International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Fatigue

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Infrared thermography-based evaluation of the elastic-plastic J-integral to T

correlate fatigue crack growth data of a stainless steel
⁎
G. Meneghettia, , M. Ricottaa, G. Pitarresib
a
University of Padova, Department of Industrial Engineering, Via Venezia, 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
b
University of Palermo, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The elastic-plastic J-integral is adopted to correlate fatigue crack growth data of ductile metals. An analytical
Fracture mechanics link is known to exist between the J-integral and the strain energy density averaged in a control volume em-
Crack tip plasticity bracing the crack tip. On the other hand, the strain energy fluctuation is the source of temperature variations
Thermoelastic Stress Analysis close to a fatigue crack tip of a metal material; hence the possibility to measure the J-integral from infrared
Energy methods
thermographic scanning at the crack tip is envisaged and it is the focus of this paper. It is proposed that the
Fatigue
Temperature
elastic component of the J-integral is derived from a thermoelastic stress analysis, while the plastic component of
J-integral the J-integral is derived from the heat energy loss. An analytical expression is formalised to apply this novel
approach. Therefore, the elastic-plastic J-integral range was evaluated starting from infrared temperature maps
measured in situ during crack propagation tests of AISI 304L stainless steel specimens. The range of the infrared
thermography-based J-integral correlated well the crack growth data generated in small as well as large scale
yielding conditions. Finally, the experimental values of the J-integral were successfully compared with the
corresponding numerical values obtained from elastic-plastic finite element analyses.

1. Introduction correlate crack growth data generated from tension-compression axial

fatigue tests of specimens machined from 4-mm-thick, hot-rolled AISI
Fatigue of metallic materials is a dissipative phenomenon involving 304L steel plates [29]. While the reader is referred to [29] for addi-
plastic deformations that require a certain amount of work done on the tional details, here we recall that the control volume Vc, where the heat
material. A certain part of this energy is dissipated as heat [1], which energy was averaged, has been determined by equalling the averaged
induces some temperature increase of the material during fatigue heat energy in cracked and plain specimens for the same fatigue life; as
testing. Concerning Fracture Mechanics problems, in the last decades a result, Rc = 0.52 mm was obtained.
several temperature-related studies were carried out, as the local The aforementioned simplifying hypothesis that the elastic strain
heating at the crack tip [2–4], the crack propagation assessment based energy close to the crack tip is negligibly small if compared to the
on the hysteresis energy [5–16], the thermal effects on stress intensity plastic strain energy implies a limitation of applicability of the ap-
factors [17,18], the plastic zone size evaluation and the heat energy proach outlined previously [29]. Such a limitation is removed in the
dissipation at the crack tip [19–27] and the correlation of energy dis- present paper because the elastic component of the J-integral has been
sipation at the crack tip with the J-integral [28–30]. included in the experimental evaluation of the total J-integral. Practi-
Recently, a relation between Rice’s J-integral [31] and the heat cally, the same thermograms acquired to evaluate have been exploited
energy per cycle averaged in a control volume embracing the crack tip to estimate the mode I Stress Intensity Factor KI by means of the
(the Q̄∗ parameter) has been put forward [29], under the simplifying Thermoelastic Stress Analysis (TSA) and eventually to obtain the elastic
assumption that the elastic strain energy close to the crack tip is neg- J-integral. The advantage of such an experimental evaluation is that the
ligibly small if compared to the plastic strain energy. The heat energy measured SIF inherently considers the real stress field acting on the
involved in such relation was evaluated experimentally starting from specimen, regardless of the knowledge of exact loading or boundary
the temperature field measured close to the fatigue crack tip by means conditions.
of an infrared camera; then, by virtue of being related to the J-integral, It is renowned that TSA is able to retrieve a full field map of the first
Q̄∗ was adopted as an elastic-plastic Fracture Mechanics driving force to stress invariant, after filtering out the thermoelastic signal from the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Meneghetti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.03.034
Received 15 January 2019; Received in revised form 27 February 2019; Accepted 22 March 2019
Available online 26 March 2019
0142-1123/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

Nomenclature material (Q̇ averaged over one loading cycle) [W/m3]

Q̄∗ heat energy per cycle averaged in the volume Vc [J/
a notch depth plus notch-emanated crack length [m] (m3·cycle)]
c material specific heat [J/(kg·K)] T material temperature [K]
cp material specific heat at constant pressure [J/(kg·K)] T material temperature averaged over one loading cycle [K]
facq sampling rate of the infrared camera [Hz] To initial material temperature at each thermoelastic acqui-
fL load test frequency [Hz] sition [K]
h specific thermal flux [W/m2] U̇ rate of variation of internal energy per unit volume of
n' cyclic strain hardening exponent material [W/m3]
nmax number of acquired infrared images Vc material control volume [m3]
rn notch radius [mm] W plastic strain energy density [J/m3]
tk specimen thickness [m] W plastic strain energy density per cycle [J/(m3·cycle)]
w specimen gross width [mm] Ẇ plastic strain energy rate [W/m3]
E material elastic modulus [MPa] Ẇ average plastic strain energy rate (Ẇ averaged over one
Eṡ rate of accumulation of stored energy averaged over one loading cycle) [W/m3])
loading cycle [W/m3] WCC elasto-plastic strain energy density (strain energy density
J; ΔJ, Jmax J-integral; its range, its maximum value in a fatigue cycle evaluated under the cyclic stress-strain curve) [J/m3]
[J/m2] WCC,e elastic component of WCC [J/m3]
Je, Jmax,e elastic component of J; its maximum value in a fatigue WCC,p plastic component of WCC [J/m3]
∼
cycle [J/m2] WCC elasto-plastic strain energy included in the structural vo-
Jp, Jmax,p plastic component of J; its maximum value in a fatigue lume [J]
∼ ∼
cycle [J/m2] WCC , e elastic component of WCC [J]
∼ ∼
KI, ΔKI mode I stress intensity factor, its range [MPa·m0.5] WCC , p plastic component of WCC [J]
K' cyclic strength coefficient [MPa] α isotropic coefficient of thermal expansion [K−1]
KTH thermoelastic constant [MPa−1] λ material thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)]
Rc radius of the material control volume Vc [m] v material Poisson’s coefficient
Q heat energy exchanged by a unit volume of material [J/ ρ material density [kg/m3]
m3] σg applied gross-section stress [MPa]
Q heat energy exchanged by a unit volume of material per σii linear stress invariant (sum of normal stresses) [MPa]
cycle [J/(m3·cycle)] σn applied net-section stress [MPa]
Q̇ heat energy rate exchanged by a unit volume of material σp02 engineering proof stress [MPa]
[W/m3] σ'p02 cyclic proof stress [MPa]
Q ̇ average heat energy rate exchanged by a unit volume of

acquired thermograms [32]. Classical formulations of the stress field as 2. Theoretical background
a function of the SIF, taken from Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics, can
be fitted with the experimental thermoelastic signal; as a result, an 2.1. Heat dissipation at the crack tip
estimation of ΔKI is obtained, ΔKI being the peak-to-peak SIF range
under a cyclic loading [33]. A number of analytical formulations and A quantitative evaluation of energy exchanges involved in fatigue
fitting algorithms have been proposed for this purpose [33–37]. Some has been performed several decades ago [43]. From a thermo-
more recent works have also used the experimental ΔKI, obtained from mechanical point of view, fatigue can be considered a dissipative and
TSA, to characterise the full Paris law by a purely elastic approach quasi-static process according to the classical continuum mechanics
[38–40]. Some authors have tried to exploit the information from the reported in Refs. [44,45]. It is well known that the energy balance
thermoelastic maps to retrieve and monitor the crack tip position equation can be written in terms of power per unit volume by in-
during a fatigue test [40]. Furthermore, the Thermoelastic signal phase troducing the Helmotz free energy as a thermodynamic potential
and Second Harmonic maps have also been looked over as potential [45–48]. If the power quantities appearing in the energy balance
indicators of the plastic zone size and of local loss of adiabaticity equation are averaged over one fatigue loading cycle, then it can be
[26,39]; some authors explored also the influence of motion compen- written [29]:
sation on the analyses [41]. Following on this state of the art, the
ρcT̄̇ − λ∇2 T̄ = W̄̇ − Ē̇s (1)
present work has implemented the method from Stanley and Chan [34]
to evaluate the SIF from TSA, by measuring both the First and Second where W is the plastic strain energy per cycle and Es is the stored en-
Harmonic signals with a Discrete Fourier Transform approach [42], and ergy per cycle. To derive Eq. (1) starting from the general energy bal-
pre-treating all acquired thermograms with motion-compensation. ance equation, the following observations deserve to be mentioned
In summary, the non-contact, infrared thermography-based ana- [29]:
lyses of energy dissipation and thermoelastic response at the crack tip
led to the evaluation of the plastic and elastic components of the J-
integral, respectively. Eventually, the elastic-plastic J-integral was
• the contribution of the thermoelastic heat source in Eq. (1) vanishes
because it consists in a reversible exchange between mechanical and
adopted to correlate crack growth data of stainless steel specimens thermal energy, which does not produce a net energy dissipation or
generated in small scale as well as large scale yielding conditions. absorption over one loading cycle [1,49–51];
• the dependence of the material state on temperature is neglected
because temperature variation is small if compared to that necessary
for phase transformation generating the coupling heat source in the
form of latent heat

150
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

By introducing the internal energy rate U̇ according to the definition

given by Rousselier [47]:
U̇ = ρ·c·Ṫ + Ės (2) Vc =ʌR2c ·tk
and letting:

Q̄̇ = λ∇2 T̄ (3)

x RC
then Eq. (1) becomes:
rn 2α
U̇ = Ẇ + Q̇ (4)
θ
The energy balance Eq. (4) is illustrated in Fig. 1a, which shows the
Scd
positive energy exchanges involved, i.e. the mechanical energy rate Ẇ r
and the heat energy rate Q ̇ . a
Since all energy contribution have been averaged over one loading
cycle, Eq. (1) describes the evolution of the average temperature per
cycle T (x , y, z; t ) , which is depicted in Fig. 1b qualitatively. On the
contrary, thermoelastic oscillations that are indeed superimposed to the
average temperature signal are quantitatively shown in next Fig. 3,
which will be commented later on. Fig. 2. Propagating fatigue crack and the assumed shape of the control volume
The specific heat loss Q can now be averaged in a volume Vc sur- Vc where the heat energy is to be averaged.
rounding the tip of the crack (see Fig. 2), according to the following
expression [27]: mean level stabilizes and the alternating component due to the ther-
1 1 moelastic effect is superimposed (see Fig. 3b). To calculate the average
∗
Q̄ =
Vc
∫V c
Q̄·dV ⇒ =-
fL V c
· ∫S
cd
h̄·dS
(5) temperature field T̄ (r,θ) in Eq. (6) let us consider a sampling window
taken after thermal equilibrium with the surroundings is achieved
where the heat flux h is integrated in the portion of the boundary of Vc, (between ts and t* in Fig. 3a); the average temperature Tmi referred to the
Scd, through which heat energy is transferred by conduction. The hy- i-th pixel is defined as follows:
pothesis that the heat is extracted from Vc only by conduction is not n
true, strictly speaking. However, it has been demonstrated that con- ∑ j =max
1
Tij
Tim =
duction is by far the most active heat transfer mechanism in standard nmax (7)
laboratory testing conditions [27]. It is worth noting also that while the
Tij
where are the temperature data acquired at a sampling rate facq and
observed temperature field depends on the applied load test frequency, nmax = facq·(t* − ts) is the number of picked-up samples between the
fL, the thermal energy transferred from the crack tip to the surround- start time ts (j = 1) and the end time t* (j = nmax).
ings, Q̄∗, does not [52]. The heat flux h can be evaluated from the
thermal gradients calculated from infrared temperature maps; there-
2.2. J-integral estimations from the temperature field
fore, referring to a two-dimensional problem, Eq. (5) can be written as
follows [27]:
In the open literature (see ref [53–55], as examples), the Rice’s J-
1 +π ∂T̄(r, θ) integral [31] is adopted as driving force to rationalise crack growth
∗
Q̄ =
fL Vc
·λ·tk·R c· ∫−π ∂r
·dθ data in small as well as large scale yielding conditions. J can be eval-
r=Rc (6)
uated by adding its elastic, Je, and plastic, Jp, contributions (see
T (r,θ) being the average temperature per cycle measured after the [54,55], as examples):
thermal equilibrium with surroundings is achieved, as shown in Fig. 3,
J = Je + Jp (8)
which reports a typical temperature vs time acquisition at a point inside
Vc after a fatigue test has started. If the temperature field is monitored Evaluating the elastic contribution, Je, is very straightforward since
by means of an infrared camera, Fig. 3a is the pixel-by-pixel tempera- it can be calculated according to Eqs. (9a) and (9b), for plane stress or
ture vs time history and it shows that temperature increases until the plane strain conditions, respectively:

(a) (b)
F(t)

V
T(t)

F(t) t

Fig. 1. (a) Energy balance for a material undergoing fatigue loadings and (b) evolution of the average temperature per cycle.

151
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

(a) (b)
Tmi

"A" Tmi
(see Fig. 3b)

Thermoelastic oscillations
(under-sampled)

ts t* time time
Fig. 3. Time-variant temperature for i-th pixel (a) and detailed view (b).

KI2,max 2ΔKI ⎡ ⎛ θ ⎞ θ
Jmax, e = Δ(σxx + σyy) = cos + sin⎛ ⎞⎤
E (9a) 2πr ⎢
⎣ ⎝2⎠ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ (12)

It was found that, in pure Mode I, the maximum value of Δσii along a
KI2,max ·(1 − ν 2)
Jmax, e = line parallel to the crack line and distant y from it, is linearly correlated
E (9b)
to y through the following relationship [34]:
KI being the linear elastic stress intensity factor for the same applied
3 3 2 2 1
external load [54,55]. The experimental evaluation of the elastic and y=⎛ ⎜To KTHΔK2I ⎞ ⎟
2
plastic components of the J-integral starting from infrared thermograms ⎝ 4π ⎠ (ΔTmax ) (13)
is reported in detail in the next sections. By analysing the plot of y versus the experimental values of (1/
ΔTmax)2, a linear region is identified, whose slope is a known function of
2.2.1. Evaluating mode I stress intensity factor by the thermoelastic stress ΔKI, once To and KTH are known. The linear behaviour is confined to the
analysis area where the Westergard’s equations, arrested to the first singular
Under linear elastic straining conditions, the material undergoes a term KI, rule. A significant advantage of the Stanley and Chan’s method
local volume change that is associated to a reversible temperature is that an accurate identification of the crack tip in the thermograms is
change. This correlation is known as the Thermoelastic Effect, and a not required. In fact, as shown by Eq. (13) the SIF is obtained from the
well-established theoretical framework, originating from the work of angular coefficient of a linear regression involving the relative distance
Lord Kelvin, has led to the following analytical representation [32,56]: from the crack line, y, as the only geometric variable. Having KI from
Eq. (13), i.e. from thermographic data acquired at various time inter-
α vals during a fatigue test, Je can be obtained from Eq. (9).
ΔT = −To Δσii = −To KTHΔσii
ρcp (10)
2.2.2. Evaluating the plastic component of J-integral
The above equation requires that the material is isotropic and un-
An analytical link between the J-integral of a sharp V-notch and the
dergoing adiabatic transformation, which is practically achieved by ∼
strain energy WCC included in a circular volume having radius Rc and
applying a cyclic loading above a suitable threshold frequency. Appling
centered at the sharp V-notch tip was defined by Berto and Lazzarin
a cyclic sinusoidal loading brings in another useful practicality, i.e. the
[57], assuming a linear elastic material behaviour:
temperature change due to the thermoelastic effect (ΔT in Eq. (10)) is
∼
modulated at the same frequency of the applied load. This phenomenon WCC
= k(2α, ν)·R c·Jmax
led to a technique, generally referred to as Thermoelastic Stress Ana- tk (14)
lysis (TSA), that evaluates the thermoelastic temperature change ΔT by
applying narrow band-pass harmonic filtering on the acquired tem- k(2α, ν) being a parameter depending on notch opening angle (2α,
perature fluctuation [42]. see Fig. 2) and Poisson’s ratio.
Therefore, TSA is able to provide a map of the linear stress invariant In the crack case (2α = 0) and with reference to plane strain con-
(i.e. of isopachics) associated to a crack length and hence enables one to ditions, Eq. (14) can be written as follows:
derive the ΔKI value, i.e. the peak-to-peak variation of the elastic stress ∼ 5
−ν
WCC
intensity factor. = 8 ·R c·Jmax
tk 1−ν (15a)
A number of methods have been developed to obtain ΔKI from maps
of Δσii measured around the crack tip [33]. These basically consist in Conversely, in plane stress conditions, we have:
fitting the experimental values of Δσii(x,y) to analytical models of the ∼
stress field, derived from Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics. The WCC 5 − 3ν
= ·R c·Jmax
method applied in this work was originally proposed by Stanley and tk 8 (15b)
Chan [34] and is briefly summarised here. In the case that the IR
It is worth noting that the analytical expression of k(2α, ν) proposed
equipment is able to provide calibrated maps of the temperature, then in [57] is valid only if the linear elastic strain energy included in the
the thermoelastic signal range can be written from Eq. (10) as: volume Vc can be expressed solely in terms of the mode I-linear elastic
1 notch- stress intensity factor, KIV , i.e. if the higher order terms in the
Δσii = − ΔT stress field series expansion are negligible inside Vc.
−To KTH (11) ∼
A linear relation between WCC and J-integral was also demonstrated
By using the Westergard’s equations representing the stress field, in the case of an elastic-plastic material obeying a power hardening law
over the area dominated by KI, Eq. (11) can be written also as: applied to sharp V-notches, having 2α = 135°, notch tip radii equal to

152
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

zero and subject to plain strain conditions [57]. The relation is valid in (23) can be written as follows:
small as well as in large scale yielding conditions and the k parameter in ∼ 1
Eq. (14) remains practically equal to that calculated for a linear elastic WCC,p = ·Q̄∗·Vc
4(1 − n′) (24)
material. Lazzarin and Zappalorto [58] evaluated the plastic notch
stress intensity factors for pointed V-notches under antiplane shear Finally, Eq. (18) can be re-formulated to link the averaged heat
loading and showed that in the crack case a linear relation still exists energy and the plastic component of the J-integral:
between the mode III plastic J-integral and the plastic strain energy 4(1 − n′)·kp (2α, n′)
density included in Vc; however Rc must be sufficient small to guarantee Q̄∗ = ·Jmax,p
π·R c (25)
that the plastic strain energy density can be expressed solely in terms of
mode III plastic notch- stress intensity factor, K3, p . However, the slope of Therefore, in the case of plane stress conditions, Eq. (8) can be
the linear trend strongly depends on the material hardening exponent. written in terms of maximum value of the J-integral as:
A linear correlation was also shown previously in the case of a cracked
K2I,max π·R c
elastic plastic body under plane stress condition [29]. Jmax = + ·Q̄∗
∼ E 4(1 − n′)·kp (2α, n′) (26)
The total energy included in Vc can be separated in its elastic, WCC , e ,
∼
and plastic, WCC , p , components, as reported in Fig. 4:
∼ ∼ ∼ 3. Material, specimen geometry and test methods
WCC = ∫V c
WCC·dV = WCC,e + WCC,p
(16)
where Constant amplitude, fully-reversed (R = −1), load controlled crack
propagation fatigue tests were carried out on specimens prepared from
∼
WCC,e = ∫V c
WCC,e·dV
(17a) 4-mm-thick, hot-rolled AISI 304L stainless steel sheets, having the
mechanical properties (engineering proof stress, σp02, engineering
∼ tensile strength, σR, elongation after fracture A%, constant amplitude
WCC,p = ∫V WCC,p·dV
(17b)
c fatigue limit, σA,-1, Brinell hardness HB) and the chemical composition
In this paper, a linear link was established between the plastic listed in Table 1 [29]. All tested specimens were characterised by a 8-
∼ mm-deep crack starter, but different notch opening angle and notch tip
component of the strain energy density, WCC , p , and the plastic compo-
nent of the J-integral, Jmax,p, as it will be shown later on: radius. In more detail, some specimens had rn = 0.1 and 2α = 45°,
∼ others rn = 0.15 mm and 2α = 90°, as shown in Fig. 6. The fatigue tests
WCC,p were carried out by using a Schenck Hydropuls PSA 100 servo-hy-
= kp (2α, n′)·Jmax,p·R c
tk (18) draulic machine, equipped with a Trio Sistemi RT3 digital controller
and a 100 kN load cell. Load test frequencies fL were set between 4 and
where kp (2α, n′) is a constant depending on the notch opening angle
42 Hz, depending on the applied stress level.
and the cyclic hardening exponent.
After polishing both specimens surfaces and mat black painting one
Let us assume the generalised Ramberg-Osgood law, according to
of two in order to increase the emissivity, the evolution of material
which the strain is equal to the sum of its elastic εij,e and its plastic
temperature during the fatigue tests was monitored by using a FLIR
component εij,p, as follows [59]:
SC7000 infrared camera (50-mm focal lens, spectral response range
1
⎛ 3 σen′ − 1 ⎞ from 1.5 to 5.1 μm, noise equivalent temperature difference < 25 mK,
1+ν 1 − 2ν
εij = εij,e + εij,p =⎛ s ij + σhδij⎞ + ⎜ s ij⎟ frame rate facq equal to 200 Hz), equipped with an analog input inter-
⎝ E E ⎠ ⎜ 2 (K′)1 n′ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ (19) face, which was used to synchronize the force signal coming from the
load cell with the temperature signal measured by the infrared camera.
where the summation convention is used for repeated indices. In Eq.
In order to improve the spatial resolution, a 30-mm-spacer ring was
(19) σe is the Von Mises stress, sij is the deviatoric component of the
adopted, to achieve 23 μm/pixel. On the other hand, the Field of View
Cauchy stress tensor, σh is the hydrostatic stress and δij is the Kronecker
(FoV) was reduced to 320 × 256 pixels and the temperature field was
delta.
acquired by positioning the crack tip itself in the centre of the FoV to
The plastic component of the strain energy density can be evaluated
avoid vignetting. During the fatigue test, thermal images were recorded
from the plastic strain component of Eq. (19):
at given crack lengths with a frame rate facq = 200 Hz for a time
1 +1
window equal to 5 s (t* − ts = 5 s in Fig. 3a), translating into
1 σen′
WCC,p = · 200 × 5 = 1000 acquired images. Subsequently, the temperature maps
1 + n′ (K′)1 n′ (20)
For a Masing material [60], the plastic strain energy density per σ
cycle, W , can be evaluated from the Ramberg-Osgood relation ac-
cording to Halford [43]:
1
1 − n′ σ n′
W̄ = ·2σe·2⎛ e ⎞
1 + n′ ⎝ K′ ⎠ (21)
Comparing Eq. (21) and Eq. (20), a link between W and WCC,p is WCC=WCC,e+WCC,p
obtained, as depicted in Fig. 5:
W = 4(1 − n′)·WCC , p (22)
WCC,p WCC,e
Substituting Eq. (22), Eq. (17b) becomes:
∼ 1
WCC,p =
4(1 − n′)
∫V W̄dV
c (23) E E
There is now a body of experimental evidence that most part of the ε
plastic strain energy per cycle W is converted into heat energy Q
[61–64]. Letting W = Q and using the definition of Q̄∗ (Eq. (5)), Eq. Fig. 4. Elastic and plastic components of the strain energy density.

153
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

(a) (b) (c) σ

Fig. 5. Tested specimen (a), control volume
at the crack tip (b) and plastic strain energy
density per cycle, W , and plastic component
a of the strain energy density, Wcc,p, at a point
(c).
WCC,p

RC ε

were processed by using the MotionByInterpolation tool to allow for the

relative motion compensation between the fixed camera lens and the
moving specimen due the sinusoidal applied load; the infrared images
were then analysed to perform the Thermoelastic Stress Analysis as well
as to derive Q ∗.
The procedure employed for the TSA consisted in the following
steps [42]: the sequence of thermograms from each 5 sec acquisition
was imported into Matlab; some points at various locations were se-
lected and the temperature-time signal analyzed in the frequency do-
main by applying the Discrete Fourier Transform; the frequency car-
rying the thermoelastic signal, fL, was detected on the power spectrums
from the selected points; the amplitude and phase of the harmonics at
the frequencies fL and 2fL were retrieved from each point, consisting of
the Thermoelastic Signal (ΔT) amplitude and phase on one side and of
the Second Harmonic signal (SH) amplitude and phase on the other
Fig. 6. Specimen geometry (rn = 0.1 mm for 2α = 45°, rn = 0.15 mm for
side, respectively. The maps of the SH signal are equivalent to the D-
2α = 90°; thickness is 4 mm; dimensions in mm).
Mode maps obtained from the FLIR commercial softwares ALTAIR LI or
THESA [20,65]. The Thermoelastic constant KTH, needed in Eq. (13),
had been evaluated experimentally for the material investigated, re-
Infrared
sulting in KTH = 3.75·10−6 MPa−1 [66]. camera
Regarding the estimation of Q ∗, the spatial distribution of the pixel-
by-pixel average temperature Tmi was calculated by averaging the
available 1000 frames according to Eq. (7) using the ALTAIR 5.90.002 Digital
commercial software; finally, the Q ∗ parameter was evaluated by ap- microscope
plying Eq. (6).
After every acquisition of the aforementioned 1000 temperature
frames, the fatigue test was stopped to allow the crack length to be
measured by using an AM4115ZT Dino-lite digital microscope oper-
ating with a magnification ranging from 20× to 220×. The microscope
and the infrared camera monitored the opposite surfaces of the speci- Fig. 7. Test setup consisting of an AM4115ZT Dino-lite digital microscope, a
mens, as reported in Fig. 7. The microscope images were used to single- FLIR SC7000 infrared camera, and a Schenck Hydropuls test machine.
out the crack tip position, which was subsequently reported in the in-
2
frared thermal images. 4 ⎛ ΔKI ⎞
a, (w − a), L ⩾ ·⎜ ⎟
π ⎝ 2·σ′p02 ⎠ (27)
4. Crack growth data and thermoelastic stress analysis
In Eq. (27), a is the crack length, w the specimen width
Fig. 8 shows the Paris curve of AISI 304L stainless steel, along with (w = 46 mm), 2L the specimen height (2L = 90 mm) reported in
the 10–90% scatter band calculated under the hypothesis of log-normal Fig. 6a. The data that do not satisfy the condition of applicability of the
distribution of da/dN [29]. The SIF range was evaluated by carrying out LEFM were not included in the statistical analysis reported in Fig. 8, due
2D linear elastic finite element analyses reported elsewhere [29]. Ex- to the crack acceleration induced by the excessive plasticity around the
perimental data on the left side of the two dashed vertical lines reported crack tip, as suggested in [53]. The same data were reanalysed in terms
in Fig. 8 satisfy the conditions of applicability of the LEFM according to of Q ∗ evaluated for Rc = 0.52 mm [29] and the results are shown in
Eq. (27) [54], while on the right-hand side of the band they do not: Fig. 9, which reports the mean curve, the 10%-90% survival probability

Table 1
Mechanical properties and chemical composition of the AISI 304L stainless steel [29].
σp02 [MPa] σR [MPa] A [%] σA-1 [MPa] HB C [w%] Mn [w%] Si [w%] Cr [w%] Ni [w%] P [w%] S [w%] N [w%]

279 620 57 202 170 0.026 1.470 0.370 18.100 8.200 0.034 0.001 0.058

154
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

10-4 amplitude. Both these perturbations are widely reported in the litera-
ture and are considered as typical occurrences at crack tips. The most
consolidated explanations provided are: local loss of adiabaticity due to
AISI 304L the steep stress gradients (which introduce a phase shift different from
10-5 R=-1
180°); dissipation effects introduced by the plastic work, that happens
to be modulated at twice the loading frequency [65]; the dependence of
da/dN [m/cycle]

material properties, such as E, v and α, with temperature. This last

10-6 influence is renown to lead to a Second Order formulation of the
thermoelastic theory [32,56]. Such second order terms (i.e. the deri-
Tda/dN=4.00
vatives of material properties with temperature), are generally small
and negligible, but in the case of a crack, they happen to be multiplied
10-7 Comply with LEFM, to the term 1/r, which is singular at the crack tip, thus raising the
Eq. 27
overall effect [20].
Do not comply with
LEFM, Eq. 27
One useful outcome from TSA is the possibility to interpret the
10-8 thermoelastic signal phasegram as an indicator for non-adiabatic be-
10 100 500 haviour. In practice, zones of the phasegram where the signal is shifted
KI [MPa ·m0.5] by angles different from 0° or 180° with respect to the loading signal
could be affected by a lack of adiabaticity. In the present work, pha-
Fig. 8. Paris curve of AISI 304L stainless steel. segrams reported in Figs. 10b and 11b show how such phase shifting is
present and confined only in the proximity of the crack tip. This is ty-
10-4 pical of singular stress fields, and is likely induced by a combination of
effects: the presence of high stress gradients and deviation from linear
elastic behaviour. However, it is pointed out that the points that behave
linearly in Fig. 12 and that have been used to evaluate ΔKI, are placed
10-5
outside the zones where the thermoelastic phase is significantly shifted
(see Fig. 10b, 11b) and the SH amplitude is significantly high (see
da/dN [m/cycle]

Fig. 10c, 11c). In light of the above, it can be concluded that the applied
10-6 Tda/dN=3.34 loading frequency of 20 Hz is sufficient for the onset of adiabatic be-
AISI 304L
R=-1 haviour in zones where the thermoelastic signal is quantitatively
Rc=0.52 mm measured and used for evaluating the elastic J-integral.
It is also pointed out that no smoothing algorithms have been ap-
10-7 Comply with LEFM,
Eq. 27 plied in this work. Even if a certain significant noise in observed in the
Do not comply with thermoelastic signal in Fig. 12, the linearity of the points in ΔKI eva-
LEFM, Eq. 27 luation is satisfying and the thermoelastic values of ΔKI have been
10-8 found to differ from the numerical values obtained from linear elastic
0.1 1 10 100 1000 FE analyses by generally less than 10%. This level of approximation is
Q* [MJ/(m3·cycle)] comparable to that generally reported in the literature [33].
Fig. 9. Crack growth rate vs averaged specific heat energy per cycle.
5. Crack growth rates versus the experimental elastic-plastic J-
integral
scatter bands and the scatter index Tda/dN. It is seen that the crack
growth rates can be rationalized with a higher level of accuracy by Two dimensional, plane stress, linear elastic as well as elastic-plastic
using the averaged heat energy Q ∗, rather than the range of the linear finite element analyses of the tested specimens (see Fig. 6) were per-
elastic mode I SIF ΔKI. formed in Ansys® 16.2 commercial software, by using 4-node PLANE
Figs. 10 and 11 show some representative maps of both the ampli- 182 element. The cyclic curve plotted in Fig. 13 was implemented,
tude and phase of the Thermoelastic and the Second Harmonic signals, along with the Von Mises plasticity rule and the isotropic hardening
obtained after the lock-in procedure outlined in Section 3. The sample behaviour. J-integral calculation was based on the domain integral
selected has rn = 0.1 and 2α = 45°, and the total crack length is approach [67] implemented in Ansys®. For more details of FE analyses,
a = 10.05 mm in Fig. 10 and 29.3 mm in Fig. 11, while the applied the reader is referred to [29]. Having Jmax and KI,max from elastic-plastic
gross-section stress amplitude is 81 MPa. A cross sign in the maps in- and purely elastic analyses, respectively, Jmax,p was calculated from Eq.
dicates the crack tip position as estimated by the optical microscope. It ∼
(8). Fig. 14 shows Wcc, p evaluated in a control volume Rc = 0.52 mm
is likely that, after the motion compensation algorithm, this position versus Jmax,p and it can be seen that a linear relationship can be pro-
could have changed slightly. The locations used to evaluate the peak-to- posed with kp (2α, n′) = 0. 869 in Eq. (18) and a coefficient of correla-
peak SIF range ΔKI are also indicated in Figs. 10 and 11. The same tion R2 = 0.9976. The elastic, Jmax,e, and the plastic, Jmax,p, compo-
points are highlighted in Fig. 12, where the plots of y versus (1/ΔTmax)2 nents relevant to the experimental tests are plotted in Fig. 15, where it
are shown according to Eq. (13). It is noticed that some features from is seen that the Jmax,p/Jmax,e ratio spans over a range between 0.1 and
the maps of Figs. 10 and 11 are similar to those reported in [41], where 3.5 and between 3.5 and 5.5, in the case of Small Scale Yielding (SSY,
a R = −1 fatigue cycle had been also applied to a Single Edge Notched σn ≤ σ′p02 = 274 MPa) and Large Scale Yielding (LSY,
Tension steel sample. It is particularly worth noting that a significant σn > σ′p02 = 274 MPa), respectively.
rise of the SH amplitude is observed along the flanks of the crack and Having kp (2α, n′) = 0.869 , Fig. 16a and 16b show Jmax,p evaluated
also in front of the crack tip. The flanks of the crack are loaded in experimentally according to Eq. (25) versus Rc for two specimens tested
compression for half-loading cycle and are unloaded in the remaining with a stress amplitude σg = 81 MPa and σg = 120 MPa, respectively. It
half. Such loading modulation is probably the main responsible for the is seen that for Rc equal to or greater than 0.4 mm, Jmax,p evaluated
rise of a second harmonic component, the same hypothesis being re- experimentally can be considered fairly constant. On the contrary, for
ported in the literature [41]. The zone ahead of the crack tip shows a Rc lower than 0.4 mm, Jmax,p depends more evidently on the control
local shift of the Thermoelastic phase and a local peak of the SH volume. In the authors’ opinion, the limitation due to the geometrical

155
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 10. Maps of: (a) Thermoelastic signal f amplitude; (b) Thermoelastic signal phase; (c) Second Harmonic signal amplitude; (d) Second Harmonic signal phase. The
cross sign in all maps provides an estimation of the crack tip position and the circles indicate the points used to calculate ΔKI (sample crack length 10.05 mm,
measured ΔKI = 34.4 MPa × m0.5).

resolution of the adopted infrared camera (i.e 23 μm/pixel) affects the In the same figure, the dashed line represents the mean curve of the ΔJp
results for small values of Rc. values calculated according to Eq. (25); the dashed line is closer and
By using kp (2α, n′) = 0. 869 and the thermoelastic values of KI, the closer to the solid line, the higher the applied ΔJ, i.e. the lower the
crack propagation data were reanalysed in terms of J-integral evaluated elastic contribution to the total ΔJ. Since the adopted load ratio was
by means of Eq. (26). Since the fatigue tests were carried out with a equal to −1, a certain amount of crack closure existed during the ex-
load ratio R = −1, then ΔJ was assumed equal to Jmax (ΔJ = Jmax −0). perimental tests and it is included in the da/dN vs ΔJ curve of Fig. 17.
The results are reported in Fig. 17, along with the mean curve, the Therefore, such a curve cannot be extended to load ratios different from
10–90% survival probability scatter bands and the scatter index Tda/dN. R = −1 adopted here. Even though crack closure effects have not been

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 11. Same as Fig. 10 (sample crack length 29.30 mm, measured ΔKI = 67 MPa × m0.5).

156
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

(a) (b)
2
Fig. 12. Plots of y versus (1/ΔTmax) : (a) test with crack length a = 10.05 mm; (b) test with crack length a = 29.30 mm. Face colored points are used in the linear
regression to calculate ΔKI.

450 106
cyclic curve
400 experimental data Jmax,e
Serie1
Serie5
Serie2
Jmax,p
350
105 5.5
300 =274 MPa SSY
Jmax,e; Jmax,p [J/m2]
250
[MPa]

200 3.5
104
a

150 E=194700 MPa

K'=1660 MPa
n'=0.29 LSY
100
=274 MPa
E 103
50 E
0.1
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
a [m/m] 102
103 104 105 106
Fig. 13. Cyclic stress-strain curve of the 4-mm-thick hot rolled AISI 304L Jmax [J/m2]
stainless steel specimens [29].
Fig. 15. Elastic and plastic components of the J-integral relevant to the ex-
perimental tests.

[68,69]. As a result, it was noted that the TSA data matched the the-
oretical values at progressively higher applied R ratios. Conversely, at
relatively low R ratios, thermoelastic SIFs were lower than the theo-
retical ones. The Authors pointed out that crack closure was the reason
for this phenomenon.
Finally, Fig. 18 shows that the FE values of the ΔJ are in very good
agreement with the 10–90% survival probability scatter-band fitted on
infrared thermography-based measurements of ΔJ according to Eq.
(26), which is reported in previous Fig. 17.

6. Conclusions

In this paper, an experimental procedure to evaluate the J-integral

during a fatigue test is presented and discussed. Such a procedure is
based on the measurement of the temperature map around the tip of the
fatigue crack, by using an infrared camera having high temperature
resolution and spatial resolution. The proposed methodology evaluates
Fig. 14. Plastic strain energy included in the control volume Vc versus the
separately the elastic and plastic contributions to the total J-integral.
plastic component of the J integral.
The elastic component is calculated from the experimental evaluation
of the mode I Stress Intensity Factor by means of the Thermoelastic
analysed in the present work, it is worth mentioning some experimental Stress Analysis. The plastic component of J is estimated from the spe-
investigations, where ΔKI values measured by means of the TSA have cific heat loss per cycle averaged over a control volume of material; the
been compared with theoretical values for different applied load ratios underlying engineering assumption is that the plastic strain hysteresis

157
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

(a) 104 10-4

10-90% survival
probability scatter SSY LSY
band from Figure 17
10-5

da/dN [m/cycle]
Jmax,p [J/m2]

10%
AISI 304L 90%
103 10-6
R=-1
Rc=0.52 mm

From FE analyses,
KI=79.31
DK=79.31 MPa·m0.5 10-7 comply with LEFM
KI=55.35
DK=55.35 MPa·m0.5
Rc=0.52 mm
From FE analyses, do
KI=42.79
DK=42.79 MPa·m0.5
not comply with LEFM
KI=35.38
DK=35.38 MPa·m0.5 Tda/dN=4.36
102 10-8 2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 10 103 104 105 106
Rc [mm] Numerical J [J/m2]
(b) 104 Fig. 18. Comparison between FE results and the scatter band fitted on the ex-
perimental values of ΔJ in Fig. 17.

body of experimental evidence reported in the literature. This approach

is summarized by the Eq. (26). The proposed approach is restricted to
2D problems and has the same limitations of applicability of the
Jmax,p [J/m2]

Thermoelastic Stress Analysis, particularly concerning the adiabaticity

103
requirements at the locations where the elastic component of the J-
integral is evaluated.
The infrared thermography-based method to evaluate the elastic-
K80.01
DK= I=80.01 MPa·m0.5 plastic J-integral has been applied to fatigue crack growth data gener-
KI=56.92
DK=56.92 MPa·m0.5
KI=52.35
DK=52.35 MPa·m0.5 ated from push-pull, axial fatigue tests of 4-mm-thick hot rolled AISI
Rc=0.52 mm
KI=46.90
DK=46.90 MPa·m0.5 304L stainless steel specimens. The crack propagation data were cor-
102 related in terms of the range of the elastic-plastic J-integral, in that all
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 data generated in small as well as large scale yielding conditions fall in
Rc [mm] a scatter band having a constant slope. Finally, the experimental values
of J were successfully compared to those calculated by performing
Fig. 16. Plastic component of the J-integral versus the size of the control vo- elastic-plastic finite element analyses.
lume for a specimen tested at σg = 81 MPa (a) and σg = 120 MPa (b) (Jmax,p
evaluated according to Eq. (25)).

10-4
Jp from Eq.(25)
J from Eq.(26) SSY LSY

10-5
AISI 304L
da/dN [m/cycle]

R=-1
10-6 Rc=0.52 mm

Comply with
10-7 LEFM, Eq.(27)
10% Do not comply with
LEFM, Eq.(27)
90% Tda/dN=4.41
10-8 2
10 103 104 105 106
2
Experimental J [J/m ]
Fig. 17. Crack propagation rates versus the J-integral range evaluated from
temperature measurements.

energy per cycle is fully converted into heat, which is supported by a

Appendix A

The influence of the uncertainty in the position of the crack tip on the plastic component of J integral was investigated. After measuring the crack
length by using the digital microscope, the position of the crack tip was transferred to the opposite side of the specimen, where the infrared images
have been taken. To do that , a graph paper with 1 mm grid was fixed on the specimen surface face. A grid line was accurately aligned to the

158
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

1.1

0.9

Reference
Crack tip value
a3 + 0.075 mm
a-3 0.075 mm

0.8
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
KI [MPa·m0.5]

Fig. 19. Sensitivity of Jmax,p estimations on the uncertainty of the crack tip position (see Fig. 2).

specimen edge by using the digital microscope operating at 20×; therefore, it is estimated that the accuracy in alignment was ( ± 0.05 mm). Due to
the geometry resolution of the adopted infrared camera (i.e. ± 23 μm), the overall geometrical accuracy of the crack tip position has been ±
0.075 mm. Fig. 19 reports the ratio between Jmax,p estimated by changing the position of the control volume Vc by ± 0.075 mm with respect to the
reference value. The analysis has been performed for different applied ΔKI values and it is seen that the maximum variation is in the range −11%/
+7%.

Appendix B. Supplementary material

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.03.034.

References closing the loop between experiments and computational modelling. Eng Fract
Mech 2003;70:2439–58.
[20] Jones R, Pitt S. An experimental evaluation of crack energy dissipation. Int J
[1] Ellyin F. Fatigue damage, crack growth and life prediction. London: Chapman & Fatigue 2006;28:1716–24.
Hall; 1997. [21] Fedorova A, Bannikov MV, Plekhov OA. Infrared thermography study of the fatigue
[2] Rice JR, Levy N. Local heating by plastic deformation at a crack tip. In: Argon AS, crack propagation. Fract Struct Integrity 2012;21:46–53.
editor. Physics of strength and plasticity. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T Press; 1969. [22] Bär J, Seifert S. Investigation of energy dissipation and plastic zone size during
[3] Loos PJ, Brotzen FR. Localized heat generation during fracture cyclically loaded fatigue crack propagation in a high-alloyed steel. Procedia Mater Sci
steel. Metall Mater Trans A 1983;14A:1409–19. 2014;3:408–13.
[4] Crupi V, Epasto G, Guglielmino E, Risitano G. Analysis of temperature and fracture [23] Maletta C, Bruno L, Corigliano P, Crupi V, Guglielmino E. Crack-tip thermal and
surface of AISI4140 steel in very high cycle fatigue regime. Theor Appl Fract Mech mechanical hysteresis in Shape Memory Alloys under fatigue loading. Mat Sci Eng
2015;80:22–30. A-Struct 2014;616:281–7.
[5] Kujawsky D, Ellyin F. A fatigue crack propagation model. Eng Fract Mech [24] Plekhov O, Fedorova A, Kostina A, Panteleev I. Theoretical and experimental study
1984;20:695–704. of strain localization and energy dissipation at fatigue crack tip. Procedia Mater Sci
[6] Ranganathan N, Jendoubi K, Benguediab M, Petit J. Effect of R ratio and ΔK level on 2014;3:1020–5.
the hysteretic energy dissipated during fatigue crack propagation. Scr Metall [25] Breitbarth E, Besel M. Energy based analysis of crack tip plasticity zone of AA2024-
1987;21:1045–9. T3 under cycling loading. Int J Fatigue 2017;100:263–73.
[7] Kuang JH, Chen YC. Crack initiation load characterization using the critical plastic [26] Palumbo D, De Finis R, Demelio GP, Galietti U. Damage monitoring in fracture
energy. Eng Fract Mech 1996;53:571–80. mechanics by evaluation of the heat dissipated in the cyclic plastic zone ahead of
[8] Skelton RP, Vilhelmsen T, Webster GA. Energy criteria and cumulative damage the crack tip with thermal measurements. Eng Fract Mech 2017;181:65–76.
during fatigue crack growth. Int J Fatigue 1998;20:641–9. [27] Meneghetti G, Ricotta M. Evaluating the heat energy dissipated in a small volume
[9] Klingbeil NW. A total dissipated energy theory of fatigue crack growth in ductile surrounding the tip of a fatigue crack. Int J Fatigue 2016;92:605–15.
solids. Int J Fatigue 2003;25:117–28. [28] Izyumova A, Plekhov O. Calculation of the energy J-integral in plastic zone ahead of
[10] Daily JS, Klingbeil NW. Plastic dissipation in fatigue crack growth under mixed- a crack tip by infrared scanning. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 2014;37:1330–7.
mode loading. Int J Fatigue 2004;26:727–38. [29] Meneghetti G, Ricotta M. The heat energy dissipated in the material structural
[11] Mazari M, Bouchouicha B, Zemri M, Banguediab M, Ranganathan N. Fatigue crack volume to correlate the fatigue crack growth rate in stainless steel specimens. Int J
propagation analyses based on plastic energy approach. Comput Mat Sci Fatigue 2018;115:107–19.
2008;41:344–9. [30] Meneghetti G, Ricotta M. The heat energy density averaged in the material struc-
[12] Ranganathan N, Chalon F, Meo S. Some aspects of the energy based approach to tural volume to correlate the fatigue crack growth rate in stainless steel specimens.
fatigue crack propagation. Int J Fatigue 2008;30:1921–9. Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Crack Paths (CP 2018). 2018.
[13] Cojocaru D, Karlsson AM. Assessing plastically dissipated energy as a condition for [31] Rice JR. A path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain con-
fatigue crack growth. Int J Fatigue 2009;31:1154–62. centration by notches and cracks. J Appl Mech 1968;35:379–86.
[14] Daily JS, Klingbeil NW. Plastic dissipation energy at a bimaterial crack tip under [32] Pitarresi G, Patterson EA. A review of the general theory of thermoelastic stress
cyclic loading. Int J Fatigue 2010;32:1710–23. analysis. J Strain Anal Eng Des 2003;38:405–17.
[15] Nittur PG, Karlsson AM, Carlsson LA. Numerical evaluation of Paris-regime crack [33] Tomlinson RA, Olden EJ. Thermoelasticity for the analysis of crack tip stress fields -
growth rate based on plastically dissipated energy. Eng Fract Mech a review. Strain 1999;35:49–55.
2014;124–125:155–66. [34] Stanley P, Chan WK. The determination of stress intensity factors and crack-tip
[16] Ondracek J, Materna A. FEM evaluation of the dissipated energy in front of a crack velocities from thermoelastic infra-red emissions. In: Proc Int Conf Fatigue Eng
tip under 2D mixed mode loading condition. Procedia Mater Sci 2014:673–8. Mater Struct (IMechE), Sheffield, UK, 1986, p. 105–14.
[17] Ranc N, Palin-Luc T, Paris PC. Thermal effect of plastic dissipation at the crack tip [35] Ju SH, Lesniak JR, Sandor BI. Numerical simulation of stress intensity factors via
on the stress intensity factor under cyclic loading. Eng Fract Mech 2011;78:61–72. the thermoelastic technique. Exp Mech 1997;37:278–84.
[18] Ranc N, Palin-Luc T, Paris PC, Saintier N. About the effect of plastic dissipation in [36] Tomlinson RA, Nurse AD, Patterson EA. Mixed mode cracks from thermoelastic
heat at the crack tip on the stress intensity factor under cyclic loading. Int J Fatigue data. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 1997;20:217–26.
2014;58:56–65. [37] Dulieu-Barton JM, Fulton MC, Stanley P. Analysis of thermoelastic isopachic data
[19] Bhalla KS, Zehnder AT, Han X. Thermomechanics of slow stable crack growth: from crack tip stress fields. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 2000;23:301–13.

159
G. Meneghetti, et al. International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019) 149–160

[38] Jones R, Krishnapillai M, Cairns K, Matthews N. Application of infrared thermo- Group; 2011.
graphy to study crack growth and fatigue life extension procedures. Fatigue Fract [56] Wong AK, Sparrow JG, Dunn SA. On the revised theory of the thermoelastic effect. J
Eng Mater Struct 2010;33:871–84. Phys Chem Solids 1988;49:395–400.
[39] Bär J, Seifert S. Thermographic investigation of fatigue crack propagation in a high- [57] Berto F, Lazzarin P. Relationships between J-integral and the strain energy eval-
alloyed steel. Adv Mater Res 2014;892:936–41. uated in a finite volume surrounding the tip of a sharp and blunt V-notches. Int J
[40] Ancona F, Palumbo D, De Finis R, Demelio GP, Galietti U. Automatic procedure for Solids Struct 2007;44:4621–45.
evaluating the Paris Law of martensitic and austenitic stainless steels by means of [58] Lazzarin P, Zappalorto M. Plastic notch stress intensity factors for pointed V-notches
thermal methods. Eng Fract Mech 2016;163:206–19. under antiplane shear loading. Int J Fract 2008;152:1–25.
[41] Urbanek R, Bär J. Influence of motion compensation on lock-In thermographic in- [59] Hutchinson JW. Singular behavior at the end of a tensile crack in a hardening
vestigations of fatigue crack propagation. Eng Fract Mech 2017;183:13–25. material. J Mech Phys Solids 1968;16:13–31.
[42] Pitarresi G. Lock-in signal post-processing techniques in infra-red thermography for [60] Masing G. Eigenspannungen und Verfestigung beim messing. In: Procs of the 2nd
materials structural evaluation. Exp Mech 2015;55:667–80. Int Conf of Applied Mechanics, Zurich, 1926, p. 332–5.
[43] Halford GR. The energy required for fatigue. J Mat 1966;1(1):3–18. [61] Atzori B, Meneghetti G. Energy dissipation in low cycle fatigue of austempered
[44] Germain P, Nguyen QS, Suquet P. Continuum thermodynamics. Trans ASME J Appl ductile irons. In: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on low cycle fa-
Mech 1983;50:1010–20. tigue LCF 5, Berlin, Germany, 2003.
[45] Lemaitre J, Chaboche JL. Mechanics of solid materials. Cambridge University Press; [62] Meneghetti G, Ricotta M. The use of the specific heat loss to analyse the low- and
1998. high-cycle fatigue behaviour of plain and notched specimens made of a stainless
[46] Chrysochoos A, Louche H. An Infrared image process to analyse the calorific effects steel. Eng Fract Mech 2012;81:2–17.
accompanying strain localization. Int J Eng Sci 2000;38:1759–88. [63] Wan VVC, MacLachlan DW, Dunne FPE. A stored energy criterion for fatigue crack
[47] Rousselier G. Dissipation in porous metal plasticity and ductile fracture. J Mech nucleation in polycrystals. Int J Fatigue 2014;68:90–102.
Phys Solids 2001;49:1727–46. [64] Yao Y, Wang J, Keer LM. A phase transformation based method to predict fatigue
[48] Chrysochoos A, Berthel B, Latourte F, Galtier A, Pagano S, Watrisse B. Local energy crack nucleation and propagation in metals and alloys. Acta Mater
analysis of high cycle fatigue using digital image correlation and infrared thermo- 2017;127:241–51.
graphy. J Strain Anal 2008;43:411–21. [65] Brémond P, Potet P. Lock-In Thermography: A tool to analyse and locate thermo-
[49] Pandey KN, Chand S. Deformation based temperature rise: a review. Int J Pres Ves mechanical mechanisms in materials and structures. In: Proc SPIE 4360,
Pip 2003;80:673–87. Thermosense XXIII, Aerospace/Defense Sensing, Simulation, Control. 2001,
[50] Charkaluk E, Constantinescu A. Dissipation and fatigue damage. In: Proceedings of Orlando, FL, United States, vol. 4360, 2001, p. 560–6.
the Fifth International Conference on Low Cycle Fatigue LCF 5, September 9-11, [66] Meneghetti G, Ricotta M, Atzori B. A two-parameter, heat energy-based approach to
2003, Berlin, Germany. analyse the mean stress influence on axial fatigue behaviour of plain steel speci-
[51] Plekhov OA, Panteleev IA, Naimark OB. Energy accumulation and dissipation in mens. Int J Fatigue 2016;82:60–70.
metals as a result of structural-scaling transitions in a mesodefect ensemble. Phys [67] Shih CF, Moran B, Nakamura T. Energy release rate along a three-dimensional crack
Mesomech 2007;10:294–301. front in a thermally stressed body. Int J Fract 1986;30(2):79–102.
[52] Meneghetti G, Ricotta M, Atzori B. A synthesis of the push-pull fatigue behaviour of [68] Diaz FA, Patterson EA, Tomlinson RA, Yates JR. Measuring stress intensity factors
plain and notched stainless steel specimens by using the specific heat loss. Fatigue during fatigue crack growth using thermoelasticity. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct
Fract Eng Mater Struct 2013;36:1306–22. 2004;27:571–83.
[53] Tanaka K, Takahash H, Akiniwa Y. Fatigue crack propagation from a hole in tubular [69] Marsavina L, Tomlinson RA, Patterson EA, Yates JR. Investigation of crack closure
specimens under axial and torsional loading. Int J Fatigue 2006;28:324–34. by using thermoelastic stress analysis, CD-ROM In: Proc of the 16th European
[54] Dowling NE. Mechanical behavior of materials. Pearson Prentice Hall; 2007. Conference of Fracture, Alexandroupolis: 2006.
[55] Anderson TL. Fracture mechanics. Fundamentals and Applications: Taylor & Francis

160