RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Cities of Mandaluyong and Pasig

WEEK 1

MODULE 1.: MEASUREMENT and VECTORS

At the end of this module, the student will be able to learn about:

1. Measurements
2. Dimensional Analysis
3. Conversion of Units
4. Order- of- Magnitude Calculations
5. Significant Figures
6. Coordinate Systems
7. Vectors and Scalars
8. Properties of Vectors
9. Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors
10. Modeling, Alternative Representations and Problem- Solving Strategy

Overview

In this module we will deal with motions in one and two dimensions and as we
go along solving real-life situation problems, we will be needing your prior knowledge
on dimensional analysis, coordinate systems and operations on vectors. You will
encounter different terms that will describe motion of an object such as velocity,
acceleration, free-fall, projectile and uniform motion.

Study Guide

(Refer to your Course Guide)

Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, the students are able to:

1. Discuss few mathematical concepts and techniques such as measurements,
dimensional analysis, conversion of units, order of magnitude calculations,
significant figures and coordinate systems
2. Differentiate vectors to scalar quantities
3. Familiarize with the different properties of vectors
4. Determine components of a vector and unit vectors
5. Perform mathematical operations involving vectors

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Topic Presentation

1.1 Measurements
The laws of physics can be expressed as mathematical relationships among
physical quantities. In mechanics, a branch of physics that deals with the action of
force on bodies and with motion, the three fundamental quantities are length, mass
and time with units of meter(m), kilogram (kg) and second (s), respectively. An
international committee has agreed on a system of definitions and standards to
describe fundamental physical quantities called the SI system (Systẻme
International).Today, a meter is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum
during the time interval of 1/299 972 458 second while kilogram is defined as the mass
of specific platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures at Sẻvres, France and second is defined as 9 192 631 770 times the
period of oscillation of radiation from the cesium atom.
But aside from SI System of units, US customary units are also used in which
the units for length, mass and time are foot (ft), slug and second, respectively.
Quantities that can be expressed as a mathematical combination of fundamental
quantities are called derived quantities. Some of the common derived quantities are
area, which is a product of two lengths and speed, which is a ratio of a length to a time
interval. The density (𝜌) is also a derived quantity which is defined as mass of
substance per unit volume.
1.2-Dimensional Analysis
In physics, the world dimension denotes the physical nature of quantity. The
symbols used to specify the dimensions of length, mass and time are 𝐿, 𝑀 and 𝑇,
respectively. A square bracket [ ] are often used to denote the dimensions of a
physical quantity for example the dimension of speed 𝑣 can be written as [𝑣] = 𝐿⁄𝑇.

Dimensional analysis can be used as a consistency check to assist in the

derivation or to check your final expression. It makes use of the fact that dimensions
can be treated as algebraic quantities. Such as quantities can only be added or
subtracted if they have the same dimensions and the terms on both side of an equation
must havae the same dimensions. Table 1 below shows the dimensions and units for
area, volume, speed and acceleration.
Table 1. Dimensions and Units of Four Derived Quantities
Quantity Area (𝑨) Volume (𝑽) Speed (𝒗) Acceleration (𝒂)
Dimension 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿⁄ 𝐿⁄ 2
𝑇 𝑇
SI units 𝑚2 𝑚3 𝑚⁄ 𝑚⁄ 2
𝑠 𝑠
US Customary units 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑡⁄ 𝑓𝑡⁄
𝑠 𝑠2

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Exercise 1. Answer the following items per instruction.

1. What are the seven 7 basic units recognized by the International System of
units? Write their unit and symbol.
2. Draw if the quantity is an SI unit and if the unit is English (US) unit. Write
also their symbol.
Quantity Symbol / Quantity Symbol /
mile quart
liter dyne
British yard
Thermal
Unit
pounds horsepower
newton candela

3. Expressed the following derived units to their equivalent basic units.

Derived Units Equivalent in Basic Units

𝐸𝑥. 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 (𝑁) 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
𝑠2
1. Hertz (Hz)
2. Pascal (Pa)
3. Joule (J)
4. Coulomb (C)
5. Volt (V)
6. Farad (F)
7. Ohm (Ω)
8. Watt (W)
9. Weber (Wb)
10. Tesla (T)

1.3 Conversion of Units

Units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other. To
perform a conversion, a quantity can be multiplied by a conversion factor, which is a
fraction equal to 1, with numerator and denominator having different units to provide
the desired units in the final answer.
Table 2. shows some of the common conversion factors for fundamental
and derived units.
Table 2. Conversion Table
Length Temperature Energy
SI unit: meter (m) SI unit: Kelvin (K) SI unit: Joule (J)
1 km= 0.62137m 0 K= -273. 15°𝐶 1 J= 1 kgm2/s2
1 mi= 5280 ft=1.6093 km = -459.67°𝐹 1 J= 0.239 cal= 1 C x 1 V
1 m= 1.0936 yd 5 1 cal= 4.184 J
1 in = 2.54 cm (exactly) °𝐶 = ( × ℉) − 32° 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
9
1 cm = 0.3937 in 9
1Ǻ=10−10 m °𝐹 = ( × ℃) + 32°
5

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Mass Pressure Volume

SI unit: kilogram (kg) SI unit: Pascal (Pa) SI unit: cubic meter (m3)
1 kg= 2.2046 lb 1 Pa = 1 N/m2= 1 kg/ms2 1L = 10 -3 = 1 dm3
1 lb = 0.454 kg= 16 oz 1 atm= 101.324 kPa =103cm3 = 1.0567 qt
1 amu = 1.6605402 x 10−24 g =760 torr 1 gal =4 qt=3.7854 L
= 14.70 lb/ in2 1 cm3= 1 ml
1 bar = 100 kPa 1 in3 = 16.4 cm3

For example, we want to convert 15.0 inches into centimeters, we will use the
conversion factor 1 in. = 2.54 cm and arrange this in fraction form in such as way that
the unit in the numerator is the one that we desired.
2.54 𝑐𝑚
15.0 𝑖𝑛 = (15.0 𝑖𝑛) ( ) = 38.1 𝑐𝑚
1 𝑖𝑛
1.4 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations
In some cases when we deal with numbers of bits of data, we cannot
provide and exact number but rather an estimate which can be expressed in scientific
notation. The estimate be made even more approximate by expressing it as an order
of magnitude which is a power of ten determined as follows:
1. Express the number in scientific notation, with the multiplier of the power ten
between 1 and 10 and a unit.
2. If the multiplier is less than 3.162 (the square root of 10), the order of magnitude
of the number is the power of ten in the scientific notation. If the multiplier is
greater than 3.162, the order of magnitude is one larger than the power of ten
in the scientific notation
We use the symbol ~ for is on the order of”. Use the above procedure
above to verify the orders of magnitude for the following lengths:
0.008 6𝑚 ~ 10−2 𝑚 0.002 1 𝑚 ~ 10−3 𝑚 720 𝑚~103 𝑚
Table 4. Prefixes

Prefix Prefix Value Prefix Prefix Value

Name Symbol Name Symbol
yotta Y 1024 Septillion deci d 10−1 Tenth
zetta Z 1021 Sextillion centi c 10−2 Hundredth
exa E 1018 Quintillion milli m 10−3 Thousandth
peta P 1015 Quadrillion micro 𝜇 10−6 Millionth
tera T 1012 Trillion nano n 10−9 Billionth
giga G 109 Billion pico p 10−12 Trillionth
mega M 106 Million femto f 10−15 Quadrillionth
kilo k 103 Thousand atto a 10−18 Quintillionth
hecto H 102 Hundred zepto z 10−21 Sexitillionth
deka da 101 Ten yocto y 10−24 Septillionth

1.5 Significant Figures

The number of significant figures in a measurement can be used to
express something about the uncertainty. The number of significant figures is related
to the number of numerical digits used to express the measurement. Table 3 shows
the numbers of significant figures in each given number.

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Table 4. Significant Figures

Given No. of Significant Figures
145.32 oz 5
6.0 cm 2
0.03 in 1
0.007 5 s 2
1500 g= 1.5 x 103 g 2
1500 g= 1.50 x 103 g 3
1500 g= 1.500 x 103 g 4

From the given in table 3 we can derive some rules in identifying the
number of significant figures in a given number.
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros used to position the decimal point are not significant.
3. To avoid misinterpretations for zeros come after digits which can be removed
if we write the number in its scientific notation form to indicate the number of
significant figures.

In problem solving, when we combine quantities mathematically through

multiplication, division, addition or subtraction make sure that the result has the
appropriate number of significant figures. The rule of thumb would be:

• When multiplying or dividing several quantities, the number of significant

figures in the final answer is the same as the number of significant figures in
the quantity having the smallest number of significant figures.
Example: (2.31 𝑐𝑚)(0.45 𝑐𝑚) = 1.0395 𝑐𝑚2 = 1.0 𝑐𝑚2
(2.31 𝑐𝑚)/(0.45 𝑐𝑚) = 5.1333 = 5.1
• But for addition or subtraction, instead of the significant figures it is the decimal
places that we need to consider and the final answer must be expressed with
the least number of decimal places.
Example: 123.451 𝑐𝑚 + 12.01 𝑐𝑚 − 0.00172 𝑐𝑚 = 135.4593 𝑐𝑚
= 135.46𝑐𝑚

Exercise 2: Convert the following given into the desired units and express your answer
in scientific notation with correct significant figures.
1. Starting with the definition 1𝑖𝑛. = 2.54 𝑐𝑚, find the number of (a) kilometer in
1.00 mile and (b) feet in 1.00 km.
2. According to the label on a bottle of salad dressing, the volume of the contents
is 0.472 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐿). Using only the conversions 1𝐿 = 1000𝑐𝑚3 and 1𝑖𝑛. =
2.54 𝑐𝑚, express this volume in cubic inches.
3. How many nanoseconds does it tale light to travel 1.00 𝑓𝑡 in vacuum?
4. The density of gold is 19.3 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 . What is the value in kilograms per cubic
meter?
5. The most powerful engine available for the classic 1963 Chevrolet Corvette
Sting Ray developed 360 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 and had a displacement of
327 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠. Express the displacement in liters (L) by using the
conversions 1𝐿 = 1000𝑐𝑚3 and 1𝑖𝑛. = 2.54 𝑐𝑚.

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1.6 Coordinate Systems

Many aspects of physics deal in some way or another with location in space.
To describe the position of a point in space by means of coordinates in a graphical
representation. A point on a line can be located with one coordinate, appoint in a plane
located with two coordinates, and three coordinates required to locate a point in space.
A coordinate system used to specify locations in space consists of

• A fixed reference point 𝑂, called the origin

• A set of specified axes or directions with an appropriate scale and labels
on the axes.
• Instructions that tell us how to label a point in space relative to the origin
and axes.

We will frequently use the Cartesian coordinate system which is

sometimes called rectangular coordinate system. An arbitrary point in this system is
labeled with the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦). Positive 𝑥 is to taken to the right of the origin, and
the positive 𝑦 is upward from the origin. Negative 𝑥 is to the left of the origin and
negative 𝑦 is downward from the origin.

Table 5.
Coordinates in a Cartesian
Plane
Quadrants Coordinates
I (+𝑥, +𝑦)
II (−𝑥, +𝑦)
III (−𝑥, −𝑦)
IV (+𝑥, −𝑦)
x-axis (±𝑥, 0)
y-axis (0, ±𝑦)

Fig. 1. Points in a Cartesian Plane

Sometimes it is more convenient to represent a point in a plane by its plane

polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃). In this coordinate system 𝑟 is the length of the line from the
origin to the point, and 𝜃 is the angle between that line and a fixed axis, usually the
positive 𝑥 axis, with 𝜃 measured clockwise.

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Using trigonometric functions, we

can see that
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑟
𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Fig. 2. Points in a Cartesian Plane

You should note that these expressions relating the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) to
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) apply only when 𝜃 is defined where positive 𝜃 is an angle measured
counterclockwise from the positive 𝑥 axis. If the reference axis for the polar angle 𝜃 is
chosen to be other than the positive 𝑥 axis or if the sense of increasing 𝜃 is chosen
differently, the corresponding expressions relating the two sets of coordinates will
change.
1.7 Vectors and Scalars
Each of the physical quantities can be classified either a scalar or a vector
quantity. A scalar is a quantity that is completely specified by a positive or a negative
number with appropriate units while a vector is a physical quantity that must be
specified by both magnitude and direction. One example of a vector quantity is the
displacement of a particle defined as a change in position which can be determine if
its initial and final coordinates are known. It is independent of the path if the end
points of the path are fixed. The magnitude of the displacement is the shortest
distance between the endpoints. Unlike displacement, distance traveled is a scalar
quantity. It is the length of the path which in general can be much greater than the
magnitude of the displacement.
If a particle moves along the 𝑥 axis from initial position 𝑥𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 ,
then then the displacement is ∆𝑥 ≡ 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 . Suppose 𝑥𝑖 = −5𝑚 and 𝑥𝑓 = +3𝑚, then
displacement is ∆𝑥 ≡ 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = +3𝑚 − (−5𝑚) = +8𝑚 which can be interpreted as 8𝑚
to the right.
Many physical quantities in addition to displacement are vectors. We will use
boldface letter with an arrow over the letter, such as 𝐴⃗, to represent vectors. Another
common notation for vectors with which you should be familiar is a simple boldface
character: 𝑨. The magnitude of any arbitrary vector 𝐴⃗ is written with an italic letter 𝐴 of
alternatively |𝐴⃗|.

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1.8 Some Properties of Vectors

A. Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors ⃗𝑨⃗⃗ and 𝑩

⃗⃗⃗ are defined to be equal if they have the same units,
the same magnitude and the same direction. That is, ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑨=𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗ only if 𝐴 = 𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑨 and 𝑩
point in the same direction.
Example: Given the fig. 3 answer briefly the following questions below.
Questions:

1. Which pair of vectors are

equal? Why?

2. Which pair of vectors are not

equal? Why?

Fig. 3. Vectors

B. Addition
The technique in adding two vectors When vectors are added, the
graphically is often called the “head-to-tail sum is independent of the order of the
method”. The resultant vector 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ addition and this is known as the
is the vector drawn from the tail of 𝐴⃗ to the commutative law of addition, where
⃗⃗ .
tip of 𝐵 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗

Fig. 4 Resultant Vector Fig. 5 Commutative Law of Vectors Addition

If three or more vectors are added,

their sum is independent of the way in
which they are group and this is known
as associative law of addition.
⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ + (𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑪⃗) = (𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗) + ⃗𝑪⃗

In summary, a vector quantity has

both magnitude and the direction and
also obeys the laws of vector addition.

Fig. 6 Associative Law of Vectors Addition

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C. Negative of a Vector

The negative of the vector 𝐴⃗ is defined as the vector that when added to 𝐴⃗,
gives zero for the vector sum. That is 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐴⃗) = 0. The vectors 𝐴⃗ and −𝐴⃗ have the
same magnitude but point in opposite directions. Going back to figure 3, which vectors
has a negative? Explain.
D. Subtraction of Vectors
The operation of a vector
subtraction makes use of the definition of
the negative vector. We define the
operation 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ as vector −𝐵
⃗⃗ added to
⃗
vector 𝐴:

𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗)

Fig. 7 Subtraction of Vectors

E. Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

• If a vector 𝐴⃗ is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity 𝑠 , the product 𝑠 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴 is a
⃗
vector that has the same direction as 𝐴 and magnitude 𝑠𝐴.
Example: 5𝐴⃗ is five times longer than 𝐴⃗ and has the same direction as 𝐴⃗
• If a vector 𝐴⃗ is multiplied by a negative scalar quantity 𝑠 , the product 𝑠 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴 is
⃗
a vector that has the same direction as 𝐴 and magnitude 𝑠𝐴.
1
• Example: − 𝐴⃗ has one-third magnitude of 𝐴⃗ and points in the direction
3
opposite 𝐴⃗

F. Multiplication of Two Vectors

Two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ can be multiplied in two different ways to produce either
a scalar or a vector quantity.

• The scalar product ( or dot product) 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵

⃗⃗ is a scalar quantity 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃, where
𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ .
• The vector product (or cross product) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is a vector quantity whose
magnitude is equal to 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃.

1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

The method of adding vectors with the use of its projections along the
coordinate axes is called the components of the vector or its rectangular
components. Any vector can be completely described by its components.

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A vector 𝐴⃗ lying in the 𝑥𝑦 plane an making an arbitrary angle 𝜃 with the

positive 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 can be expressed as the sum of two other component vectors:

• 𝐴⃗𝑥 , which parallel to the 𝑥 axis is the projection of vector 𝐴⃗ to the 𝑥 axis
• 𝐴⃗𝑦 , which parallel to the 𝑦 axis is the projection of vector 𝐴⃗ to the 𝑦 axis

Thus, vector 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗𝑥 + 𝐴⃗𝑦 . Note that these components can be positive or
negative depending on which quadrant in a Cartesian Plane it will fall or the measure
of angle 𝜃.
From fig. 7 we can determine
the magnitude of the
components of 𝐴⃗ using the
definition of sine and cosine of
an angle 𝜃 as well as its
magnitude and direction using
the Pythagorean Theorem and
definition of tangent

𝐴𝑦
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝐴
𝐴𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝐴

2
𝐴 = √(𝐴𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 ) Fig. 7 Components of a Vector
𝐴𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑥

1.10 Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a dimensionless vector having a magnitude exactly 1. It
is used to specify a given direction and have no other physical significance. We shall
use the symbols 𝒊̂, 𝒋̂ and 𝒌̂ to represent the unit vectors pointing in the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧
̂ form a set of mutually perpendicular
directions, respectively. The unit vectors 𝒊̂, 𝒋̂ and 𝒌
vectors where the magnitude of each unit vectors equals 1; that is, |𝒊̂| = |𝒋̂| = |𝒌 ̂| = 1.

Consider vector 𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗ , the product of the component 𝐴𝑥 and the unit vector 𝒊̂ is
the component vector 𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊̂, which lies on the 𝑥 axis and has magnitude 𝐴𝑥 .
⃗⃗⃗𝒋 = 𝐴𝑦 𝒋̂, which lies on the 𝑥 axis and has magnitude 𝐴𝑥 . Therefore, the unit
Likewise, 𝑨
vector notation for the vector ⃗𝑨 ⃗⃗ is ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋̂. Suppose we wish to add vector 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗,
then the resultant vector 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ with a unit vector notation of

⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝒊̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝒋̂

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦

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The magnitude of ⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ and the angle it makes with the 𝑥- axis can be obtained
from its components using the relationships

2 2
𝑅 = √(𝑅𝑥 )2 + (𝑅𝑦 ) = √(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )

𝑅𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑅𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥

If ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ both have 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 components in three-dimensional vector,

𝑨 and 𝑩
we express them in the form
⃗𝑨 ̂
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌

̂
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝒋̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝒌
𝑩

The sum of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ is

𝑨 and 𝑩
⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ + 𝑩 ̂
⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝒊̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝒋̂ + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝒌

Then the magnitude of vector is

2 2
𝑅 = √(𝑅𝑥 )2 + (𝑅𝑦 ) + (𝑅𝑧 )2 = √(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 ) + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )2

⃗⃗⃗ makes with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes are given by

The angle 𝜃𝑥 , 𝜃𝑦 and 𝜃𝑧 that 𝑹
𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑦 𝑅𝑧
cos 𝜃𝑥 = cos 𝜃𝑦 = cos 𝜃𝑧 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Similarly, for adding more than two vectors we can extend this method
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨
𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪 ̂
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 )𝒊̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 )𝒋̂ + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑧 )𝒌

1.11 Modeling, Alternative Representations and Problem -Solving Strategy

One of the primary problem-solving methods in physics is to form an
appropriate model of the problem. A model is a simplified substitute for the real
problem that allows ais to solve problem in a relatively simple way. The power
of modeling is in its ability to reduce a wide variety of very complex problems to a
limited number of classes of problems that can be approached in similar ways.
Particle model is a way of modelling replacing the object with mass but zero
in size. The two primary conditions for using : (1) the size of the actual object is of no
consequence in the analysis of its motion, and (2) any internal processes occurring in
the object are of no consequence in the analysis of its motion.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF MODEL
1. Geometric Model- it is a geometric construction that represents the real
situation such as the use of trigonometry and analytic geometry in solving
problems

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2. Simplification Model- the particle model is an example of this model where

details that are not significant in determining outcome of the problem are
ignored. It is also assumed in simplification models that quantities such as
friction forces are negligible, remain constant or are proportional to some
power of the object’s speed. Objects when modeled as rigid bodies, all their
molecules are maintained in their exact positions with respect to one
another.
3. Analysis Models- it is casting a new problem into a form similar to one that
is already solved which can be used as a model.
4. Structural Models- used to understand the behaviour of a system that is far
different from our macroscopic world-either much smaller or much larger-
so that we cannot interact with it directly. Example is the notion of a
hydrogen atom as an electron in a circular orbit around a proton.
The best representation to use ideas in conveying the information successfully
vary from one individual to the next. Some will be convinced by a well-drawn graph,
and others will require a picture. A representation is a method of viewing or
presenting the information relate to the problem. Considering alternative
representations can help you think about the information in the problem in several
different ways to help you understand and solve it.
Several Types of Representations
1. Mental representation. From the description of the problem, imagine a
scene that describes what is happening in the word problem, then let time
progress so that you understand the situation and can predict what changes
will occur in the situation. This step is critical in approaching every problem.
2. Pictorial representation. Drawing a picture of a situation described in the
word problem can be of great assistance in understanding the problem.
Generally, a pictorial representation describes what you would see if you
were observing the situation in the problem.
3. Simplified pictorial representation. It is often useful to redraw the pictorial
representation without complicating details by applying a simplification
model.
4. Graphical representation. In some problems, drawing a graph that
describes the situation can be very helpful. It is different from a pictorial
representation, which is also a two-dimensional display of information but
whose axes, if any, represent length coordinates. In a graphical
representation, the axes may represent any two related variables.
Therefore, in comparison to a pictorial representation, a graphical
representation is generally not something you would see when observing
the situation in the problem with your eyes.
5. Tabular representation. It is sometimes helpful to organize the information
in tabular form to help make it clearer.
6. Mathematical representation. The ultimate goal in solving a problem is often
the mathematical representation. You want to move from the information
contained in the word problem, through various representations of the
problem that allow you to understand what is happening, to one or more
equations that represent the situation in the problem and that can be solved
mathematically for the desires result.

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GENERAL PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY

1. Conceptualize
• Try to understand the situation that is presented in the problem.
• Study carefully any representations of the information (for
example, diagrams, graphs, tables or photographs) that
accompany the problem.
• Imagine a movie, running in your mind of what happens in the
problem
2. Categorize
• Simplify the problem.
• Remove the details that are not important to the solution.
• Identify the appropriate analysis model.
3. Analyze
• Select relevant equations from the analysis model.
• Solve symbolically for the unknown variable in terms of what is
given.
• Substitute in the appropriate numbers, calculate the result, and
round it to the proper number of significant figures.
4. Finalize
• Examine your numerical answer.
• Examine the variables in the problem to see whether the answer
would change in a physically meaningful way if the variables
were drastically increased or decreased or even became zero.
• Looking at limiting cases to see whether they yield expected
values is a very useful way to make sure that you are obtaining
reasonable results.
• Think about how this problem compared with others you have
solved.
Exercise 3. Using graphical and analytic method, perform the following operations
involving vectors.
1. Find the resultant of the following two displacements: 2.0 𝑚 𝑎𝑡 40° and
4.0𝑚 𝑎𝑡 127°, the angles being taken relative to the +𝑥-axis, as is customary.
Give your answer to two significant figures.
2. Find the 𝑥 − and 𝑦 − components of a 25.0𝑚- displacement at an angle of
210.0°.
3. Add the following two displacement vectors: 30 𝑚 𝑎𝑡 30° and 20 𝑚 𝑎𝑡 140°.
Express your answer with two significant figures.
4. Express the following vectors in the form ⃗⃗⃗
𝑹 = 𝑅𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝑅𝑦 𝒋̂ + 𝑅𝑧 𝒛̂.

(a) Vector 𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
(b) Vector 𝐵 (c) Vector 𝐶⃗

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5. Given the vectors in number 4, determine the resultant of the following in unit
vector notation
(a) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑹 = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗⃗ (c) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑹 = 𝐶⃗ − 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗
(b) ⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗ (d) ⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗

6. Given the vectors in number 4, determine the magnitude of the resultant vector
and the angle 𝜃 between vectors in (a) and (b) while 𝜃𝑥 , 𝜃𝑦 and 𝜃𝑧 in (c) and
(d).
(a) ⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ (c) ⃗𝑹
⃗⃗ = 𝐶⃗ − 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗⃗
(b) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑹=𝐵 ⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗ (d) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑹 = 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗

7. Given the vectors in number 4, determine the dot product and cross-product
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
(a) 𝑹 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵
(b) 𝑹 ⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗

Assignment

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What is the difference between average and instantaneous speed?
2. What is acceleration?
3. What is the graphical representation of average and acceleration?
4. When will an object move in uniform acceleration?
5. What is free-fall ?
6. Give examples of objects moving in projectile motion.

References

1. Bauer, W. & Westfall, Gary. (2014). University Physics with Modern

Physics 2nd Ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York.
2. Griffith, W.T & Brosing, J. (2009). The Physics of Everyday Phenomena: A
Conceptual Introduction to Physics 6th Ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc. New York.
3. Hecht, E. (2018). College Physics 12th Ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc. New York.
4. Serway, R. & Jewett, J. (2013). Principles of Physics 5th Ed. Brooks/Cole
Cengage Learning. Boston USA
5. Young, H. & Freedman, R. (2014). Sears and Semansky’s University
Physics with Modern Physics Technology Update 13 th Ed. Pearson
Education Limited. England.

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