Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Destination Marketing & Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jdmm

Research Paper

Destination management: The tourists’ perspective

Douglas G. Pearce a,n, Heike A. Schänzel b
a
School of Management, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6011, New Zealand
b
School of Hospitality and Tourism, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Although tourists are frequently cited as the central focus of much destination management activity little
Received 19 December 2012 is known about how they regard destination management. Through a series of focus groups with guests
Accepted 2 June 2013 at youth hostels in three locations in New Zealand, this study provides empirical evidence as to whether
Available online 1 July 2013
tourists consider destinations need to be managed, why destination management is needed, what it
Keywords: should involve and what differentiates good destinations from poor ones. The tourists’ responses endorse
Destinations the need for destination management and show a broad appreciation of why destinations should be
Destination management managed. The participants see a need for destination marketing, value the provision of information and
Focus groups acknowledge the importance of visitor management. However they strongly expressed the view that
Tourists
destinations should not be over-managed, raising the question of where the boundaries lie between
New Zealand
effective destination management and over-management. The factors which differentiate good destina-
Stakeholders
tions from poor ones might be grouped under two broad themes: those associated with tourists’
motivations and expectations and those related to a range of destination attributes.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction solutions might be found. While this is true of all aspects of

destination management, how we frame our research and
With the growth and maturity of destinations in recent decades approach destination management is especially important with
the literature on tourism development has been complemented by regard to consideration of the stakeholders involved. In some cases
a growing body of research on destination management. Some a fairly inclusive approach is taken (Bornhorst et al., 2010; Buhalis,
researchers emphasize the need for destination management in 2000; Wang, 2011). Wang (2011, p. 2), for example, follows the
order for destinations to be competitive and sustainable and DMAI to suggest:
discuss the activities that need to be undertaken to achieve these
goals (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999; Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Merinero ‘…destination marketing and management can be defined as a
Rodríguez, 2008; Presenza, Sheehan, & Ritchie, 2005). Others are proactive, visitor-centred approach to the economic and cul-
concerned with the structures and processes required to manage tural development of a destination that balances and integrates
destinations effectively (Bieger, Beritelli, & Laesser, 2009; Bodega, the interests of visitors, service providers and the community.’
Cioccarelli, & Denicolai, 2004; Sainaghi, 2006). A third group Others place the focus squarely on the tourist:
focuses on the stakeholders that need to be taken into account
in managing destinations (Bornhorst, Ritchie, & Sheehan, 2010; …the fundamental goal of destination management is to assess
Fuchs & Weiermair, 2004; Wang, 2011; Zehrer, Pechlaner, & Hölzl, the adequacy and effectiveness of the product, facilities, ser-
2005). vices and programs that altogether provide memorable tourism
As is common with other rapidly growing literatures, research experiences for visitors…(Fuchs & Weiermair, 2004, p. 212)
in this field is characterized by varying definitions, concepts and
perspectives on what constitutes destination management. How Destination management and marketing is the consistent
we define, conceptualize and frame destination management is orientation of tourist services and service providers towards
critical as it will determine the focus of our research and influence the needs of potential guests….The guest's subjective feeling,
who or what is to be managed, how and by whom. It may also his expectations and experiences during his journey and his
suggest where management priorities should lie and where stay make his satisfaction a vital factor of competence of a
destination management. (Zehrer et al., 2005, p. 148).

Given this recognition of the importance of tourists, either as

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 4 4635715; fax: +64 4 463 5180. one group among several sets of stakeholders or as the dominant
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.G. Pearce). focus of destination management activity, it is rather surprising

2212-571X/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2013.06.001
138 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145

that there is relatively little empirical research examining their values as other stakeholders, for instance with regard to sustain-
perspective on destination management. ability, then they are likely to respond better to the policies and
The work undertaken in this area has tended to deal either practices put in place, particularly where an effort is made to
with particular problems such as perceptions of carrying capacity inform them of why a destination is being managed in this way
and overcrowding or with issues of satisfaction, often using some (Stanford, 2006). Where their views differ, they should also be
form of quality assessment or importance/performance analysis taken into account and attempts made to reconcile them with
(Butler, 2010; Griffin & Edwards, 2012; Litvin & Sharon Ng Sok, those of other stakeholders.
2001; López-Toro, Díaz-Muñoz & Pérez-Moreno, 2010; Wade & In short, tourists are frequently cited as the central focus of
Eagles, 2003). Such work contributes to a better understanding of destination management but little is known about how they
what in particular needs to be managed at given destinations themselves regard the issue. It is in this context that this
although as Griffin and Edwards (2012) note with regard to the exploratory study examines the tourists’ perspective on destina-
complexity of urban destinations, managers may exert only a tion management. Through a series of focus groups with guests at
limited control over some attributes. youth hostels in three locations in New Zealand the study provides
However, the tourists’ voice has generally been absent in terms empirical evidence of how tourists view destination management
of how destinations might be managed. Much of the recent per se and discusses the implications of incorporating their
research in this domain concentrates on organizational and perspective in research and in practice. In particular, their views
resourcing matters, frequently with a focus on the roles and are sought on whether destinations need to be managed, why
activities of destination management organizations (DMOs) destination management is needed, what it should involve and
(d'Angella & Go, 2009; Presenza et al., 2005; Sainaghi, 2006; what differentiates good destinations from poor ones.
Sheehan & Ritchie, 2005; Singal & Uysal, 2009; Wang, 2011).
Sainaghi (2006), p. 1054 goes so far as to argue that the key
question ‘is not what to do, so much as how to do it.’ While the 2. Methodology
views of a variety of stakeholders might be included here the
emphasis is generally on the coordination and collaboration of a Focus groups were selected as the means of studying the
range of different providers and developing organizational struc- tourists’ perspective due to the exploratory nature of the research
tures and processes to facilitate this. and the search for insight into the ways in which tourists think
As originally developed in a corporate context (Freeman, 1984; about and express their ideas about destination management.
Donaldson & Preston, 1995), stakeholder theory asserts that an Focus groups encourage openness and interaction, factors which
organization should take account of all of its stakeholders, a were seen as particularly helpful in generating discussion about
stakeholder being defined as ‘any group or individual who can the nature of destination management. As Gibbs (1997), citing
affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's Kitzinger (1994, 1995), observes: ‘interaction between participants
objectives’ (Freeman, 1984, p. 46). Furthermore, the interests of highlights their view of the world, the language they use about an
all stakeholders are of intrinsic value. Effective stakeholder man- issue and their values and beliefs about a situation’. Similarly,
agement involves identifying stakeholders and their stakes and Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2006, p. 199) suggest that the narrative
establishing processes to manage relationships and transactions produced by focus groups is ‘extremely useful for identifying the
with and between them. Given the multi-faceted nature of tour- language, definitions and concepts that the research participants
ism and the range of interested or affected parties implicated in its find meaningful’. Focus groups also provide the facilitator with
development, it is not surprising that stakeholder theory has been opportunities to probe further, to follow up on and clarify emer-
widely applied to destinations and issues of tourism development ging ideas and issues, another key advantage when exploring a
and planning (Currie, Seaton, &Wesley, 2009; d’Angella & Go, topic such as this.
2009; Hardy & Beeton, 2001; Kimbu & Ngoasong, 2013; Morrison, Recent studies have used focus groups to explore a range of
2013; Sautter & Leisen, 1999; Sheehan & Ritchie, 2005). While destination management issues from the perspective of various
some of these studies incorporate tourists (Hardy & Beeton, 2001; stakeholder groups, particularly residents, providers and managers
Sautter & Leisen, 1999), those concerned with destination manage- (Haukeland, Daugstad, & Vistad, 2011; Mackenzie, 2012; Salk,
ment commonly do not or their results show that tourists are not Schneider, & McAvoy, 2010; Singal & Uysal, 2009) and, in the case
considered particularly salient by destination managers. Sheehan of sustainable tourism in Daintree (Australia), also tourists (Hardy
and Ritchie’s (2005) analysis of the most salient stakeholders & Beeton, 2001). Focus groups have also been used in other studies
identified by CEOs of DMOs in North America showed tourists of tourists. Sharpley and Jepson (2011), for example, used this
were considered of very negligible importance. technique to examine whether visitors to England’s Lake District
In terms of destination management, it is argued here that considered rural tourism a spiritual experience.
tourists are a very salient stakeholder group. Their salience relates In terms of research design, inter-related decisions to be made
not only to the tourist-centred focus of destination management about undertaking focus groups are: who is to be included; how
outlined above but also to the need to manage the impacts tourists many focus groups will be held and where; how will the focus
generate. While such issues have been dealt with in the large but groups be structured; how will the material be recorded; and how
rather fragmented body of work relating to satisfaction, quality will the material obtained be analysed?
evaluation and impact assessment, there appears to have been One of the challenges of carrying out focus groups with
little or no attempt as yet to address the broader question of what tourists, compared with local residents or providers, is that they
tourists actually think about destination management per se and are a mobile population and bringing groups of them together for
no parallels to recent studies that have considered the views of an hour or more in a suitable setting requires careful considera-
supply side stakeholders (Bornhorst et al., 2010). Incorporating the tion. This is particularly the case in New Zealand where much
tourists’ perspective will contribute to a more informed under- tourism, especially international tourism, involves circuit travel
standing of what destination management might involve and how including overnight stays at multiple locations in both the North
it might be carried out. Moreover, understanding tourists’ atti- and South Islands. To address this, the decision was taken to limit
tudes to destination management and why such management is the study to hostel guests, an important segment of tourists in
necessary may also contribute to the achievement of destination New Zealand, as the hostels they use provide good opportunities
management goals. Where tourists are known to share the same to recruit participants and hold meetings (Becken, 2007). Meeting
 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145 139

rooms were available to conduct the focus groups away from the Table 1
noise and activity of hostel life. Participants were recruited either Focus group profile characteristics.
by hostel staff making the focus groups known when the guests
Location Nationalities Gender Participants
checked in or by the facilitator approaching them in public areas of of focus groups
the hostel. A free night’s accommodation to each participant was
offered as an incentive. Wellington UK 11 Male 10 21
Nine focus groups were held in the period September to Ireland 3 Female 11
USA 2
November 2010 in YHA hostels in Wellington, Rotorua and Franz Argentina 2
Josef, three focus groups in each location (Fig. 1). Multiple sites Germany 1
were included to take account of any potential influence that the France 1
location might have held on the participants’ views in terms of the New Zealand 1
stage of their visit or the characteristics of the destination. Well- Rotorua UK 10 Male 9 20
ington is New Zealand’s capital and an urban setting; Rotorua is a Germany 3 Female 11
major resort attracting visitors through a mix of Maori culture, spa Australia 2
France 2
facilities and geothermal attractions; and Franz Josef is a small Ireland 1
village servicing visitors to the glaciers of the adjacent Westland Brazil 1
Tai Poutini National Park. New Zealand 1
A total of 61 participants were recruited (Table 1). The focus Franz Josef UK 4 Male 5 20
groups fell within the commonly recommended size range (Gibbs, Germany 4 Female 15
1997), varying from five to nine participants, with an average of Canada 3
seven per group. Of the sixteen nationalities represented, 21 USA 2
Switzerland 2
participants were from the United Kingdom and eight from India 2
Germany. Others came from North and South America, other parts Belgium 1
of Europe, Asia, Australia and two were from New Zealand. The Ireland 1
Franz Josef groups were slightly more diverse than those in the Japan 1
other two locations. In contrast to the relatively even gender Total UK 25 Male 24 61
balance of participants in Rotorua and Wellington, there was a Germany 8 Female 37
Ireland 5
marked majority of females in the Franz Josef groups. Analysis of
USA 4
their introductory remarks shows many of the participants were Canada 3
travelling for quite long periods, some up to 7 to 8 months. Some Argentina 2
were in New Zealand on working holiday visas or as language France 3
students. The majority were in the country for about 4 to 6 weeks New Zealand 2
India 2
and were well travelled. Some were on a world tour, other were
Switzerland 2
only visiting New Zealand. Age details were not recorded. Most Australia 2
Belgium 1
Japan 1
Brazil 1

Westland Tai Poutini

National Park
appeared to be in their late twenties but some were adolescents
and others were in their 50 s. In the main they were either
travelling individually or in pairs (friends, couples and a mother
and daughter).
Franz Josef Rotorua This mix represents a diversity of experiences and views. At the
same time, the recruitment of participants from among hostel
guests also provided some common background and group homo-
geneity which facilitated the sharing of experiences (Haukeland
et al., 2011; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2006; Kitzinger, 1995; Sharpley &
Wellington Jepson, 2011). Most of the participants contributed fully and
enthusiastically to the discussion but language difficulties did
limit the participation of some for whom English was not their
first language. A particular effort was made to include the latter by
directing questions directly to them. The views expressed, never-
theless, reflect those of hostel guests travelling independently;
those staying in other types of accommodation or engaging in
other forms of travel (e.g. coach tourists on a packaged holiday)
may consider destination management differently.
To ensure consistency and continuity, the nine groups were
facilitated by the same researcher. The focus groups lasted just
under an hour on average (58 min), ranging from 44 to 75 min.
After the purpose of the project was explained and formal consent
from the participants was obtained some introductory remarks
N
and brief presentations from each participant were sought so as to
W E
break the ice and establish some rapport within the group. The
S
discussion took a semi-structured open approach whereby the
Fig. 1. Location of focus groups in New Zealand. facilitator presented a series of focusing questions listed on a flip
140 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145

chart. The initial questions related to how the tourists’ viewed Table 2
destinations proceeding from open to more specific ones so as to Characteristics of good and poor destinations
elicit as spontaneous a response as possible. The results of this part
Good Poor
of the research will be reported elsewhere. Towards the end of the
session, participants were asked directly whether destinations Motivations and expectations
need to be managed and if so what should be managed. Partici- Depends on interest and motivations Depends on interest and motivations
pants were encouraged throughout to illustrate or elaborate on Meets or exceeds expectations Does not meet expectations

their responses by reference to particular examples or experiences, Destination attributes

whether at their present location or elsewhere on their current or Many things to do Lack of activities, nothing to do
Difference/uniqueness
previous trips, in New Zealand or in other countries.
Intangible qualities
The discussions were audio-recorded and later transcribed. The Friendly people Unwelcoming people
transcripts provided a rich body of data with the interaction People you are with or meet
between participants enabling ideas to be developed in some Safety Lack of safety
depth. Using NVivo, the transcribed responses to each of the Not value for money, rip off

focusing questions from the nine groups were collated and coded Secondary attributes
separately by the two researchers whose categories were then Lack of congestion Congestion
Atmosphere Lack of atmosphere
compared. Responses in the categories were then combined into
Filth, lack of hygiene
broader themes that emerged across the groups. In keeping with Weather Weather
the general thrust of the analysis of focus group transcripts, the
emphasis is on these broader themes but matters relating to
differences between locations are reported when they are salient destination. Several participants claimed that they had never
(e.g. with relation to destination boundaries). Points relating to visited a poor destination.
particular groups are also noted but no attempt is made to analyse
the responses by gender or nationality as, in contrast to surveys 3.1.1. Motivations and expectations
and in-depth interviews, the narratives examined are those of the Many participants suggested that what makes a good or poor
group not the individual and the groups were not recruited on the destination is not so much a function of the destination per se but
basis of these variables. To allow the voice of the participants to rather is a very personal matter, varying from individual to
come through and to exemplify the points raised, themes are individual in terms of their motivations, values and changing
illustrated with representative verbatim quotes, using pseudo- moods:
nyms for the participants who are identified by group only.
Like I don’t think a destination necessarily has to have anything
spectacular there. It just has to play to what you’re looking for
at the time. Ailsa (Franz Josef 1)
3. Results
…good and bad, poor, those are all based on your values I think
3.1. Destinations when travelling… Sally (Franz Josef 2)

It depends also always on your mood, which mood you are in

Before examining in detail the focus group participants’ per-
this moment. You are in different moods every time so some-
spective on destination management it is useful to summarize
times this is a perfect place for your mood and sometimes
their views on destinations which are reported fully elsewhere
not so. Irene (Franz Josef 3)
(Pearce & Schänzel, 2013). In particular, participants overwhel-
mingly expressed their ideas on destinations and types of destina- This personal perspective was reinforced by other participants
tions in trip-related terms rather than place-related attributes, who equated good destinations with those that fulfilled or
that is, as the end point of a trip or part of a journey, some place exceeded their expectations:
which has been reached or that one is going to. As used by the
participants, the concept of destination is very fluid and readily …for it to be a good destination you want it to deliver on your
encompasses layers of destinations as a journey unfolds. Personal expectations. And if possible, like, a really good destination
factors were given more importance than place attributes. Desti- would surpass them. Roy (Wellington 2)
nations were seen as places of personal interest, travel to which
What’s a good destination? It can be that it ticked all the boxes
was generally purposive and planned for, though unplanned
of what you expected and it can be somewhere that
destinations were also visited and pleasant surprises were valued.
surprises you? Andrew (Rotorua 1)
The tourists’ views of the characteristics of good and poor
destinations are particularly important as they can help shape the Surprise, discovery and ‘the accidental’ were generally seen to
focus of destination management activity by drawing attention to add to a destination:
what needs to be managed. The factors mentioned most fre-
quently by the participants might be grouped under two broad …you can get some surprises in destinations which actually
themes: the first related to those associated with tourists’ motiva- make them even better sometimes because it’s such a surprise.
tions and expectations; the second, to a range of destination Mary (Rotorua 1)
attributes (Table 2). In most cases the characteristics of good and
…it sort of surprised us and the spontaneity of the situation
poor destinations were expressed in dichotomous terms, for
made it a good destination. Neil (Rotorua 1)
example meeting/not meeting expectations, having many/few
activities or safety/lack of safety. In other instances this bi- …when you’ve discovered it yourself, it’s kind of doubly
polarity did not occur: good destinations were seen as being amazing… Manfred (Wellington 2)
different but a lack of difference was not used to describe poor
destinations; poor destinations did not offer value for money but However, destinations which did not live up to expectations
value for money was not an expressed attribute of a good were consistently regarded as poor:
 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145 141

I think maybe a bad destination is somewhere that appears …[in Cancun] it was just the people that were staying at the
outwardly to be something that it’s not. Lucy (Franz Josef 2) hotel and the things they did. It was just, just the people really.
Manfred (Wellington 2)
3.1.2. Destination attributes
Good destinations were seen as having a variety of things to see 3.2. Do destinations need to be managed?
and do, thereby appealing to different groups of people. Those that
offered few were generally considered poor although some sug- More direct discussion of destination management was
gested a lack of activities could hold appeal, as in this exchange in initiated with the open question ‘Do destinations need to be
Rotorua focus group 2: managed?’ Some respondents, especially some of the non-
English speakers, showed some initial uncertainty over what being
…You just know that there’s always something going on,
managed meant. Did it mean, for example, that destinations
there’s something happening, and there’s lots to see and do. I
needed to be ‘looked after’? The general response, however, was
think that’s what makes a good destination. Kate
a qualified ‘yes’: destinations need to be managed but not over-
Or on the other hand a good destination is also the arch managed. Such management should be ‘discrete’ and ‘subtle’:
opposite, like from that to being a place where you go and all
you see is a beach and a palm tree, and a hammock, and like a … the most effective ones in the countries that we’ve been to
cocktail. And that’s all, like Samoa. Jim have managed it in a way that you kind of don’t necessarily
always realise that it’s being managed. Stewart (Wellington 1)
Good destinations were also described as offering something
different to what tourists had seen or experienced before: … a destination needs to be managed but not too much,
because … you lose the charm of the destination. And after
…I think it’s generally about having something different but it’s too managed it’s too touristy, the beauty is lost. Gerry
being inviting for you to experience. Raymond (Wellington 1) (Rotorua 1)
Something unique as well. Like a unique feature that makes a To a certain point. But not overly managed where … it’s like,
city stand out, just something different. Jean (Wellington 1) “Okay now look to your left and you will see,” or, “Look to your
For some, what made a destination good was something right and this is”. Maybe, to a certain point yes it is good, but
intangible, something special: not completely all the way, where you feel like …everything is
being managed. Fanny (Franz Josef 2)
It’s the place that touches you…that leaves an impact with you.
Mary (Rotorua 1) The tension that emerged in the participants’ responses
between the need to manage a destination but not to the extent
I kind of like it [Lisbon] ‘cause I feel like it’s my special place, that it detracted from their experience of discovery and self-
because it’s not Paris or Barcelona or London.’ So Lisbon is kind reliance was expressed in several ways:
of like I have a connection with Lisbon that no one else does, so
it feels really special. Jim (Rotorua 2) …you don’t want some areas to be over managed, because that’s
precisely why you’ve, sometimes, come away. Roy (Wellington 2)
Poor destinations were associated with a particular set of
attributes: as places that offered poor value for money and created …on one hand it’s kind of the safety [taking a guided tour to
a feeling that tourists were being “ripped off”, as being “too see the glacier], on the other hand it’s good when you do the
touristy” or making “you feel like you’re on some sort of tourism things yourself, like when we did the Tongariro Crossing … it
conveyor belt”, as well as those that were filthy and congested, gives you another feeling when you do your things on
“just the basic stuff”. Safety, or the lack of it, was also a factor by your own. Jeremy (Franz Josef 2)
which participants, especially women, differentiated between
good and poor destinations. Likewise with it being easy to get …when you’re in kind of the nature and stuff like that, you don’t
around the destination or not. want little, like guide ropes to where you can only go … unless it’s
Discussions within the groups revealed that experience with really important they don’t want you stepping on endangered
other people was an important factor but one that went beyond plants and stuff. But there’s some you need to go with, to kind of
the commonly expressed views that good destinations were feel like you’re on the edge… George (Wellington 2)
associated with nice, friendly people and poor ones with unwel-
I’ve enjoyed struggling in some places because I feel like I’m not
coming locals. In some cases it was a question of frustration
in a tourist destination. I feel like if everything was overly
caused by language barriers or a sense of unease with homeless
managed everywhere I wouldn’t get that feeling sometimes.
people, beggars and the way local conditions impact on residents.
Sally (Franz Josef 2)
The participants also recognized that reaction to people at a
destination might vary from individual to individual: While some participants felt all destinations should be mana-
…you talk to people and say, ‘Oh, have you been to Vietnam?’ ged others expressed the view that it depends on the type of
and they’d say, ‘Yeah, I hated it because I hated the people.’ We destination or the type of traveller:
went, ‘Oh, we loved it because of the people’. Estelle (Rotorua
It depends on what the destination is. Like, with a city, you’d
2)
hope so. But if you’re out in the wilderness that’s quite exciting
Others stressed that it was not just the locals but other tourists as well, if it’s unmanaged. John (Wellington 2)
who influenced their views of a particular place:
There was a general awareness that tourism has impacts and
Part of it had absolutely nothing to do with the destination; it causes places to change. Consequently management is needed to
had to do with the fact I was with a great group of people, ‘avoid chaos’, to keep this development ‘under control’ and to
which I think can make or break a destination when you’re ‘keep places natural’. This was especially, but not exclusively, the
travelling. Sally (Franz Josef 1) case with national parks:
142 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145

…I think that some of the national areas, like the national … it’s just kind of giving people that little “i”, the “i” of hope. You
parks, they need to be managed just to manage the impact we see the little “i” in a building and say, “Oh, okay, how do I get
as tourists are having … here, what do I do?” So it gives people a sense that they belong
there, and there’s facilities for them to use. Jim (Rotorua 2)
…I mean we’re here because it’s beautiful and natural and you
don’t want …have it overrun and trails everywhere…’ Suzette A number of issues associated with visitor management were
(Franz Josef 2) also raised. Those in Franz Josef recognized the need for measures
to ensure the safety of visitors while on the glaciers or in other
Participants also showed an understanding of the different natural areas but at the same time admitted that they had actually
sorts of impacts which poorly managed destinations might have gone beyond protective barriers to get a better photo. Others
and recognized that poor management might affect not only pointed to the value of good signage, the provision of toilets, the
tourists but also residents. This was particularly the case in need to regulate traffic to avoid problems of congestion and the
Rotorua: importance of good roads and good local transport.
Participants in one focus group (Rotorua 1) felt some form of
… Rotorua for example has probably quite a lot of tourists
management was needed ‘to make sure everybody does things
because of the things there are to do around, but if Rotorua
properly and there’s no sort of dodgy things going on and ripping
itself wasn’t carefully managed, I think you’d start to lose the
people off’. Romania was given as an example, not Rotorua. Pricing
tourism and then therefore it would have knock-on effects on
was a related issue raised in another group (Franz Josef 1);
the economy, etc, etc. So, I think it has to be managed or you’re
whether it was possible to cap prices on attractions and whether
going to lose your tourists. Neil (Rotorua 1)
there was a need for entrance fees to national parks (the no fee
… obviously tourism does completely change places, but you policy of New Zealand was contrasted with that of the United
see like some examples of where they’ve obviously built the States). Some form of quality assurance scheme was seen as one
town planning around tourism, which actually sort of kills the possible response to these issues:
whole sort of town in a way. And they should just take tourism The Quality Mark thing [Qualmark], they’ve got over here, I
as like input into the town … they should still do it for the think it’s quite useful. Like there needs to be some kind of
residents too, ‘cause it is the place where they’re going to live, management of the standard of facilities that are provided for
and that’s where the culture of the place comes out of… tourists partly so you can make an informed decision, whether
what you’re paying for is worth the money but also to stop the
…in some places it is sort of quite contrived, and it just then
really crap hostels from existing that are dirty and everything.
puts off tourists and what they’re actually going for. Owen
They’ve got to have some kind of basic level. I think manage-
(Rotorua 2)
ment comes in there like restaurants, hostels, public toilets, all
… if you’re in a tourist town then you, as the resident, want to those kinds of things. Hannah (Wellington 1)
enjoy the amenity of the town without the tourists just kind of
Other than the larger issue of protecting areas and keeping
taking over. And because we live in a global world you have to
them natural, the only specific environmental issue raised was
be very careful about how you manage your resources, so,
that of making provision for recycling.
energy and being green and all of that sort of thing, so yeah, I
Although tourism was seen as having an impact on residents
think you can’t, like, not manage it. But you’ve got to manage it
there was no specific mention of management measures to be taken
for… not only the tourists, but the people that actually live here
with regard to this group of stakeholders other than those relating to
as well, so, that’s probably harder to balance. Yeah. Jean
planning mentioned earlier. Limited discussion also occurred with
(Rotorua 3)
regard to the roles of the business sector and councils:

3.3. What needs to be managed? … maybe the councils of the areas [have] got to ensure that
they are allowing the small businesses and the things that are
When asked whether there was anything specific that needed going to make the city different and stand out - allow them the
to be managed in destinations much of the discussion focussed on ability to be able to set up their businesses and develop them
issues that directly related to tourists. Marketing and the provision freely and also like the marketing of maybe the city to other
of information management were seen as important: people as well. Raymond (Wellington 1)

A tourist destination needs to be managed to the extent that it 3.4. Destination boundaries
needs to be marketed, let people know more about it. And then
once they’re here, really help the people to get the most out of Participants were also questioned on the geographical extent of
it, to meet their expectations, and to make it a memorable the destination they were at as the administrative boundaries of
destination. Colin (Rotorua 2) destinations are critical in terms of who is responsible for
particular management functions. This issue was pursued in
…if there was no management then people perhaps wouldn’t
particular in the Franz Josef focus groups as the township of that
visit because they wouldn’t know where to go and what to do.
name is one of two settlements servicing visitors to the glaciers
… you have to have some sort of tourist management to attract
located within Westland National Park (Fig. 1). The national park is
people as well as keeping people in line. Lucy (Franz Josef 1)
managed by the Department of Conservation whereas the town-
…management, in certain places, also shows you kind of the ships fall under the Westland District Council. Specifically, respon-
opportunities you wouldn’t have thought of yourself… a dents were asked: ‘So what do you see as the destination here, is it
certain management that gives you the focus, focus on what the Franz Josef township, or is it the Franz Josef glacier, or is it
is worth to see, or how you can travel there… that’s impor- Westland National Park, or is it the West Coast?’ Responses varied,
tant…. Jeremy (Franz Josef 2) for some it was ‘the glaciers’, for others ‘the town’. Whatever the
case, it was quite clear it was the glaciers drawing visitors to the
Information centres (i-SITES) received particular praise: area:
 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145 143

I came here to go on a glacier, but I’m just in Franz Josef the town management. Similarly, many visitors to Wellington may appreci-
to sleep basically. A base I suppose… Suzette (Franz Josef 2) ate the attraction and accessibility of the city’s waterfront without
being aware of all the underlying debate, council intervention,
…it’s just a means to an end; I mean you have to come to this land-use regulation and development which have shaped its
town to go to the glacier so we are here. Fanny (Franz Josef 3)
present character (Nguyen, 2010).
Most of the respondents were not aware the glaciers were in a Conversely, some of the focus group responses suggest that
national park and also did not see the wider West Coast region as particular aspects of a good destination may largely lie outside the
their destination. In Wellington, the city itself, and in many cases destination managers’ control, such as the ‘people’ and weather
just the city centre, was considered the destination. Rotorua was attributes (Table 2), a finding shared with the study by Griffin and
something of an intermediate case: some saw their destination as Edwards (2012). Good host campaigns and measures to reduce
just being the city, for others the city was a base from which to adverse impacts on host populations may be used to foster
visit outlying attractions. friendly attitudes towards tourists but it is less clear how destina-
tion management might strengthen the ‘people you are with’
aspect deemed to be an important attribute of a good destination.
4. Discussion The views summarized in Table 2 generally support the large
body of research on importance performance analysis, a common
Practitioners and researchers involved with destination man- tool in destination management (Griffin & Edwards, 2012), while
agement might be both heartened and challenged by the indicating that in the debate over how these dimensions are
responses from the focus group participants in this study. Their conceptualized and used greater attention might be given to
responses endorse the need for destination management and expectations (Huan, Beaman, & Shelby, 2002; Oh, 2001; Wade &
show a broad appreciation of why destinations should be mana- Eagles, 2003). The elements in the table underline the value of
ged. The participants see a need for destination marketing, value obtaining the tourists’ views on what might be included in such
the provision of information and acknowledge the importance of studies while the absence of bi-polarity in some of the attributes
visitor management, three of the most common activities of DMOs (difference, people you are with, not value for money) suggests
(Wang & Pizam, 2011). At the same time, they strongly expressed more attention might be given to Kano, Seraku, Takahasi and
the view that destinations should not be over-managed, that there Hinshitu’s (1984) three factor theory which distinguishes quality
should still be a place for discovery, for the excitement and self- in terms of three categories of attributes: basic, excitement and
reliance which comes with opportunities to ‘feel you’re on the performance (Deng, 2007).
edge’. Surprise and difference were also characteristics associated While the location and methodology used in the two studies differ,
with good destinations. Discussion in the focus groups also high- the findings in Table 2 might also be compared with Bornhorst et al.,
lighted the intangible nature of good destinations and emphasized (2010) study into supply-side stakeholders’ perspectives on what
that what made a destination good or poor was often something constitutes destination success. The five themes that emerged from
very personal which varied from individual to individual. The the Canadian study were: economic success, internal stakeholder
difference between good and poor destinations was also seen to be interaction, product and service offerings, effective marketing and
a function of the extent to which expectations were met or reality quality of visitor experiences. Although expressed differently, there is a
corresponded with the destination’s image. Poor value for money large degree of overlap between the last three themes and those in
and ‘rip offs’ were other characteristics of poor destinations cited Table 2. However, the tourists did not mention either economic
with regard to what should be managed. success or internal stakeholder interaction, even though that may be
Some of these issues are of course well-established. The links critical to the delivery of their own visitor experiences, and the supply
between marketing, destination image and expectations are side stakeholders (e.g. sector managers and DMO executives and
already underpinned by a large body of research and practice chairs) showed little appreciation of the importance to the tourists
(Wang & Pizam, 2011) and the development of quality assurance of personal motivations and expectations.
schemes (López-Toro et al., 2010) is one response to dealing with It is also instructive to compare the current destination
‘rip offs’. More challenging are the issues raised with regard to not management activities in the three study locations with the views
over-managing coupled with the intangible and subjective nature expressed by the focus group participants. Table 3 provides a
of what constitutes a good destination. Where do the boundaries summary of the main activities in the key strategies and plans for
between effective destination management and over-management the three destinations. Franz Josef is the only one with an explicit
lie? Some parallels might be drawn with the related issues of ‘destination management plan’ (Tourism Resource Consultants,
carrying capacity and the limits of acceptable change (Butler, 2009). The regional tourism organizations of Wellington and
2010). However, the matters being raised by the participants in Rotorua have, respectively, prepared a visitor strategy (Positively
this study do not appear to equate simply to such issues as levels Wellington Tourism, 2008) and a business plan (Destination
of crowding but rather concern the tourists’ perceptions of being Rotorua Tourism Marketing, 2011).
managed and the extent of this management. Moreover, given the
highly personal and subjective appreciation of what constitutes a
good destination significant variations might be expected amongst Table 3
Main destination management activities in Rotorua, Wellington and Franz Josef.
tourists. What may create for one a feeling of frustration arising Sources: Destination Rotorua Tourism Marketing (2011), Positively Wellington
from a lack of information or poor signage may for another Tourism (2008), Tourism Resource Consultants (2009).
engender a sense of surprise and spontaneity.
In this regard, some of the most effective destination manage- Activity Rotorua Wellington Franz Josef
ment might be that which tourists are unaware of but which
Product development X X X
nevertheless contributes to their enjoyment and sense of discov- Marketing X X X
ery and which fulfils other goals such as protection of the natural Infrastructure X X X
or built environment. As noted in Section 3.4, many of the Access X X X
participants in the Franz Josef focus groups had come to see the Visitor information X X
Tourism support services X X
glaciers without being aware that they were located in a national Community services X X
park with all that that entails in terms of conservation and
144 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145

Comparison of the participants’ views with the strategies and References

plans of the three destinations reveals a fair level of degree of
concordance. The documents generally cover a wider range of Becken, S. (2007). Tourists’ perception of international air travel’s impact on the
issues but the tourists’ views offer further insights into how some global climate and potential climate change policies. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 15(4), 351–368.
of these might be addressed. Both the plans and the tourists stress
Bieger, T., Beritelli, P., & Laesser, C. (2009). Size matters! Increasing DMO effective-
the importance of marketing, visitor information and access. ness and extending tourism destination boundaries. Tourism, 57(3), 309–327.
However, with the latter the tourists mainly mentioned local Bodega, D., Cioccarelli, G., & Denicolai, S. (2004). New inter-organizational forms:
access whereas the plans in Wellington and Rotorua also under- Evolution of relationship structures in mountain tourism. Tourism Review, 59(3),
13–19.
lined the strategic importance of facilitating external access. Bornhorst, T., Ritchie, J. R. B., & Sheehan, L. (2010). Determinants of tourism success
The plans’ emphasis on product development is in line with the for DMOs & destinations: An empirical examination of stakeholders’ perspec-
participants’ view that good destinations offer a range of things to tives. Tourism Management, 31(5), 572–589.
Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism
do and experience. The focus group responses suggest the main
Management, 21(1), 97–116.
challenges here are to ensure that expectations are met and that Butler, R. W. (2010). Carrying capacity in tourism: Paradox or hypocrisy?. In: D.
products are developed in a way that does not seem too contrived G. Pearce, & R. W. Butler (Eds.), Tourism research: A 20–20 Vision (pp. 53–64).
and still offers surprise and spontaneity. The claim made in the Oxford: Goodfellow.
Crouch, G. I., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1999). Tourism, competitiveness and societal
Wellington strategy that an exciting and interesting destination is prosperity. Journal of Business Research, 44, 137–152.
good for visitors and residents alike and the Rotorua proposal for Currie, R. R., Seaton, S., & Wesley, F. (2009). Determining stakeholders for feasibility
CBD developments for both groups also resonate with participants’ analysis. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(1), 41–63.
d’Angella, F., & Go, F. (2009). Tale of two cities’ collaborative tourism marketing:
views that destinations should not be managed just for tourists. Towards a theory of destination stakeholder assessment. Tourism Management,
In general, however, the tourists did not refer to infrastructure, 30(7), 429–440.
support services and community services. The priority given in the Deng, W. (2007). Using a revised importance-performance analysis approach: The
Franz Josef plan to enhancing and sustaining the visitor experience case of Taiwanese hot springs tourism. Tourism Management, 28(5), 1274–1284.
Destination Rotorua Tourism Marketing (2011). Business Plan 2011–2012. Rotorua:
in the glacier valleys matches the stress the participants put on the Destination Rotorua Tourism Marketing.
attraction of the glaciers and, for many, the glaciers being the Donaldson, T., & Preston, L. E. (1995). The stakeholder theory of the corporation:
destination. However, there was little that emerged from the Franz Concepts, evidence and implications. Academy of Management Review, 20,
65–91.
Josef focus groups to indicate that destination management should Dwyer, L., & Kim, C. (2003). Destination competitiveness: Determinants and
embrace the broader support measures to the local community indicators. Current Issues in Tourism, 6(5), 369–414.
that feature in the plan, however important they might be for Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston:
sustaining the tourists’ base for visiting the glaciers. Pitman.
Fuchs, M., & Weiermair, K. (2004). Destination benchmarking: An indicator-
system’s potential for exploring guest satisfaction. Journal of Travel Research,
42(3), 212–225.
Gibbs, A. (1997). Focus groups. Social Research Update, 19, 1–7.
Griffin, T., & Edwards, D. (2012). Importance–performance analysis as a diagnostic
tool for urban destination managers. Anatolia: An International Journal of
5. Conclusions Tourism and Hospitality Research, 23(1), 32–48.
Hardy, A. L., & Beeton, R. J. S. (2001). Sustainable tourism or maintainable tourism:
In conclusion, this study has demonstrated the need to extend Managing resources for more than average outcomes. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 9(3), 168–192.
research on destination management to tourists and to incorporate Haukeland, J. V., Daugstad, K., & Vistad, O. I. (2011). Harmony or conflict? A focus
their views in preparing and implementing destination management group study on traditional use and tourism development in and around
strategies while at the same time acknowledging that they should not Rondane and Jothunheimen National Parks in Norway. Scandinavian Journal
of Hospitality and Tourism, 11(1), 13–37.
be the sole focus of the research nor of the strategies. Rather,
Hesse-Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2006). The practice of qualitative research. Thousand
comprehensive destination management should take account of the Oaks, CA: Sage.
views of all stakeholders, however demanding that might be in terms Huan, T. C., Beaman, J., & Shelby, L. B. (2002). Using action-grids in tourism
of resources and methods. management. Tourism Management, 23(3), 255–264.
Kano, N., Seraku, N., Takahasi, F., & Hinshitu, S. (1984). Attractive quality and must-
The tourists’ perspective should be considered not just in terms be quality. Quality, the Journal of Japanese Society for Quality Control, 14, 39–48.
of more conventional topics, such as satisfaction or destination Kimbu, A. N., & Ngoasong, M. Z. (2013). Centralised decentralization of tourism
image, but also with regard to destination management per se. development: a network perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 40, 235–239.
Kitzinger, J. (1994). The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interac-
Incorporating the views of tourists can bring a more comprehen-
tion between research participants. Sociology of Health, 16(1), 103–121.
sive and nuanced approach to managing destinations and provide Kitzinger, J. (1995). Introducing focus groups. British Medical Journal, 311, 299–302.
a means of assessing current practices and strategies. In particular, Litvin, S. W., & Sharon Ng Sok, L. i. n. g. (2001). The destination attribute
this study has not only shown what might be managed (in management model: An empirical application to Bintan, Indonesia. Tourism
Management, 22(5), 481–492.
particular, destination marketing, information provision and visi- López-Toro, A. A., Díaz-Muñoz, R., & Pérez-Moreno, S. (2010). An assessment of the
tors), but also drawn attention to the importance of considering quality of a tourist destination: The case of Nerja, Spain. Total Quality Manage-
the nature of management and over-management and determin- ment & Business Excellence, 21(3), 269–289.
Mackenzie, C. A. (2012). Accruing benefit or loss from a protected area: Location
ing where the boundaries between these might lie.
matters. Ecological Economics, 76, 119–129.
Given the exploratory nature of this study, future research might Merinero Rodríguez, R. (2008). Micro-cluster turísticos: El papel del capital social
be extended to other destinations and other types of tourists to en el desarrollo económico local. Revista de Estudios Empresariales. Segunda
examine the generality of these findings and to investigate whether época, 2, 67–92.
Morrison, A. M. (2013). Marketing and managing tourism destinations. London and
location and forms of tourism influence tourists’ perspectives on New York: Routledge.
destination management and the issues that are important to them. Nguyen, T. H. H. (2010). The Wellington waterfront and tourism development:
How, for instance, might the views of package tourists to coastal Planning process and legislative framework. Unpublished MTM Thesis. Wellington:
Victoria: University of Wellington.
resorts differ from those of the independent travellers engaged in Oh, H. (2001). Revisiting importance-performance analysis. Tourism Management,
circuit tourism who were the subjects of this study? With some of the 22(6), 617–627.
broader issues having been identified here scope exists now to focus Pearce, D. G., & Schänzel, H. A. (2013). Destinations: Tourists’ perspectives from
in on and drill down into more specific topics. In particular, how are New Zealand. International Journal of Tourism Research, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/jtr.1955.
tourist experiences influenced by destination management and what Positively Wellington Tourism (2008). Wellington visitor strategy 2015. Wellington:
constitutes over-management of destinations? Positively Wellington Tourism
 D. Pearce, H. Schänzel / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 2 (2013) 137–145 145

Presenza, A., Sheehan, L., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (2005). Towards a model of the roles and Stanford, D. (2006). Responsible tourism, responsible tourists: What makes a respon-
activities of destination management organizations. Journal of Hospitality, sible tourist in New Zealand?. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Victoria University of
Tourism and Leisure Science, 3, 1–16. Wellington.
Sainaghi, R. (2006). From contents to processes: Versus a dynamic destination Tourism Resource Consultants (2009). Glacier country destination management
management model (DDMM). Tourism Management, 27(5), 1053–1063. plan. Wellington: Tourism Resource Consultants
Salk, R., Schneider, I. E., & McAvoy, L. H. (2010). Perspectives of sacred sites on Lake Wade, D. J., & Eagles, P. F. J. (2003). The use of importance-performance analysis and
Superior: The case of Apostle Islands. Tourism in Marine Environments, 6(2/3), market segmentation in parks and protected areas: An application to Tanzania’s
89–99. national parks. Journal of Ecotourism, 2, 196–212.
Sautter, E. T., & Leisen, B. (1999). Managing stakeholders: A tourism planning Wang, Y., & Pizam, A. (2011). Destination marketing and management: theories and
model. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 312–328. applications. Wallingford: CABI.
Sharpley, R., & Jepson, D. (2011). Rural tourism: A spiritual experience? Annals of Wang, Y. (2011). Destination marketing and management: Scope, definition and
Tourism Research, 38(1), 52–71. structures. In: Y. Wang, & A. Pizam (Eds.), Destination marketing and manage-
Sheehan, L. R., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (2005). Destination stakeholders: Exploring identity ment: theories and applications (pp. 1–20). Wallingford: CABI.
and salience. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3), 711–734. Zehrer, A., Pechlaner, H., & Hölzl, B. (2005). The development of a destination
Singal, M., & Uysal, M. (2009). Resource commitment in destination management: management system (DMS) in South Tyrol. Anatolia: An International Journal of
The case of Abingdon, Virginia. Tourism Review, 57(3), 329–344. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 16(2), 147–161.