3.71 3.08
2x6 16–10 15–4 13–5 14–9 13–5 11–6 13–5 12–2 10–1
38 x 184 6.76 6.14 5.04 5.90 5.21 4.26 5.31 4.60 3.75
2x8 22–2 20–2 16–6 19–4 17–1 14–0 17–5 15–1 12–4
38 x 235 8.63 7.54 6.16 7.36 6.37 5.20 6.49 5.62 4.59
2 x 10 28–4 24–9 20–2 24–2 20–11 17–1 21–4 18–5 15–1
38 x 286 10.11 8.75 7.15 8.54 7.40 6.04 7.53 6.52 5.33
2 x 12 33–2 28–9 23–5 28–0 24–3 19–10 24–9 21–5 17–6
Continued on p. 301

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for roof rafters – specified roof snow loads 1.0 to 2.0 kPa
(20.9 to 41.8 psf)
1.0 1.5 2.0

(20.9) (31.3) (41.8)
Rafter Spacing, Rafter Spacing, Rafter Spacing,

Rafter mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
[all species except No. 2 2 x 4 10–3 9–3 8–1 8–11 8–1 7–1 8–1 7–4 6–5
coast sitka 38 x 140 4.90 4.45 3.89 4.28 3.89 3.40 3.89 3.53 3.08
spruce], jack pine,
lodgepole pine, 2x6 16–1 14–7 12–9 14–0 12–9 11–2 12–9 11–7 10–1
balsam fir and
alpine fir) 38 x 184 6.44 5.85 5.11 5.62 5.11 4.41 5.11 4.64 3.89
2x8 21–1 19–2 16–9 18–5 16–9 14–6 16–9 15–3 12–9
38 x 235 8.22 7.47 6.38 7.18 6.52 5.39 6.52 5.82 4.75
2 x 10 27–0 24–6 20–11 23–7 21–5 17–8 21–5 19–1 15–7
38 x 286 10.00 9.06 7.40 8.74 7.66 6.25 7.80 6.76 5.52
2 x 12 32–10 29–9 24–3 28–8 25–2 20–6 25–7 22–2 18–1
(includes any and
Canadian species No. 2 2 x 4 9–3 8–5 7–4 8–1 7–4 6–5 7–4 6–8 5–10
covered by the 38 x 140 4.42 4.02 3.44 3.86 3.51 2.91 3.51 3.14 2.56
NLGA Standard
Grading Rules) 2x6 14–6 13–2 11–3 12–8 11–6 9–6 11–6 10–4 8–5
38 x 184 5.81 5.13 4.19 5.00 4.33 3.54 4.41 3.82 3.12
2x8 19–1 16–10 13–9 16–5 14–3 11–7 14–6 12–6 10–3
38 x 235 7.24 6.27 5.12 6.12 5.30 4.33 5.40 4.67 3.82
2 x 10 23–9 20–7 16–10 20–1 17–5 14–2 17–8 15–4 12–6
38 x 286 8.40 7.27 5.94 7.10 6.15 5.02 6.26 5.42 4.43
2 x 12 27–7 23–10 19–6 23–3 20–2 16–6 20–6 17–9 14–6
Note to Table 31

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 32
Maximum spans for roof rafters – specified roof snow loads 2.5 and 3.0 kPa
(52.2 and 62.7 psf)
2.5 (52.2) 3.0 (62.7)

Rafter Rafter Spacing, mm (in.) Rafter Spacing, mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
Douglas fir – No. 1 38 x 89 2.41 2.19 1.86 2.27 2.06 1.71

larch (includes and
No. 2 2x4 7–11 7–2 6–1 7–5 6–9 5–7
Douglas fir and
western larch) 38 x 140 3.76 3.26 2.66 3.46 3.00 2.45
2x6 12–4 10–8 8–9 11–4 9–10 8–0
38 x 184 4.58 3.96 3.24 4.21 3.65 2.98
2x8 15–0 13–0 10–7 13–10 12–0 9–9
38 x 235 5.60 4.85 3.96 5.15 4.46 3.64
2 x 10 18–4 15–11 13–0 16–11 14–8 11–11
38 x 286 6.50 5.63 4.59 5.98 5.17 4.23
2 x 12 21–4 18–5 15–1 19–7 17–0 13–10
Hem – fir No. 1 38 x 89 2.41 2.19 1.91 2.27 2.06 1.80

No. 2 2x4 7–11 7–2 6–3 7–5 6–9 5–11
hemlock and
amabilis fir) 38 x 140 3.79 3.42 2.79 3.57 3.14 2.57
2x6 12–5 11–3 9–2 11–8 10–4 8–5
38 x 184 4.80 4.16 3.40 4.42 3.83 3.12
2x8 15–9 13–8 11–2 14–6 12–7 10–3
38 x 235 5.87 5.08 4.15 5.40 4.68 3.82
2 x 10 19–3 16–8 13–7 17–9 15–4 12–6
38 x 286 6.81 5.90 4.82 6.27 5.43 4.43
2 x 12 22–4 19–4 15–10 20–7 17–10 14–6
Continued on p. 303

APPENDIX A
Tables
Maximum spans for roof rafters – specified roof snow loads 2.5 and 3.0 kPa
(52.2 and 62.7 psf)
2.5 (52.2) 3.0 (62.7)

Rafter Rafter Spacing, mm (in.) Rafter Spacing, mm (in.)
Size,
mm 300 400 600 300 400 600
Commercial
Spruce, pine, or fir No. 1 38 x 89 2.29 2.08 1.82 2.16 1.96 1.71
[all species except No. 2 2x4 7–6 6–10 6–0 7–1 6–5 5–7
coast sitka spruce], 38 x 140 3.61 3.28 2.86 3.40 3.08 2.66
jack pine, lodgepole
pine, balsam fir and 2x6 11–10 10–9 9–5 11–2 10–1 8–9
alpine fir)
38 x 184 4.74 4.31 3.52 4.46 3.96 3.23
2x8 15–7 14–2 11–6 14–8 13–0 10–7
38 x 235 6.06 5.27 4.30 5.59 4.84 3.96
2 x 10 19–10 17–3 14–1 18–4 15–11 13–0
38 x 286 7.06 6.11 4.99 6.49 5.62 4.59
2 x 12 23–2 20–1 16–4 21–4 18–5 15–1
Northern species No. 1 38 x 89 2.07 1.88 1.62 1.95 1.77 1.49

(includes any and
Canadian species No. 2 2x4 6–10 6–2 5–4 6–5 5–10 4–11
covered by the 38 x 140 3.26 2.84 2.32 3.02 2.61 2.13
NLGA Standard
Grading Rules) 2x6 10–8 9–4 7–7 9–11 8–7 7–0
38 x 184 3.99 3.46 2.82 3.67 3.18 2.60
2x8 13–1 11–4 9–3 12–1 10–5 8–6
38 x 235 4.88 4.23 3.45 4.49 3.89 3.17
2 x 10 16–0 13–10 11–4 14–9 12–9 10–5
38 x 286 5.66 4.90 4.00 5.21 4.51 3.68
2 x 12 18–7 16–1 13–2 17–1 14–10 12–1
Note to Table 32

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 33
Maximum spans for ceiling joists – attic not accessible by a stairway
Joist Spacing, mm (in.)

Commercial Joist Size,
Designation Grade mm (in.) 300 (12) 400 (16) 600 (24)
Douglas fir – larch No. 1 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 3.27 (10–9) 2.97 (9–9) 2.59 (8–6)
fir and western No. 2 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 5.14 (16–10) 4.67 (15–4) 4.08 (13–5)
larch)
38 x 184 (2 x 8) 6.76 (22–2) 6.14 (20–2) 5.36 (17–7)
38 x 235 (2 x 10) 8.63 (28–4) 7.84 (25–9) 6.85 (22–6)
38 x 286 (2 x 12) 10.50 (34–5) 9.54 (31–3) 8.34 (27–4)
Hem – fir No. 1 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 3.27 (10–9) 2.97 (9–9) 2.59 (8–6)

hemlock and No. 2 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 5.14 (16–10) 4.67 (15–4) 4.08 (13–5)
amabilis fir)
38 x 184 (2 x 8) 6.76 (22–2) 6.14 (20–2) 5.36 (17–7)
38 x 235 (2 x 10) 8.63 (28–4) 7.84 (25–9) 6.85 (22–6)
38 x 286 (2 x 12) 10.50 (34–5) 9.54 (31–3) 8.34 (27–4)
Spruce, pine, or fir No. 1 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 3.11 (10–3) 2.83 (9–3) 2.47 (8–1)
[all species except No. 2 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 4.90 (16–1) 4.45 (14–7) 3.89 (12–9)
coast sitka spruce],
jack pine, lodgepole 38 x 184 (2 x 8) 6.44 (21–1) 5.85 (19–2) 5.11 (16–9 )
pine, balsam fir and
38 x 235 (2 x 10) 8.22 (27–0) 7.47 (24–6) 6.52 (21–5)
alpine fir)
38 x 286 (2 x 12) 10.00 (32–10) 9.09 (29–10) 7.94 (26–1)
Northern Species No. 1 38 x 89 (2 x 4) 2.81 (9–3) 2.55 (8–5) 2.23 (7–4 )

(includes any and
Canadian species No. 2 38 x 140 (2 x 6) 4.42 (14–6) 4.02 (13–2) 3.51 (11–6)
covered by the
NLGA Standard 38 x 184 (2 x 8) 5.81 (19–1) 5.28 (17–4) 4.61 (15–2)
Grading Rules)
38 x 235 (2 x 10) 7.42 (24–4) 6.74 (22–2) 5.89 (19–4)
38 x 286 (2 x 12) 9.03 (29–8) 8.21 (26–11) 7.17 (23–6)

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 34
Minimum rafter-to-joist nailing1, 2
Rafter Tied to Every Joist Rafter Tied to Joist Every
1.2 m (3 ft., 11 in.)
Building Width up to Building Width up to
8m 9.8 m 8m 9.8 m
(26 ft., 3 in.) (32 ft., 2 in.) (26 ft., 3 in.) (32 ft., 2 in.)
Roof Snow Load, kPa (psf)3
1 1.5 2.0 1 1.5 2.0 1 1.5 2.0 1 1.5 2.0

Rafter (20) (30) (40) (20) (30) (40) (20) (30) (40) (20) (30) (40)
Roof Spacing, or or or or or or or or
Slope mm (in.) less more less more less more less more
1:3 400 (16) 4 5 6 5 7 8 11 – – – – –
600 (24) 6 8 9 8 – – 11 – – – – –
1:2.4 400 (16) 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 10 – 9 – –
600 (24) 5 7 8 7 9 11 7 10 – – – –
1:2 400 (16) 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 8 9 8 – –
600 (24) 4 5 6 5 7 8 6 8 9 8 – –
1:1.71 400 (16) 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 7 8 7 9 11
600 (24) 4 4 5 5 6 7 5 7 8 7 9 11
1:1.33 400 (16) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 5 6 7
600 (24) 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 7
1:1 400 (16) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5
600 (24) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5
Notes to Table 34
1. Nails not less than 79 mm (31⁄8 in.).
2. Ceiling joists must be fastened together with at least one more nail per joist splice than required for the
rafter-to-joist connection.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 35
Minimum thickness of roof sheathing for sloping roofs1
Sheathing Thickness, mm (in.), for Truss or Rafter Spacing at
300 (12) 400 (16) 500 (20) 600 (24)
Plywood and OSB, Supported2 edges 7.5 (5⁄16) 7.5 (5⁄16) 9.5 (3⁄8)
O-2 grade Unsupported edges 7.5 (5⁄16) 9.5 (3⁄8) 12.7 (1⁄2)
OSB, O-1 grade and Supported edges 9.5 (3⁄8) 9.5 (3⁄8) 11.1 (7⁄16)
waferboard R-1 grade Unsupported edges 9.5 (3⁄8) 11.1 (7⁄16) 12.7 (1⁄2)
Panel mark Supported2 edges - 1R16 1R20 1R24

(performance-rated
panels)
Panel mark Unsupported edges - 2R16 2R20 2R24

(performance-rated
panels)
Lumber3 17 (11⁄16) 17 (11⁄16) 19 (3⁄4)
Notes for Table 35

1. The thickness of sheathing for flat roofs used as walking decks is the same as for subfloors (see Table 18).
2. Supported edges between panels by means of H clips or minimum 38 mm x 38 mm (2 in. x 2 in.) blocking between trusses
or rafters.
3. For eastern white pine and red pine, minimum lumber grade is No. 4 common. For all other species, the minimum grades
shall be standard or No. 3 common.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 36
Roofing types and slope limits for roofs
Slope
Type of Roofing Minimum Maximum
Built-up roofing
Asphalt base (graveled) 1 in 50 1 in 4
Asphalt base (without gravel) 1 in 25 1 in 2
Coal-tar base (graveled) 1 in 50 1 in 25
Cold process 1 in 25 1 in 1.33
Asphalt shingles
Normal Application 1 in 3 No limit
Low slope application 1 in 6 No limit
Roll roofing
Smooth and mineral surfaced 1 in 4 No limit
480 mm (19 in.) wide selvage asphalt roofing 1 in 6 No limit
Cold application felt 1 in 50 1 in 1.33
Wood shingles 1 in 4 No limit
Handsplit shakes 1 in 3 No limit
Asbestos-cement corrugated sheets 1 in 4 No limit
Corrugated metal roofing 1 in 4 No limit
Sheet metal shingles 1 in 4 No limit
Slate shingles 1 in 2 No limit
Clay tile 1 in 2 No limit
Glass fibre reinforced polyester roofing panels 1 in 4 No limit
Table 37
Exposure and thickness of wood shingles and machine-grooved shakes – walls
Maximum Exposure, mm (in.)
Shake or Shingle Single Double Minimum Butt

Length, mm (in.) Coursing Coursing Thickness, mm (in.)
400 (16) 190 (71⁄2) 305 (12) 10 (3⁄8)
450 (18) 216 (81⁄2) 356 (14) 11 (7⁄16)
600 (24) 292 (111⁄2) 406 (16) 13 (1⁄2)

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 38
Stapling table, mm (in.)
A) Asphalt shingles to wood decks
1. 1.6 mm (16 gauge) thick, 22.2 (7⁄8) long, 11.1 (7⁄16) crown
Corrosion resistant
1
⁄3 more staples than the number of nails required
2. 1.6 mm (16 gauge) thick, 19 (3⁄4) long, 25.4 (1) crown
Corrosion resistant
Equivalent to number of nails required
B) Cedar shingles to wood decks

1.6 mm (16 gauge) thick, 28.6 (11⁄8) long, 9.5 (3⁄8) crown
Corrosion resistant
C) Gypsum plaster lath, 9.5 (3⁄8) thick

1.6 mm (16 gauge) thick, 25.4 (1) long, 19 (3⁄4) crown
Gypsum plaster lath, 9.5 (3⁄8) thick
1.6 mm (16 gauge) thick, 28.6 (11⁄8) long, 19 (3⁄4) crown
D) 7.5 and 9.5 (5⁄16 and 3⁄8) plywood wall sheathing

E) 9.5 (3⁄8) plywood roof sheathing

F) 11.1 and 12.7 (7⁄16 and 1⁄2) fibreboard wall sheathing

G) 6.4 (1⁄4) underlayment

H) 7.9 and 9.5 (5⁄16 and 3⁄8) hardboard underlayment

I) Metal plaster lath

2 mm (14 gauge) thick, 38.1 (11⁄2) long, 19 (3⁄4) crown

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 39
Stucco mixes (by volume)
Masonry Cement,
Portland Cement Type H Lime Aggregate
1 – 1
⁄4 to 1 31⁄4 to 4 parts per part
1 1 1 of cementitious material
Table 40
Minimum thickness of flashing materials
Material Minimum Thickness, mm (in.)
Roof Flashing Wall Flashing
Cladding Above-Grade Masonry
Exposed Concealed
Aluminum 0.48 (0.019) 0.48 (0.019) 0.48 (0.019) –
Copper 0.46 (0.018) 0.46 (0.018) 0.36 (0.014) 0.36 (0.014)
Copper or aluminum
laminated to felt or
kraft paper – – – 0.05 (0.002)
Galvanized steel 0.33 (0.013) 0.33 (0.013) 0.33 (0.013) 0.33 (0.013)
Lead sheet 1.73 (0.068) 1.73 (0.068) 1.73 (0.068) 1.73 (0.068)
Polyethylene – – – 0.50 (0.02)
Roll roofing, types – – – Standard
Zinc 0.35 (0.014) 0.35 (0.014) 0.35 (0.014) 0.35 (0.014)
Vinyl – 1.02 (0.04) – –

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 41
Dimensions for wood-strip flooring
Minimum Thickness of Flooring, mm (in.)
Type of Maximum Joist
Flooring Spacing, mm (in.) With Subfloor No Subfloor
Matched hardwood 400 (16) 7.9 (5⁄16) 19.0 (3⁄4)

(interior use only) 600 (24) 7.9 (5⁄16) 33.3 (15⁄16)
Matched softwood 400 (16) 19.0 (3⁄4) 19.0 (3⁄4)

(interior or exterior use) 600 (24) 19.0 (3⁄4) 31.7 (11⁄4)
Square edge softwood 400 (16) – 25.4 (1)

(exterior use only) 600 (24) – 38.1 (11⁄2)
Table 42
Nailing of wood-strip flooring
Finish Floor Thickness, Minimum Length of Maximum Spacing of

mm (in.) Flooring Nails, mm (in.) Flooring Nails, mm (in.)
7.9 (5⁄16) 38 (11⁄2) 200 (8)
11.1 (7⁄16) 51 (2) 300 (12)
19.0 (3⁄4) 57 (21⁄4) 400 (16)
25.4 (1) 63 (21⁄2) 400 (16)
31.7 (11⁄4) 70 (23⁄4) 600 (24)
38.1 (11⁄2) 83 (31⁄4) 600 (24)
Note to Table 42
1. Staples are permitted to be used to fasten wood strip flooring not more than 7.9 mm (5⁄16 in.) in thickness provided
the staples are not less than 29 mm (13⁄16 in.) long with a shank diameter of 1.19 mm (0.047 in.) and a width of
4.7 mm (3⁄16 in.) crowns.

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 43
Built-up beams for exterior decks (lumber not incised)
Number and Size of Plys mm (in.)
Post
Joist Span
Spacing
m 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.3
ft. 8 9 10 11 12 14
D.Fir-L 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 184
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 8
1.8 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184
6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8
2.4 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235
8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10
Hem-Fir 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6
1.8 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235
6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10
2.4 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235
8 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10
S-P-F 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6
1.8 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235
6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10
2.4 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235
8 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10
Northern 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184
Species
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8
1.8 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184
6 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8
2.4 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 286
8 2-2 x 8 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 12
Continued on p. 312

APPENDIX A
Tables
Built-up beams for exterior decks (lumber incised)
Number and Size of Plys mm (in.)
Post
Joist Span
Spacing
m 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.3
ft. 8 9 10 11 12 14
D.Fir-L 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8
1.8 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184
6 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8
2.4 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235
8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10
Hem-Fir 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 184
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 8
1.8 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184
6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8
2.4 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235
8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10
S-P-F 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 184
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 8
1.8 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184
6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8
2.4 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235
8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10
Northern 1.2 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 140 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 184 1-38 x 235
Species
4 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 6 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 8 1-2 x 10
1.8 1-38 x 235 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 184 2-38 x 235
6 1-2 x 10 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 8 2-2 x 10
2.4 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 235 2-38 x 286 2-38 x 286
8 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 10 2-2 x 12 2-2 x 12
Notes to Table 43
1. Incising is knife cutting the surface of wood to help perservatives penetrate the wood.
2. Design based on 2001 CAN/CSA O86.
3. Live load = 40 psf (1.9 kPa), Dead load = 10 psf (0.5 kPa).
4. Lumber No. 2 and Better grade, pressure treated, wet service.
5. Beam selection is for a beam on the edge of a deck. Double the number of plys for middle beams supporting joists on
both sides.
6. Nail-laminate the beams to act as a single member (see Columns and Beams).

APPENDIX A
Tables
Table 44
Joists for exterior decks
Joist span, m (ft.–in.)
Joists not incised Joists incised
Joist spacing, mm (in.)
Joist Size
mm 400 600 400 600
in. 16 24 16 24
Douglas fir - larch 38 x 140 2.9 2.3 2.6 2.2
(includes Douglas fir
2x6 9-6 7-6 8-6 7-2
and western larch)
38 x 184 3.5 2.8 3.2 2.6
2x8 11-6 9.2 10-6 8-6
38 x 235 4.3 3.5 3.9 3.2
2 x 10 14-1 11-6 12-9 10-6
Hem - fir (includes 38 x 140 2.9 2.5 2.8 2.3
western hemlock
2x6 9-6 8-2 9-2 7-6
and amabilis fir)
38 x 184 3.7 3.0 3.4 2.7
2x8 12-1 9-9 11-2 8-10
38 x 235 4.3 3.6 4.1 3.4
2 x 10 14-1 11-9 13-4 11-2
Spruce, pine, or fir 38 x 140 2.8 2.4 2.7 2.3
(includes spruce
2x6 9-2 7-10 8-10 7-6
[all species except
coast sitka spruce], 38 x 184 3.7 3.1 3.5 2.8
jack pine, lodgeploe
pine, balsam fir and 2x8 12-1 10-2 11-6 9-2
alpine fir) 38 x 235 4.3 3.8 4.3 3.5
2 x 10 14-1 12-6 14-1 11-6
Northern Species 38 x 140 2.5 2.0 2.3 1.9
(includes any
2x6 8-2 6-7 7-6 6-2
Canadian species
covered by the 38 x 184 3.0 2.5 2.8 2.3
NLGA Standard
Grading Rules 2x8 9-9 8-2 9-2 7-6
38 x 235 3.7 3.0 3.4 2.8
2 x 10 12-1 9-9 11-2 9-2
Notes to Table 44
1. Incising is knife cutting the surface of wood to help perservatives penetrate the wood.
2. Design based on 2001 CAN / CSA O86
3. Live load + 1.9 kPa (40 psf), Dead load = 0.5 kPa (10 psf).
4. Lumber No. 2 and Better grade, pressure treated, wet service conditions.

APPENDIX B
Cutaway View of a Wood-frame House

APPENDIX B
76
77
68
61
59
58
34
33 67
48
5149 62
32 50
65
55
57
64
71
63
73
60
40 56
39 37
38 41
42
52 36
53 31
43
54 30
66 74
72
44
75
42
29
25
26
27
42 28
45
5
20
69 21
70 42 22
19
47 18
46 13 6
35 14
24 1634
8 1517
23 33
9
10
7 12
1 11
4 3 2
Foundation Excavation Basement Floor 18. Closed-cell foam sill gasket

1. Excavation to solid rock 9. Concrete floor slab 19. Sill plate attached to concrete
or below the depth of 10. Polyethylene dampproofing wall with anchor bolts
frost penetration
11. Rigid insulation
2. Concrete footing with key
12. Crushed stone Floor Platforms
3. Perforated perimeter
drain tile
and Headers
Foundation Wall and Sill 20. Rigid insulation to exterior
4. Crushed stone with side of rim joist
13. Bituminous dampproofing
soil filter cloth over
to exterior side of 21. Rim joist
5. Galvanized steel basement foundation wall 22. Batt insulation
window well
14. Concrete foundation wall 23. Floor joists with cross bridging
6. Vertical drain to drain tile
15. Rigid insulation to interior or blocking
7. Clean free-draining side of foundation wall 24. Tongue-and-groove plywood
backfill material
16. Wood-framing or OSB subflooring
8. Slope ground for
17. Batt insulation
surface drainage
Continued on p. 315

APPENDIX B
(Continued)
Exterior Wall Framing Brick Roof Finishes

25. Wood stud framing 43. Metal brick ties 61. Prefinished metal ridge vent
26. Double top plate, cross-lapped 44. Brick sill flashing 62. Roofing shingles
at corners 45. Steel angle brick lintel 63. Prefinished metal drip edge
27. Lintel, double wood headers 46. Brick veneer 64. Self-sealing composite
with insulated cavity eave protection
47. Brick sill
28. Jack stud bearing under lintel 65. ABS plastic plumbing vent
29. Batt insulation stack with neoprene rubber
Partition Walls roof collar on vent stack
30. Plywood or OSB 48. Partition wall framing
wall sheathing 66. Prefinished metal valley flashing
49. Double floor joist under
31. Spunbonded polyolefin partition wall 67. Prefinished metal flashing at
weather resistive barrier chimney to roof joints
50. Polyethylene vapour retarder
32. Electric receptacles and to continue across partitions 68. Prefinished metal
switches penetrating air at intersections with exterior chimney capping
barrier on exterior walls and wall and ceiling
ceilings mounted in airtight,
moulded plastic boxes
51. Seal holes through partition Fascia and Soffit
studs for electric wiring at 69. Wood blocking for truss soffit
exterior wall joint 70. Wood fascia plate
Interior Finishes
33. Gypsum board interior finish 71. Prefinished aluminum
on walls and ceilings
Roof and Ceiling Framing fascia cladding
52. Wood ladder framing to 72. Perforated vented aluminum
34. Polyethylene air barrier/vapour extend roof overhang at gable
retarder, lapped and sealed at soffit with J-trim on wall
53. Prefabricated gable-end roof 73. Gable end roof vent
all joints
truss shortened to receive
35. Floor finish (carpet, gable end soffit ladder framing
hardwood, resilient flooring Ventilation and
54. Prefabricated roof truss
or ceramic tile) Mechanical Equipment
55. Prefabricated roof truss
74. Exhaust air vent hood with
Siding Finish and Trim 56. Truss heel to accommodate screen and insulated duct
36. Drip cap flashing with end insulation without compression from central exhaust air
dams over window head 57. Plywood or OSB roof system or heat recovery
sheathing with metal “H” clips ventilator (HRV)
37. Vertical wood strapping,
aligned over studs; 25 mm or blocking at joints 75. Fresh air supply vent hood
(1 in.) air space at butt joints 58. Ceiling wood strapping with screen and insulated
59. Insulation duct to central fresh air
38. J-trim under soffit and around
system or HRV
window moulding 60. Insulation baffle to retain
insulation and maintain 76. Insulated double wall
39. Prefinished wood trim
vent space of at least stainless steel fireplace
40. Prefinished siding (hardboard, chimney flue with rain
wood, vinyl or aluminum) 63 mm (21⁄2 in.)
cap from prefabricated,
41. Brick cap flashing zero clearance, fireplace
42. Sill flashing with end dams 77. Double wall stainless steel
furnace flue with rain cap

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 1 – IMPORTANT GENERAL INFORMATION
Figure 1
Principles of sustainable housing
No additional alt text

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 2 – PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Figure 2 Figure 3
Approval, permits and inspection Site drainage
processes for new houses Two views of a house in the middle of a lot. The first
The approval, permits and inspection processes shows the land sloping from the back to the front of
for new houses occur over three stages; the lot, with surface water captured in perimeter
pre-construction, construction, and drain tile and directed to the storm sewer at the
post-construction. Pre-construction processes street at the front of the lot. The second shows the
may include: lot with the ground sloping away from the house,
with surface drainage to the storm sewer at the
1. planning, zoning and environmental approvals; street and to the catch basin at the back of the lot.
2. site plan, working drawings and specifications
3. building permit, plumbing permit, heating Figure 4
permit, electrical permit, utility permit for Sample single house
gas or propane, health unit permit for wells construction schedule
and septic systems
Subsequent to drawings, financing and the necessary
Construction processes may include inspection for: permits* being in place, the minimum construction
1. excavation and footings timing for an average house may be approximately
16 weeks, with a typical sequence as follows:
2. sewers, drains, water services and underground
plumbing 1. building layout a portion of a week
3. electrical services 2. excavation and footings a portion of a week
4. pre-backfill 3. foundation and drainage one week
5. plumbing, heating and electrical rough-in 4. backfill and framing, including flashing and
roofing, two weeks
6. framing
5. doors and windows one week, after which the
7. insulation, air barrier and vapour barrier
building can be considered closed and secure
8. pre-occupancy
6. plumbing, heating and electrical rough-in
9. final plumbing, heating and electrical work two weeks
Post-construction processes may include: 7. insulation, air and vapour barriers two weeks
1. completion inspection for the interior 8. exterior finishes two weeks
and exterior
9. interior finishes two weeks
2. Certificate of Occupancy
10. paint, cabinets and fixtures one week
11. landscaping one week

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 4 – LUMBER AND OTHER WOOD PRODUCTS
Figure 5
Examples of engineered wood products
Three types of engineered joists. Each joist type
includes a top and bottom wooden member,
termed a chord, such as a 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.)
on the flat, or LVL. The truss types differ by the
members which separate these chords. The first
shows a metal web joist, where metal strips,
mounted on each side of the chords, span on
the diagonal from one chord to the other in a
continuous metal ribbon the extent of the joist.
The second shows a wood web joist, where
pieces of wood, the same width as the chords,
span diagonally from the inside of one chord to
the inside of the other, continuously along the
length of the joist, and are attached to the chords
with nailing plates. The third shows a wood I-joist,
where a thin sheet of plywood or OSB spans
between the inside of one chord to the inside
of the other.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 5 – FUNCTIONS OF THE BUILDING ENVELOPE:

WATER, AIR, VAPOUR AND HEAT CONTROL
Figure 6 Figure 10
Examples of air leakage locations Air barrier and moisture management
No additional alt text details at window sill
Shown are the following from the framing sheathing
Figure 7 and window out to the siding:
Carrying the air barrier around ■■ prior to installation of the window in the
a rim joist at a floor intersection rough opening, a sub-sill flashing is installed on
the strip of weather resistive barrier (WRB)
that has been installed on the rough opening
sill, extending down the wall
Figure 8
the window is installed
Placement of air barrier over
■■
joist headers ■■ a weather resistive barrier (WRB) on the

exterior sheathing is lapped under the
No additional alt text sub-sill flashing
■■ a sill flashing with end dams is installed under
Figure 9 the window sill
Air barrier and moisture management ■■ the wood furring for the drainage space
details at window head between the WRB and siding is installed
Shown are the following from the framing sheathing over the WRB
and window out to the siding: ■■ the sill trim is installed over the WRB or
■■ A weather resistive barrier (WRB) extending over the wood furring as per design drawings,
from the top of the window frame up a and under the sill flashing
sufficient distance to extend above the ■■ the siding is installed
head flashing. The WRB also extends a
minimum 100 mm (4 in.) both sides of Figure 11
the window
Window in highly insulated wall
■■ the exterior window trim is installed over
the WRB Shown are the following from interior to exterior:
■■ head flashing with end dams is installed above
■■ Foil-faced, self-adhered membrane applied to
the exterior window head trim and extends rough framing sill, extending from under the
a minimum 100 mm (4 in.) beyond both sides window frame to the outside face of the
of the window, greater if required to cover window sill
the window trim ■■ Window shims to level window
■■ the WRB on the exterior sheathing is lapped ■■ Backer rod and sealant, or spray foam,
over the head flashing to connect wall air barrier to window
■■ the wood furring between the WRB and siding ■■ Stud cavity with glass fibre (batt) insulation
to create a drainage space for shredding water ■■ Sheathing
is installed over the WRB ■■ Sheathing membrane (air and water barrier)
■■ the siding is installed over the furring ■■ Exterior insulation
■■ Sill flashing with end dams
■■ Exterior wood trim
■■ Cladding (any type)

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
Figure 12 Figure 20
Polyethylene strips at end of partition Typical 38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) wall
and over top wall plates to provide Shown are the following from interior to exterior:
continuity of the air barrier ■■ 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) drywall on the interior
No additional alt text ■■ polyethylene sheet
■■ wood framing- studs and sheathing
Figure 13
insulation between studs
Installation of polyethylene sheet strips
■■
in interior wall framing ■■ sheathing membrane (air barrier)

■■ Furring strips for air space
■■ Horizontal siding on the exterior
Figure 14
Combined air barrier/vapour barrier Figure 21
Brick veneer cladding with insulation in
The polyethylene can be either stapled to the
studs and plates with seams lapped at least the framing space and outboard
100 mm (4 in.) or attached to the studs and Shown are the following from interior to exterior:
plates with a continuous bead of acoustical ■■ 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board on the interior
sealant. The air barrier / vapour barrier consists
of 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene.
■■ Polyethylene sheet
■■ 38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) studs
Figure 15 ■■ Batt insulation between studs
Concrete wall with rigid insulation ■■ sheathing
on outer face ■■ Rigid insulation sheathing
No additional alt text ■■ Sheathing membrane (air barrier)
■■ 25 mm (1 in.) air space
Figure 16
100 mm (4 in.) clay brick on the exterior
Concrete wall insulated with rigid
■■
insulation and batts Figure 22

No additional alt text Siding with insulation in the framing
space and outboard
Figure 17
Shown are the following from interior to exterior:
Insulated concrete form foundation wall
■■ 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board interior
■■ Polyethylene sheet
Figure 18 ■■ 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) framing
Location of thermal insulation ■■ Batt insulation between studs
No additional alt text ■■ Expanded polystyrene nailed to studs
■■ Sheathing membrane (air barrier)
Figure 19 ■■ Vertical wood furring creating air space
Double-wall framing construction Horizontal siding attached to studs
No additional alt text Note: Bracing required in walls at corners

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
Figure 23 Figure 26
Floor over unheated crawl space Alternative method of insulating
insulated with friction-fit batts joist-type roof ceiling between the
No additional alt text ceiling and sheathing
Shown are the following from interior to exterior:
Figure 24 ■■ Ceiling
Eave details to avoid blocking ventilation ■■ Air and vapour barrier
Shown are the following from interior to exterior: ■■ Wood I joists with holes in the upper portion
■■ Raised-heel truss with batt or loose-fill of the web for cross ventilation
insulation on the ceiling. Includes view of ■■ Insulation batts between roof joists
perforated soffit.
■■ Baffles between joists at the plane of the
■■ Ordinary truss heel joint with air ventilation wall building envelope to contain insulation
baffle between the truss members at the in proper area
plane of building envelope extending up
the underside of the roof sheathing with
■■ Roof sheathing
a minimum 25 mm (1 in.) continuous air ■■ Perforated soffit and prefinished fascia
space above the baffle. Includes view of outboard of exterior wall
perforated soffit.
Figure 27
Figure 25 Insulation of a flat joist-type roof
Insulating joist-type roof ceiling between ceiling above the sheathing
the ceiling and sheathing Shown are the following from interior to exterior:
Shown are the following from interior to exterior: ■■ 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) gypsum board ceiling
■■ Gypsum board on interior of ceiling ■■ Wood roof joists
■■ Air and vapour barrier ■■ Vapour barrier (only required for vapour
■■ Roof joists permeable insulation)
■■ Insulation batts between roof joists ■■ 9.5 mm (3⁄8 in.) plywood sheathing (not used
■■ Cross-members which provide a as a walking deck
recommended 89 mm (31⁄2 in.) ■■ Type 4 expanded polypropylene insulation
ventilation space ■■ Built-up roofing membrane
■■ Perforated soffit and prefinished fascia ■■ 40 mm (11⁄2 in.) crushed stone or gravel
outboard of exterior wall
■■ Roof sheathing

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 6 – LOCATION AND EXCAVATION
Figure 28 Figure 29
Establishing the lines of the house Finish grade sloped for drainage
There are two figures, A and B. The components of No additional alt text
figure A are:
■■ A rectangle indicating location of outside of Figure 30
foundation wall, including corners. Method of setting batter boards and
■■ A wooden framework of stakes and horizontal establishing corners for excavation
boards, termed a batter board, on the outside No additional alt text
of each corner
Figure B is described in the alternative text for
Figure 30

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 7 – FOOTINGS, FOUNDATIONS AND SLABS
Figure 31 Figure 36
Size of footings Adjusting foundation thickness
No additional alt text to accommodate insulation and
masonry veneer
Figure 32 No additional alt text
Steel column supported on steel bearing
plate resting on footings Figure 37
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: Concrete formwork and combination
■■ Concrete footing is placed on the bearing soil form ties
or compacted granular material No additional alt text
■■ The surface of the footing is set so that it
will be level with the bottom of the concrete Figure 38
floor slab Framing for a basement window
■■ The portion of the steel column encased No additional alt text
by the floor slab is wrapped with a layer
of sheathing membrane or polyethylene to Figure 39
break the bond between the column and slab
Notches or beam pockets in foundation
Figure 33 walls
Wood column supported on concrete Shown are the following:
footings ■■ Foundation wall
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: ■■ Notch or pocket for beam
■■ Concrete footing is placed on the bearing soil ■■ Wood beam raised 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) to be level
or compacted granular material with sill plate
■■ The surface of the footing is set so that it ■■ Top of steel beam to be level with top of
is level with the bottom of the concrete foundation wall
floor slab ■■ 90 mm ( 31⁄2 in.) minimum bearing
■■ The portion of the wood column encased ■■ Steel bearing plate
by the floor slab is wrapped with a layer ■■ Separate wood beams installed less than
of polyethylene
150 mm (6 in.) above grade from concrete
with damp-proofing material, such as 0.15 mm
Figure 34 (6 mil) polyethylene
Fabric form footing and ICF
foundation wall Figure 40
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: Method of anchoring floor system to
■■ The fabric also prevents concrete water concrete walls, showing anchor bolt
from entering the water table and eliminates for wood sill
ground water entry No additional alt text
Figure 35
Stepped footings

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
Figure 41 ■■ Solid top blocks have hollow spaces which are

Typical floor slab/wall isolation joint on the lower half of the block
Detail showing a vertical cross-section detail at a Figure 45
concrete foundation wall, footing and floor slab
intersection. Polyethylene sheet is installed between Concrete block wall
the concrete floor slab and the underlying crushed No additional alt text
gravel layer and between the concrete floor slab
edge and the adjacent foundation wall. Joint filler Figure 46
seals the top of the gap between the floor slab and Certification mark for preserved wood
the foundation wall.
foundation wood and plywood
Figure 42 Certification mark showing:
Control joint in basement wall ■■ The company name and logo
Shown are the following: ■■ The name of the inspection agency
■■ Vertical 19 x 19 mm (3⁄4 x 3⁄4 in.) strips of wood ■■ CSA 0322, the standard under which the
bevelled on two sides are nailed opposite one material is qualified
another on the inside faces of the form with ■■ The type of preservative used
the narrow 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) side facing in. ■■ A four digit number, the first two indicating
■■ The resulting outside control joint is caulked the treating plant and the second two the
Note: The combined thickness of the outer and year of treatment
inner strips should equal approximately one-fifth of ■■ PWF, i.e. the use approved for the material
the wall thickness. This example is for a 200 mm (8 in.)
thick foundation wall, the strips could each be 19 mm Figure 47
(3⁄4 in.) thick
Preservative-treated wood foundations
Figure 43 Four figures, A to D, are presented.
Insulating concrete form foundation A. Foundation with concrete floor slab and wood
footings showing:
Shown are the following
■■ An excavation that exceeds the intended
■■ The interior face of the ICF, covered with
outside dimensions of the foundation wall by
gypsum board
■■ The ICF with sill plate ■■ A minimum 125 mm (5 in.) gravel bed placed
■■ The portion of the exterior face of the ICF on the bearing soil throughout the excavation
that is above grade with a parging finish ■■ A polyethylene sheet on the gravel bed
extending over the footing plate and up the
Figure 44 exterior face of the treated plywood to grade
Concrete blocks for when latter installed, stopping at grade
foundation construction ■■ Treated wall footing plates which define the
Shown are the following: dimensions of the foundation wall placed on
the gravel
■■ Various block types including: 1) stretcher,
2) corner, 3) 2 types of beam or lintel, ■■ Treated screed boards placed vertically on the
4) sash and 5) Solid top inside edge of the footing plate
■■ With the exception of one type of beam or ■■ A concrete slab to the screed boards
lintel, block types are rectangular solids with ■■ Treated wall plate on the footing plate
hollow spaces. The exception is the one type ■■ Treated wall stud
of beam or lintel which is U-shaped to accept
a beam or lintel ■■ Treated exterior plywood
■■ Sash blocks have hollow spaces which extend ■■ A framing strap attaching first floor joist
from the top to the bottom of the block. network to foundation top plates and stud

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
■■ 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) treated blocking placed ■■ Floor joists, placed on the interior walls and
between the studs (backing at panel joint) on 38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) ledgers attached to
■■ A treated plywood cover attached to the the inside face of the exterior walls
exterior plywood at grade level ■■ A subfloor attached to the joist network
■■ Free draining backfill, installed in the D. Foundation on concrete strip footing showing:
excavation against the exterior wall ■■ The dimensions of the excavation exceed the
■■ A finished grade, sloped a minimum 1 in 12 intended outside dimensions of the foundation
away from the foundation wall by at least 300 mm (12 in.)
B. Foundation with wood sleeper showing: ■■ Strip footing, with 60 mm (21⁄2 in.) minimum
■■ An excavation that exceeds the intended diameter tubes to facilitate water passages
outside dimensions of the foundation wall placed 1.2 m (4 ft.) on centre at the bottom of
by at least 300 mm (12 in.) ■■ Gravel bed on the bearing soil continuously
■■ A minimum 125 mm (5 in.) gravel bed throughout the excavation except where the
strip footing is positioned. The top of the
■■ Treated footing plates which define the
gravel bed is at the same elevation as the top
dimensions of the foundation wall placed
of the footing
on the gravel
■■ A polyethylene sheet is laid on the gravel bed
■■ A polyethylene sheet on the gravel bed
extending over the footing plate and up the extending over the top of the concrete footing
exterior face of the treated plywood to grade and up the exterior face of the treated
when installed plywood to grade when latter installed
■■ Treated wood sleepers the same thickness as
■■ The pressure treated exterior wall placed and
the treated footing plate, placed on the fastened on the centre of the footing.
polyethylene sheet ■■ A screed is attached to the inside face of the
■■ A pressure treated wall, placed on the footing exterior wall. The top of the screed defines the
plate such that a bearing surface is available on top of the concrete slab
the interior of the footing plates ■■ The concrete slab
■■ Pressure treated joists installed on the
sleepers and the bearing surface on the Figure 48
interior of the footing plates Location of control joints
■■ A treated subfloor Control joints around column footings may be
C. Foundation with suspended wood floor showing: omitted if column footings are below floor level and
■■ An excavation that exceeds the intended the column is wrapped with two layers of sheathing
outside dimensions of the foundation wall by membrane or joint filler to break the bond
Figure 49
■■ A minimum 125 mm (5 in.) gravel bed
Independent concrete floor slab and
■■ Treated footing plates which define the
dimensions of the foundation wall placed foundation wall
on the gravel No additional alt text
■■ A polyethylene sheet on the gravel bed
extending over the footing plate and up the Figure 50
exterior face of the treated plywood to grade Drain pipe at foundation wall
when latter installed
■■ A pressure treated wood exterior wall
■■ A pressure treated wood interior wall, placed Figure 51
on the interior treated footing plates Window well at basement wall
positioned on the vapour barrier.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 9 – FLOOR FRAMING
Figure 52 Figure 57
Built-up wood beam Floor joists supported on a ledge formed
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: in the foundation wall
■■ The damp-proofing material could be In addition to what is included in the text:
0.155 mm (2 mil) polypropylene ■■ The minimum distance from finished grade
to top of foundation wall is 200 mm (8 in.)
Figure 53 ■■ The joist network sill plate, header and joists
Joists supported on top of wood beam sit on the top of the ledge on the inside of the
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: concrete foundation. The sill plate is anchored
to the foundation with anchor bolts and the
■■ Toenail the joists to the wood beams with rim joist separated from the concrete face by
at least 2-80 mm (31⁄2 in.) nails a 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) airspace if untreated.
Figure 54
■■ The top of the subfloor on the joist network
is level with the bottom of the wall plate;
Joists supported on ledger strips nailed
to beam Figure 58
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: Floor joists supported on a ledge formed
■■ Where the joists contact the beam, the tops in the foundation wall
of opposite joists, which sit above the top of In addition to what is included in the adjacent text:
the beams, are attached to one another with
a 38 x 38 x 600 mm (2 x 2 x 24 in.) splice. ■■ The minimum distance from finished grade to
The splice is flush with the top of the joists top of foundation wall is 150 mm (6 in.)
and there is a minimum 13 mm (1⁄2 in.) space ■■ The joist network sill plate, header and joists,
between the top of the beam and underside of and subfloor sit on the top of the ledge on the
the splice. The splice is nailed to each of the inside of the concrete foundation. The sill plate
opposing joists with two 82 mm (31⁄4 in.) nails is anchored to the foundation and the joist
header separated from the concrete face by
Figure 55 a 12 mm (1⁄2 in.) airspace if untreated
Joists framed into a steel beam ■■ The exterior wall framing sits on top of the
No additional alt text sub-floor
■■ Base flashing is placed on the top of the
Figure 56 foundation, extending up the wall sheathing
Sill-plate method used in platform as well as outboard of the foundation
construction ■■ A sheathing membrane extends down the wall
sheathing and laps over the portion of the base
In addition to what is included in the adjacent text: flashing that extends up the wall
■■ A mortar levelling bed can be used between ■■ The brick veneer is attached to the wall framing
the top of the foundation wall and underside
of the foam gasket Figure 59
■■ The minimum distance from finished grade to Floor joists embedded in the top
top of foundation wall is 150 mm (6 in.) for a
of the foundation wall
masonry finish and 200 mm (8 in.) for stucco
and sidings No additional alt text

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
Figure 60 ■■ Squash blocks are used to transfer point loads

Masonry support using joist-embedded from columns or framing around doors and
windows from one floor to the next without
method of floor framing
loading the I-joists
■■ Rather than the header joist being positioned ■■ Web stiffeners may be required if the load on
at the outside face of the concrete formwork,
the joist exceeds the design capacity of the
as was the case in the above Figure, it is placed
joist without web stiffeners
near the centre of the concrete formwork,
creating a ledger on the outside face of the
concrete once the concrete is placed Figure 63
Floor framing
■■ The exterior wall framing sits on top of
the sub-floor ■■ The floor joists are typically parallel to one
another and to two opposite sides of the
■■ Base flashing is placed on the top of the
foundation and perpendicular to the other
foundation, extending up the wall sheathing
two sides of the foundation
as well as outboard of the foundation
■■ Cross-bridging and blocking between the joists,
■■ A sheathing membrane extends down the wall
and strapping on the underside of the joists
sheathing and laps over the portion of the base
helps stiffen the floor assembly and distribute
flashing that extends up the wall
floor loads
■■ The brick veneer, which is above the ledger, ■■ At least two edges on subfloor panel edges
is attached to the wall framing
are flat – these butt together and are joined
over joists
Figure 61
The subfloor is nailed or screwed to
Principles for wood I-joist installation
■■
joists (field-gluing will help improve

■■ Prior to installation, wood joists must be floor performance)
properly handled and stored on site
■■ The span distance must be correct for the Figure 64
joists being used and there must be adequate Framing for floor openings where
bearing length on supports (e.g. a foundation double headers and double trimmers
wall sill plate)
are used
■■ Rim framing is required to transfer continuous
wall loads The following sequence is used, with the joist pieces
assembled in a fashion so that the inside faces of
■■ Safe installation practices include the use of the first trimmers and inside faces of the second
temporary bracing across multiple top chords headers define the width and length respectively
prior to installation of sub-floor sheathing of the floor opening:
■■ Placement and sizing of holes in web must ■■ The first trimmers on each side of each header
be correct are nailed to the first headers
■■ All wood I-joist cantilevers require engineering ■■ The first headers are nailed to the tail joists
■■ Web stiffeners (where required) and squash ■■ The second headers are nailed to the
blocks transfer floor loads first headers
The first trimmers are nailed to the
Figure 62
■■
second headers
Load transfer requirements for
■■ The second trimmers are nailed to the
wood I-joists first trimmers
■■ Rim framing transfers exterior wall loads ■■ Note that joist hangers may be required as
around the I-joists to the wall below an alternative to end nailing the first headers
■■ Blocking transfers interior wall loads around into the tail joists
I-joists to the wall or beam below

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
Figure 65
Floor framing at projections
Figure 66
Basement beam and first floor joist
framing
Figure 67
Floor joists bearing on beam and
foundation wall

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 10 – WALL FRAMING
Figure 68 stud of the partition wall is then nailed to the

Wall framing used with second stud. If the vapour barrier has not
been installed on the inside surface of the
platform construction
exterior wall, a strip of polyethylene sufficient
Further wood-frame wall details include: to span between adjacent exterior wall studs
■■ The studs can be toe-nailed to the bottom is fastened to that face of the partition wall
plate or, if the wall has been assembled lying which is nailed to the exterior wall.
on the subfloor, end nailed through the bottom 2. The interior partition intersects with the
plate to the joists or header joist exterior wall in the central area of the stud
■■ Cripple, or trimmer, studs extend from the cavity. Horizontal blocking is installed in the
horizontal plate defining the bottom of a cavity, spanning from the inside face of one
window rough opening to the bottom plate. stud to the inside face of the adjacent stud.
The end stud of the partition wall is then
Figure 69 nailed to the blocking. If the vapour barrier
has not been installed on the inside surface
Multiple stud arrangements at an of the exterior wall, a strip of polyethylene
exterior corner sufficient to span between adjacent exterior
Three arrangements are: wall studs is fastened to that face of the
partition wall which is nailed to the blocking.
1. A three corner stud. One wall ends with a
stud in the conventional orientation. A second 3. The interior partition intersects with an
stud is nailed to the inside face of that stud exterior wall stud, and the vapour barrier and
such that it is at right angles to the stud and drywall have been installed. The end stud of
flush with the inside corner, and extends the the partition wall is nailed through the drywall
length of the stud. The end of the second wall, (and vapour barrier) to the exterior wall stud.
with a conventional stud, is brought together 4. The interior partition intersects with the
with the first wall and nailed. exterior wall partially on an exterior wall stud.
2. A two corner stud. Both walls end with a A second stud is installed in the exterior wall a
conventional stud. The two walls are brought small distance from the first stud such that the
together, with the face of one stud against the partition wall end stud also intersects with the
side of the other, and nailed. Gypsum board second stud. The space between the exterior
clips attach the sheets of drywall on each side wall studs is insulated. The end stud of the
of the corner. partition wall is then nailed to the second stud.
If the vapour barrier has not been installed on
3. The third drawing provides an isometric
the inside surface of the exterior wall, a strip
view of the three corner stud arrangement
of polyethylene sufficient to span between
in 1 above.
adjacent exterior wall studs is fastened to that
face of the partition wall which is nailed to the
Figure 70 exterior wall.
Multiple stud arrangements at the
intersection of an interior partition Figure 71
with an exterior wall Support for ceiling finish where ceiling
Four possible arrangements are: joists run parallel to a partition
1. The interior partition intersects with the ■■ A 38 x 140 mm (2 x 6 in.) plate is centred
exterior wall close to but not on, an exterior on and nailed to the top surface of the
wall stud. A second stud is installed adjacent to 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) top plate such
and at right angles to that exterior wall stud that it extends over each side of the
flush with inside face of the framing. The end top plate

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
■■ If the partition is on the top floor, a strip Figure 73

of vapour barrier is installed between the Braced wall bands and panels
two plates
■■ 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) blocking is installed
which spans between the joists on either
side of the wall location. The bottom of the
Figure 74
blocking is installed at sufficient height above Wall framing using balloon
the underside of the joists, in order to be construction method
flush with the top of the 38 x 140 mm No additional alt text
(2 x 6 in.) plate.
■■ The plate is nailed to the blocking Figure 75
Structural insulated panel
Figure 72 system (SIPS)
End-wall framing and nailing support for
interior finish for platform construction
■■ A nailing plate such as a 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4) on Figure 76
the flat is nailed to the top of the exterior wall
Platform framing
top plate such that a portion is inboard of the
top plate thereby providing a nailing surface No additional alt text
for the attachment of the ceiling interior finish

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 11 - CEILING AND ROOF FRAMING
Figure 77 Figure 81
L-shaped trussed roof Permanent bracing of roof trusses
Two images of a particular roof configuration One approach for permanently bracing gable roof
are shown. trusses is as follows:
1. One is the plan (aerial) view of the roof ■■ Pairs of diagonal braces, originating at the
which is comprised of two gable roofs that mid- point of the gable end top chord span
join forming an L in plan view. The ridge of the underside of several trusses, with one
one roof section originates from a location brace extending to the base of the top chord
on the ridge of the other (main) section. abover the exterior wall, and the other to the
The intersecting roof planes result in two top chord along the ridge. This is duplicated on
valleys on the roof. the other plane of the roof and repeated at
2. A cut-away view of the L-shaped roof shows: approximately 6m (20 ft.) intervals as required
by the truss manufacturer.
■■ Portions of the roof sheathing ■■ Lateral bracing extends from the underside of
■■ Common trusses on both the main and the mid-point of a truss web at one end of the
intersecting roofs roof to the other on both roof planes.
■■ Valley trusses, which are smaller trusses ■■ The bracing is 38 x 89 mm (2 x 4 in.) or as
placed on the roof sheathing of the main required by truss manufacturer.
roof that form the part of the truss
network for the intersecting roof overlying Figure 82
the main roof
Types of pitched roofs
■■ A girder truss, which is a stronger truss
within the intersecting roof truss network. Six roofs are shown: a gable, a gable dormer,
This truss is placed on the double top a shed dormer and a hip roof:
plates of the main roof to provide ■■ A flat roof is one that is flat or pitched just
additional support. enough to provide drainage.
■■ A monolith roof has a single plane with a
Figure 78 moderately sloping surface.
Raised heel truss roof provides ■■ A gable roof is a ridged roof that has only two
depth for insulation planes. the gable is the triangular portion of
No additional alt text the building wall at each end of the roof.
■■ A hip roof is one which rises by inclined planes
Figure 79 from all four sides of a building which intersect
Types of prefabricated roof trusses at a centre point or ridge. The intersections of
adjacent roof planes are terms hips.
No additional alt text ■■ A gambrel roof is similar to a gable roof but
has its two roof planes broken by an obtuse
Figure 80 angles, so that the lower slope on each is
Temporary bracing of roof trusses steeper than the adjacent upper slope.
In addition to what is included in the text: ■■ A mansard roof is similar to a hip roof but has
■■ Gable ends are normally sheathed prior its four roof planes broken by an obtuse angle,
to the installation of the end braces so that the lower slope on each is steeper
than the adjacent upper slope.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
Figure 83 Figure 90
Roof framing and attachment Narrow projection at gable end
In addition to what is included in the text: No additional alt text
■■ For a gable roof, a ridge board provides the
bearing surface for the top of each rafter. Figure 91
■■ When required, framing, termed collar ties, Typical construction of a low-slope
horizontally spans between the upper portions roof with overhang
of a pair of gable roof rafters, providing an No additional alt text
intermediate support for the rafter pairs
■■ When required, a framing member laid flat on Figure 92
top of, at right angles to and spanning several Soffit roof ventilation
collar ties can be installed to prevent lateral
deflection of the collar ties In addition to what is included in the text:
■■ The ventilation air flows through up the
Figure 84 perforated soffit, into the area between the
Rafter heel supported on a rafter plate baffle restraining the insulation and the roof
sheathing and then up toward the top of the
No additional alt text attic space
Figure 85 Figure 93
Doubled ceiling joists and stub joists High-level roof ventilation
used where a hip rafter reduces clear
Two types of vents are shown:
span space near the end wall
■■ A ridge vent, which is slightly raised above the
No additional alt text ridge, runs the length of the ridge, and facilitates
the outflow of the ventilation air by means of
Figure 86 the negative pressure from airflow (wind) over
Rafter heel supported on a the roof
load-bearing wall ■■ A gable vent, which is mounted at the top of
No additional alt text the gable wall
Figure 87 Figure 94
Framing at a valley Ceiling joists
No additional alt text No additional alt text
Figure 88 Figure 95
Typical dormer framing Roof rafters
No additional alt text No additional alt text
Figure 89 Figure 96
Wide projection at gable end Roof joists
supported by “lookout” rafters No additional alt text

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 12 – ROOF SHEATHING AND COVERINGS
Figure 97 Figure 103

Application of structural wood-panel Installation of hand-split shakes
roof sheathing No additional alt text
In addition to what is included in the text:
■■ Nails through edges of plywood or OSB Figure 104
onto supporting members (roof trusses, Finish at ridge and hips
joists or rafters) to be placed at 150 mm No additional alt text
(6 in.) on centre
■■ Nails through long side of plywood or Figure 105
OSB onto supporting members to be Built-up roof
placed at 300 mm (12 in.) on centre
Figure 98
Installation of wood-board Figure 106
roof sheathing Sheet metal roofing
Nailing strips support the metal roofing in the
7 images shown:
Figure 99 1. Sheet metal pieces on a roof plane, with the
Roof sheathing detail at a valley upper piece lapping over the lower piece
and at a chimney opening 2. An eave starter, a narrow piece of sheet metal,
is installed at the eave. A full sheet metal piece
No additional alt text is installed over top, extending up the roof
3. In a valley, the sheet metal pieces are cut at
Figure 100
the angle necessary to fit the valley and are
Eave protection installed over the valley flashing. The sheet
In addition to what is included in the text: metal pieces cover the upper portion of each
■■ The minimum 900 mm (36 in.) eave protection side of the valley flashing, leaving the centre
up the roof is measured along the slope of portion of the flashing exposed
the roof 4. Sheet metal ridge caps fit over the two pieces
■■ The minimum 300 mm (12 in.) inside at the top of the roof planes, i.e. at the ridge
the inner face of the exterior wall is 5. Sheet metal ridge caps fit over the two pieces
measured horizontally at the top of the roof planes, i.e. at the hip
6. Sheet metal end wall and roof plane pieces
Figure 101 at an intersection are installed over flashing.
Application of asphalt shingles The sheet metal pieces cover the edge of each
No additional alt text side of the valley flashing, leaving a portion of
the flashing exposed
Figure 102 7. Sheet metal side wall and roof plane pieces
Installation of wood shingles at an intersection are installed over flashing.
The sheet metal pieces cover the edge of each
No additional alt text side of the valley flashing, leaving the centre
portion of the flashing exposed

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 13 – WALL SHEATHING AND EXTERIOR SURFACES

Vertical and horizontal application Outside-corner treatment of wood siding
of panel-type sheathing No additional alt text
■■ Maintain a minimum distance of 10 mm Figure 113
(3⁄8 in.) between the edge of the sheathing Masonry veneer support on
and the nails foundation wall
Figure 108
Lumber sheathing application Figure 114
In addition to what is included in the text: Support of masonry veneer on an
■■ For diagonal application lumber is at ICF foundation
45 degrees to the studs In addition to what is included in the text:
The flare is created by narrowing the inside
Figure 109
■■
face of the outside insulation at the top of

Types of siding the wall, thereby thickening the concrete
No additional alt text at the top of the wall

Horizontal siding Basic exterior insulation and finish
In addition to what is included in the text: system (EIFS) components
■■ A starter strip is installed on the inside face at No additional alt text
the bottom of the lowest piece of horizontal
siding to enable the lowest piece of siding to Figure 116
have the same angle relative to the sheathing Components of an exterior insulation
as subsequent pieces and finish system (EIFS)
■■ An insect screen is installed at the bottom From the inside of the wall system to the outside:
of the horizontal siding to enable drainage
between the back of the horizontal siding ■■ A wood frame wall (conventional or
and the sheathing membrane while preventing optimum value engineering) with insulation
insects from accessing the drainage space and sheathing
■■ Water resistant barrier membrane (WRB)
Figure 111 ■■ Insulation, with vertical drainage channels
Siding installation on the face adjacent to the WRB
In addition to what is included in the text: ■■ Base coat with mesh between the base coat
■■ Butt joints are made over the centre of stud and insulation
if sheathing omitted ■■ Finish coat
■■ Scribe siding tight against window openings ■■ A two-stage joint, that extends through the
finish coat, base coat with mesh and insulation,
for pressure equalization and drainage at joints
between panels

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 14 – FLASHING
Figure 117 ■■ Metal counter flashing is installed, extending

Base flashing at roof penetration from the base of the cant strip, where it
is folded over itself to elevate it above the
Vertical cross section of a plumbing vent pipe base flashing, up the masonry to the mortar
penetrating a roof deck. A base flashing secured joint above the counter flashing where it
around the pipe, seals the pipe to the roof is fit into a saw cut in the mortar
waterproofing membrane. A counter flashing
is installed around the pipe over the top edge
■■ The built-up roofing is installed to a depth
of the base to divert water over the base flashing part way up the cant strip
thereby preventing water from leaking into the ■■ The wall sheathing paper is lapped over the
roof between the base flashing and pipe. counter flashing
■■ The wall siding is installed
Figure 118
Base flashing at roof-wall junction Figure 120
In addition to what is included in the text: Through-wall flashing
■■ A cant strip, a piece of lumber which In this case the flashing is located at the joist
in cross section is an isosceles triangle, between two floors, with a wood frame wall and
is fastened at the intersection of the roof masonry cladding separated by a drainage cavity.
and wall, with one short side of the triangular ■■ The brick wall is laid to the elevation of the
piece against the wall and the other short bottom of the joist network
side on the roof ■■ An L-bracket is installed against the
■■ The base flashing, which is flexible, extends sheathing paper at the location of the joist
over the roof surface and is bent over the and extending out just above the existing
cant strip and up the wall. brick wall
■■ Metal counter flashing is installed, extending ■■ A flashing is installed that fits under the
from the base of the cant strip, where it is sheathing paper on the plywood above the
folded over itself to elevate it above the base joist network, extends down onto the
flashing, up the wall L-bracket, and extends slightly past the face
■■ The built-up roofing is installed to a depth of the brick cladding, terminating with a
part way up the cant strip downward tilt
■■ The wall sheathing paper is lapped over the ■■ Weep holes are placed in the lower coarse
counter flashing of the brick work to ensure drainage of any
■■ The wall siding is installed water in the drainage cavity

Counter flashing Through-wall flashing at foundation
In addition to what is included in the text: In this case the flashing is located at the junction
between the top of the concrete foundation wall
■■ A cant strip, a piece of lumber which in cross and first floor joist network with a wood frame wall
section is an isosceles triangle, is fastened and masonry cladding separated by a drainage cavity.
at the intersection of the roof and wall,
with one short side of the triangular piece
■■ A flashing is installed that fits under the
against the wall and the other short side sheathing paper on the plywood above the
on the roof joist network, extends down past the joist
network and onto the top of the concrete
■■ The base flashing, which is flexible, extends foundation wall, and is bent at the outside
over the roof surface and is bent over the edge of the concrete wall, terminating with
cant strip and up the wall. a downward tilt.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
■■ The wall sheathing paper is lapped over the galvanized roofing nails at 300 mm (12”) o/c
top of the flashing minimum, two per segment. The vertical
■■ Weep holes are placed in the lower coarse portion of the counter flashing at the wall
of the brick work to ensure drainage of any sheathing is a minimum 100 mm (4 in) in
water in the drainage cavity height. Ensure there is a minimum overlap
of 100 mm (4 in.) between the vertical leg of
the counter flashing and the underlying
Figure 122
vertical leg of the base flashing. A minimum
Dampproof flashing 75 mm (3 in) overlap is required between
In addition to what is included in the text: consecutive pieces of segmented counter
■■ Drip edges are cut on the underside flashing installed in a ship-lapped manner,
of the coping out board of, and parallel the upper flashing on top of the lower
to, the exterior and interior wall planes. counter flashing.
These help prevent water from migrating ■■ The counter flashing segment is a single
by surface tension on the underside of piece of metal shaped and folded such that
the coping to the wall surfaces a vertical rectangular portion sits against
the sheathing, a rectangular portion sits
Figure 123 flat and horizontally on the top of the brick,
Valley flashing and a vertical trapezoidal portion fits against
the outside surface of the brick with the
No additional alt text lower edge following the slope of the roof.
In addition, an end dam is formed at the
Figure 124 upper end of the horizontal segment by
Stepped flashing folding up and connecting a flange to the
upper vertical segment and soldering or
No additional alt text applying sealant to the intersection of the
flange and the portion that sits against
Figure 125 the sheathing.
Flashing at wall intersection ■■ Building paper or housewrap, installed on
The procedure is as follows: top of the wall sheathing, overlaps the vertical
■■ Masonry veneer wall and wood frame leg of the counter flashing a minimum of
substrate are installed and pass through 100 mm (4 in.) measured from the leading
sloped roof deck. edge of the counter flashing facing the lower
roof level.
■■ Install base flashing segment at intersection
between brick courses and sloped roof Figure 126
deck, with the vertical leg of the flashing
having a minimum height of 100 mm (4 in.) Chimney flashing
placed against the surface of the brick. In addition to what is included in the text:
The 100 mm (4 in.) horizontal leg of the ■■ The saddle is a sloping structure that helps
flashing resting on the roof deck. A minimum drain potential any water that accumulates
75 mm (3 in.) overlap is required between at the intersection of the upper side of the
consecutive pieces of segmented base flashing chimney and the roof above
installed in a ship-lapped manner, the upper
flashing on top of the lower flashing. Roof
■■ Prior to installation of the saddle, a rubberized
shingles are interwoven with and overlap asphalt sheet, cut so that the chimney fits
base flashing through, is installed on the sheathing
surrounding the chimney and up the slope
■■ A counter flashing segment extends vertically behind the chimney to at least the height
from the base flashing, over the brick masonry of the counter flashing
course, across the air cavity and is mechanically
fastened to the sheathing with flat head

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 15 – WINDOWS, EXTERIOR DOORS AND SKYLIGHTS
Figure 127 9. Install head flashing

Minimum dimensions for egress windows 10. Install and lap wall sheathing membrane
No additional alt text 11. Lap sheathing membrane above opening over
head flashing
Figure 128 12. Install wood furring for drainage cavity
Common window types 13. Install metal drip edge at sill
In addition to what is included in the text: 14. Install siding
■■ Hopper windows are hinged at the bottom
15. Install backer rod and exterior and interior
and swing into the interior
sealants
Window terminology Window sill
Drip edge arrangements are shown for exterior
■■ The sash holds the glass in the window and cladding and for masonry. In both cases a water-
attaches to the window frame impermeable membrane is placed over either
■■ The sill is the horizontal member forming a sloped sill or a horizontal sill with dams and
the bottom of the window frame the slope of the top of the sill is 6% away from
the window.
Figure 130 For exterior cladding the sill should extended
Sequence for window installation 25 mm (1 in.) beyond the cladding and the drip
notch positioned 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) beyond the outer
A typical sequence for window installation is: face of the cladding.
1. Slope the rough opening sub-sill to For a masonry exterior the brick course
the exterior immediately under the window sill, which is
2. Install sheathing membrane below opening termed the masonry sill, is sloped away from the
3. Install water impermeable (WI) membrane wall, is flush with the other courses at the drainage
onto sub-sill and extending to lap down over space face but extends past the outside plane of the
the sheathing membrane other courses, and has a drip edge on the underside
outboard of the other courses. The window sill
4. Install WI corner reinforcing membrane at should extend 25 mm (1 in.) beyond the inner
each lower corner of the rough opening face of the masonry wall, with the drip edge notch
5. Install WI membrane lapping over the positioned 15 mm (5⁄8 in.) beyond the inner face
reinforcing membrane at the lower corners of the masonry sill. The masonry sill also has a drip
and extending up the inside and exterior face edge, positioned outboard of the outer face of the
of the vertical rough opening framing members masonry wall below.
6. Install strips of vertical sheathing
membrane, lapping over lower membrane Figure 132
and wrapping into the vertical rough opening Window attachment
framing members Always refer to manufacturer’s instructions.
7. Install horizontal sheathing membrane and In general:
wrap under rough opening header ■■ The rough opening dimensions should be
8. Install shims, window and insulation, the latter 25 mm (1 in.) larger than the outside of the
between the window frame and the rough window frame to provide a minimum 12.5 mm
opening framing (1⁄2 in.) space between the window frame and
opening on all sides

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
■■ Shim at the jamb and sill junctions only and Figure 134
junctions of multiple units Door hardware requirements
■■ Attach window with wood screws through No additional alt text
sides of window frame only
Figure 135
Figure 133
Stepped flashing for skylight
Pre-hung manufactured door
■■ A rubberized asphalt sheet (self-sealing)
Pre-hung manufactured exterior doors typically surrounds the opening, extending up the roof
include the following characteristics: slope to above the height of the top of the
■■ The door with pre-drilled lockset holes (future) saddle flashing and is turned up and
■■ Three hinges attaching the door to the over the curb of the skylight rough opening
hinge jamb ■■ The pre-finished steel saddle is installed
■■ A jamb comprised of a head jamb, two side ■■ The roof shingles and pre-finished step siding
jambs (a hinge jamb and a lock jamb) and at the skylight are installed
a threshold
Exterior doors are to have water-impermeable sill
membrane and flashing

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 16 – EXTERIOR TRIM AND MILLWORK

Roof projection at eaves Section through doorframe at sill
No additional alt text In addition to what is included in the text,
the doorsill should rest on a water-impermeable
Figure 137 sill membrane.
Eave and gable-end intersections
(viewed from below)

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 17 – STAIRS
Figure 139 ■■ A double L, with two 90 degree turns (one

Stair detail made up of 30 degree winder treads) resulting
in a 180 degree turn
■■ A wide U, with two landings, each with a
■■ The tread is the horizontal part of a step 90 degree turn and separated by a short set
■■ The riser is the vertical part of a step. It is of steps, resulting in a 180 degree turn.
placed at the back of the tread, or on the
lower floor, and extends the height of the Figure 141
step to the underside of the next tread up Stairway design
or the top floor
■■ In addition to what is included in the text:
■■ The run of a tread is the horizontal distance
from the edge of the nosing of the tread
■■ The total run is the horizontal distance from
above to the edge of the nosing of the tread the face of the bottom most riser to the face
in question of the topmost riser
■■ The rise is the vertical distance from the top
■■ The total rise is the distance from finish floor
of one tread to the top of an adjacent tread level to finish floor level
■■ The projection is the horizontal distance from
■■ The headroom is determined by measuring
the face of the riser to the leading edge of the the vertical distance from a sloping line formed
tread above by the leading edge of the nosings (the “leading
line”) to the underside of the floor above.
■■ The leading edge (nosing) of the tread can The minimum headroom is the smallest of
be rounded or bevelled and extends 25 mm these distances.
(1 in.) past the face of the riser below
■■ The effective tread depth is the minimum Figure 142
tread depth less 15 mm (19⁄32 in.) Stair components
Figure 140 No additional alt text
Types of stair layouts
Figure 143
Stair layouts include: Basement stairs
■■ Straight
■■ A long L, where a landing is near the top ■■ One approach is to utilize a cut-out stringer
of the flight of stairs, which turn 90 degrees
and attach to its exterior face a wide, finished
■■ A wide L, where a landing is close to the board, 25 mm (1 in.) thick which conceals the
centre of the flight of stairs, which turn ends of the treads
90 degrees
■■ A narrow U, with a single landing and a
180 degree turn

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 18 – CHIMNEYS, FLUES AND FIREPLACES
Figure 144 ■■ Flue lining, which extends to the top of

Chimney height above the ridge the chimney
■■ The back hearth includes an opening to the
ash dump
Figure 145
Figure 147
Installation of flue linings
Factory-built fireplace
Components of the factory-built fireplace include:
■■ Sealant is placed between the flue and
masonry chimney cap to prevent water entry
■■ Nailing flanges for attaching the fireplace
between the flue and chimney enclosure to the wood framing adjacent
to, but not in contact with, the sides of
■■ The outside face of a flue liner must the fireplace
surrounded by a minimum 75 mm (3 in.)
solid masonry
■■ Metal standoffs, which ensure the proper
distance between the top of the fireplace
enclosure and the wood framing above
Figure 146
Fireplace terms
■■ A ventilated metal surround at the front of
the fireplace enclosure
In addition to what is included in the text, the ■■ At the ceiling penetration above the fireplace,
components of a wood-burning fireplace include:
the flue pipe penetrates a metal plate, termed
■■ Firebrick on three sides of the fireplace a fire-stop spacer, which is attached to the
above the hearth, the forth side being open subfloor. The adjacent insulation is held back
to the room a minimum 50 mm (2 in.) from the flue pipe
■■ The throat at the top of the fireplace, which ■■ At the roof, the flue penetrates the
slopes from the back wall toward the front framed chimney box through a collar on
■■ The damper, which is positioned above the a custom galvanized steel cap fitted over
throat, is typically closed when the fireplace the chimney box.
is not in use and open when the fireplace is ■■ A narrow round collar, termed a storm collar,
in use is fit over the flue above the steel cap
■■ A smoke shelf, a ledge at the bottom of a ■■ Finally, a chimney cap is fit over the flue.
smoke chamber, which deflects or breaks
downdrafts from the chimney
■■ A smoke chamber, which is an enlarged area
immediately above the smoke shelf and below
the flue lining

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 19 – PLUMBING, ELECTRICAL AND APPLIANCES
Figure 148 a trap. The drainage piping from the washbasin

Example of notch limitations enters the stud wall where it is connected
to a soil stack. Holes are drilled in the bottom
No additional alt text plate of the wall and subflooring for hot and
cold water piping.
Figure 149
The other diagram is a cross-section of a profile
Maximum size of holes drilled in joists of a bathtub at the head end which abuts a wall.
No additional alt text The subflooring is cut to receive the drain piping.
The overflow and outlet connect to drainage pipe
Figure 150 (including a trap) before joining the soil stack
Notching studs for plumbing
Figure 153
Toilet fixture
Figure 151 The figure is a cross-section of a toilet and
connecting waste pipes. The toilet is secured
Kitchen and bathroom in proximity
to the floor with a flange, which also serves to
for minimum pipe length direct the waste to drainage piping under the
■■ The kitchen and bathroom share a common floor which in turn connects to the soil stack
wall on the main floor. A 140 mm (6 in.) stud in the wall. This stack also receives the waste
wall is required if the soil stack continues to from the washbasin and bathtub. The wall bottom
upper floors plate and subflooring are cut to accommodate
■■ In the bathroom, the head of the bathtub, back the stack.
of the toilet, and back of washbasin or vanity
abut the same wall, thereby shortening the Figure 154
length of hot and cold water lines and waste Venting for plumbing
lines required. The waste lines join in the In addition to what is included in the text:
centre of the wall, in this case behind the toilet,
and descend to the basement where a A rubber boot is placed over the pipe,
cleanout is positioned onto the roof surface and integrated with
the roofing material
■■ The kitchen sink is positioned above the
laundry tub in the basement and share a roof
vent and soil (waste) stack to the basement, Figure 155
where a cleanout is positioned Sealing a plumbing vent below an attic
■■ The waste disposal piping system is buried ■■ In order to support the pre-fabricated vent
under the concrete slab and directed outside pipe flashing at the ceiling, wood blocking is
the building to the sanitary sewer. A floor installed between the ceiling framing on either
drain, positioned in front of the basement side of the planed vent location
laundry tubs, is connected to the system ■■ Polyethylene air and vapour barrier is installed
■■ The prefabricated vent pipe and flashing is
Figure 152 installed and the flashing sealed against the
Washbasin and bathtub fixtures underside of the polyethylene
One of the two diagrams is a cross-section of a
washbasin mounted on brackets fastened to Figure 156
blocking or the stud wall. The exposed drainage Framing for soil-stack pipes
piping is usually chrome plated or brass and includes

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text

Typical arrangement of service entrance Drilling of structural members for wiring
The overhead electrical ‘lead’ wires from the utility Four images are shown:
are routed down a vertical conduit. The conduit is 1. A cross-section of a ceiling including a surface
fastened to the side of the house with conduit mounted receptacle to which a pendant fitting
straps and is attached to the meter base using a is attached. The pendant fitting is
conduit connector. The electrical lead wires are recommended to reduce heat build-up.
attached to the ‘top’ (service side) of the meter
socket in the meter base. The electrical wires from 2. A switch box on one side of a rough door
the ‘bottom’ (house side) of the meter socket opening. The switch box is nailed to the
continue through conduit to a right angle entrance inside of the full height stud with two
ell, at which point the conduit penetrates the 100 mm (4 in.) nails.
building envelope. The conduit terminates at a 3. When holes are drilled in studs for wires,
connector to a service panel in the house. and are closer than 30 mm (11⁄4 in.) to the
edge of the stud, metal protection plates
Figure 158 must be fixed to the edge.
Service entrance equipment 4. Holes are drilled in studs, top plates and
There are three images in this figure bottom plate to facilitate routing of electrical
wiring. The switch box beside the door
One image provides information related to that framing is located 1.4 m (41⁄2 ft.) above
in Figure 159: the floor.
■■ The overhead 3-wire 120-240V electrical
‘lead’ wires enter the conduit through a Figure 160
weather head Typical electrical equipment
■■ The service height (height of the weather
Typical electrical equipment includes:
head) above grade must be in accordance
with the electrical code requirements ■■ Octagonal boxes for use as junction boxes,
with fixtures or with outlets
A second image shows the distribution panel:
■■ Rectangular boxes for switches and outlets
■■ The distribution panel has a capacity of
100 to 200 amps ■■ Duplex wall outlets and cover plate
■■ The service wires are bought to the main ■■ Toggle switch and cover plate
breaker located in the basement through ■■ Circuit breakers
a rigid conduit. The main breaker and
distribution panel containing fuses for the
branch circuits are mounted on a 12.7 mm
(1⁄2 in.) plywood or OSB back-up panel
Service equipment must be grounded. A ground
wire from the main entrance panel must be clamped
to the water service entrance pipe below the
shut-off valve. The pipe must be metallic.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 20 – SPACE CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Basement plan showing typical Common types of heat recovery
heating layout ventilators
In addition to what is included in the text: In addition to what is included in the text:
■■ The oil storage tank is located in the ■■ In both the plate heat exchanger and wheel
basement. Oil feed and vent pipes penetrate heat exchanger types of exchangers, two fans,
the building envelope to the outside a supply and exhaust fan, move the air through
■■ The copper tubing attaching the oil tank to the exchanger. Both are mounted on the ‘out’
the furnace burner is in a conduit encased in side of the exchanger, i.e. the supply fan pulls
the concrete floor in air from the outside and directs it to the
exchanger and the exhaust fan takes air from
■■ The supply duct for the kitchen can terminate the exchanger and exhausts it to the outside.
in a grill mounted on the toe-space under the
kitchen counter
Figure 162
Isometric view of forced-air
heating system
■■ The clearance between combustible materials
and heating appliances must be in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions
■■ The furnace wiring is extended to an
emergency switch box normally fixed to the
underside of a floor joist at the bottom of
basement stairs
■■ The wiring from the relay control box is
extended to a thermostatic control outlet
generally located 1.2 m (4 ft.) off the first
floor level

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 21 – INTERIOR WALL AND CEILING FINISHES

Application of drywall finish Finishing of gypsum board
■■ When the drywall sheets are applied ■■ The tape for the inside corners is sharply
vertically, nails are spaced 150-200 mm folded along its length to ensure it fits flat
(6 to 8 in.) on centre against both faces at the corner

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 22 – FLOOR COVERINGS

Application of strip flooring Installation of ceramic tile floor
■■ The first strip of flooring is separated from ■■ When the ceramic tile is installed over a
the wall by a 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) expansion space or mortar setting bed, the thickness of the
as recommended by the flooring manufacturer mortar, about 30 mm (13⁄16 in.), requires that
■■ When face-nailed and set, shoe mold will the top of the joists supporting the subfloor
cover nail on first strip of flooring under the mortar be lower than adjacent joists
over which other flooring will be placed in
order that the surfaces of the tile and of the
other flooring be flush. A horizontal ledger
strip, or cleat, is attached to the joist that
supports the other flooring. The top of the
cleat is mounted such that the ceramic tile
(on top of the subfloor, concrete topping and
mortar setting bed) will be at the desired
height relevant to the adjacent flooring.
The joists under the ceramic tile are not
as deep as the joists under the adjacent
flooring in order that the underside of
all joists is in a plane.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 23 – INTERIOR DOORS, FRAMES AND TRIM

Interior door frame showing Base moulding
typical connection between jamb In addition to what is included in the text:
and head ■■ The joints at the interior corners of baseboard
In addition to what is included in the text: can be mitred or coped. The interior corners
■■ A dado the thickness of the head material of the shoe mould are typically mitred.
is cut in the jambs in the location required
to accept the head material Figure 173
Kitchen cabinets
Figure 169 Kitchen design may include the following elements:
Door frame and trim showing frame ■■ Overhead wall cabinets including the typical
blind-nailed under doorstop wall cabinet with three shelves, possibly with
Use NULL alt tag a light valence under to illuminate a work
surface, a corner wall cabinet with a door
Figure 170 at 45 degrees to the cabinets on both sides,
a cabinet above the refrigerator that is less in
Suggested dimensions and location height than the typical wall cabinets in order
of hardware to accommodate the refrigerator, a cabinet
In addition to what is included in the text: above the range / oven, also less in height
than the typical wall cabinet in order to allow
■■ The suggested clearances between the the installation of a range hood exhaust under
door and jambs are 2 mm (1⁄16 in.) for the the cabinet at an acceptable distance above
latch jam and head, and 1 mm (1⁄32 in.) for the range.
the hinge jam
■■ Base wall cabinets can include a typical two
■■ The suggested clearance between the bottom shelf unit, a corner unit, a drawer cabinet,
of the door and flooring is 19 mm (3⁄4 in.) a cabinet that accommodates a double sink,
■■ The suggested distance from the top of and a full height, 7 shelve pantry cabinet
the door to the top of the top hinge is ■■ A dishwasher, located near the double sinks
175 mm (7 in.) and from the bottom of
the door to the bottom of the bottom ■■ A backsplash
hinge 275 mm (11 in.) ■■ An island, comprised of a base cabinet and
bar counter.
Figure 171 ■■ The island and base wall cabinets incorporate
Door Installation a toe space, an indentation of the face of the
In addition to what is included in the text: cabinets at the floor
■■ The latch face of the door should have Figure 174
a slight bevel along its length. The bevel
should slope in, i.e. material is removed Storage closets
from the edge of the door that is adjacent In addition to what is included in the text, clothes
to the doorstop. closets may contain a unit of drawers, and racks.

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 26 – DECKS, PORCHES AND BALCONIES

Wood deck detail Deck connection to house
In addition to what is included in the text: ■■ If necessary, the exterior cladding on the
■■ The ‘height of deck’ is the distance from the house is carefully removed in the area where
grade to the top of the decking surface the deck will contact the house, and set aside.
■■ For decks > 600 mm (2 ft.) above ground or
■■ A rim joist, also termed a ledger, is installed at
with more than 3 risers, a concrete pier a height such that when the decking is installed,
supported by rock, drained granular material its surface will be at least 19 mm (3⁄4 in.) below
of extending below the frost line is required. the elevation of the inside floor surface
The concrete pier must extend a minimum ■■ The ledger is bolted through spacers installed
200 mm (8 in.) above grade between the ledger and the building sheathing
■■ Posts, which support the deck framing, are paper (to enable drainage), the building
fastened to a post saddle attached to the sheathing paper and sheathing to the interior
concrete pier. The top of the posts should be rim joist. The area where the bolts penetrate
at an elevation such that the finished deck the building sheathing paper is caulked.
surface slopes slightly away from the building ■■ Deck joists are fastened to the ledger using
■■ Built-up beams rest on and are fastened to the metal deck hangers and sloped at 5 mm per
top of the posts with angle brackets metre (1⁄16 in. per foot) away from the house
■■ The joists are positioned on the beam and the
■■ The decking is installed, with 6 mm (1⁄4 in.) gaps
decking laid at right angles to the joists, between the boards
overhanging the rim joist 25 mm (1 in.) ■■ The decking board adjacent to the wall of the
■■ The railing posts are bolted to the joists and, house is cut on a bevel in cross-section so that
where possible, also to the rim joists the edge closest to the house is at the level of
the inside floor, and the other edge (adjacent
■■ The handrail (or cap) is placed on the top to the boards) is the same thickness as the
of the railing posts, defining the guard height rest of the deck boards. This would require
(the height from the top of deck to top cutting a board thicker than the rest
of handrail)
■■ Metal flashing is installed on the sheathing
■■ Vertical members termed balusters, spaced no immediately above the deck and the building
more than a 100 mm (4 in.) apart edge to sheathing paper lapped over
edge, are installed from the surface of the
deck to the underside of the handrail
■■ The flashing extends onto the bevelled face
of the deck board closest to the wall and
down through the gap between the first and
second boards
■■ The vertical strapping and exterior cladding
is installed, or re-installed. The bottom of the
strapping and cladding is slightly above the
flashing on the bevelled face

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
CHAPTER 27 – GARAGES AND CARPORTS
Figure 177
Essential features of attached garages
■■ Footings must bear on solid rock or on
undisturbed soil below frost level
■■ The surface of the garage floor must slope
toward the garage door
■■ The driveway slopes away from the garage
■■ A minimum 50 mm (2 in.) concrete curb or
airtight partition is required between the
garage and living space
■■ An air barrier system, vapour barrier and
insulation between the conditioned and
unconditioned spaces are required. The air
barrier functions as a smoke barrier

APPENDIX C
Alternative Text
APPENDIX B – CUTAWAY VIEW OF A WOOD-FRAME HOUSE

Specific features and activities related to the
following house construction phases are discussed
below– Foundation Excavation, Basement Floor,
Foundation Wall and Sill, Floor Platforms and
Headers, Exterior Wall Framing, Interior Finishes,
Siding Finish and Trim, Brick, Partition Walls, Roof
and Ceiling Framing, Roof Finishes, Fascia and Soffit,
Ventilation and Mechanical Equipment.

20-02-14
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CANADIAN WOOD-FRAME

Together with other housing stakeholders, we help ensure

For more information, visit our website at www.cmhc.ca or

You can also reach us by phone at 1-800-668-2642 or by fax

Outside Canada call 613-748-2003 or fax to 613-748-2016.

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Cette publication est aussi disponible en français sous le titre :

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation i

Chapter 1—Important General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2—Planning, Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation ii

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation iii

Chapter 4—Lumber and Other Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 5—Functions of the Building Envelope:

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation iv

Chapter 6—Location and Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Chapter 7—Footings, Foundations and Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation v

Footings and Foundations for Crawl Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Chapter 8—Framing the House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Chapter 9—Floor Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Chapter 10—Wall Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation vi

Highly Insulated Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Chapter 11—Ceiling and Roof Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Chapter 12—Roof Sheathing and Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Chapter 13—Wall Sheathing and Exterior Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation vii

Hardboard Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Chapter 14—Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation viii

Chapter 15—Windows, Exterior Doors and Skylights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 16—Exterior Trim and Millwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Chapter 17—Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation ix

Chapter 18—Chimneys, Flues and Fireplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Chapter 19—Plumbing, Electrical and Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Chapter 20—Space Conditioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation x

Sustainable Housing Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Chapter 21—Interior Wall and Ceiling Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Chapter 22—Floor Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Chapter 23—Interior Doors, Frames and Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Chapter 24—Coating Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xi

Chapter 25—Eavestroughs and Downspouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Chapter 26—Decks, Porches and Balconies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Chapter 27—Garages and Carports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Chapter 28—Surface Drainage, Driveways and Walkways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Chapter 29—Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Appendix A—Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xii

Chapter 2—Planning, Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 4—Lumber and Other Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 5—Functions Of The Building Envelope:

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation xiii

Chapter 6—Location and Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Chapter 7—Footings, Foundations and Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66