Industrial Processes

Module no. 3

Methods, processes and

equipment involved in
handling of solids
(Separation and classification of
solids)

Engr. Augusto A. Avanceña

Instructor

Alba, Edgar Luigi T.

BSME-5B
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to;
1. Know the different processes involved in separation and classification of solids.
2. Understand the significance of separation and classification of solids in industrial plant
3. Know the equipment involved in separation and classification of solids in industrial plant
4. Understand the design concept of separation and classification of solids.

ACTIVITY:
1. Research Work: Write your discussion about the Methods, processes and equipment
involved in handling of solids (separation and classification of solids). Follow the following
outline.
a. Introduction
b. Processes involved in handling of solids (separation and classification of solids).
c. Equipment involved in handling of solids (separation and classification of solids).
d. Significance of separation and classification of solids in the manufacturing process of
industrial plants
e. Safety protocols
f. References
Separation and Classification of Solids
Separation of Solids
Techniques used to separate one material from the other is called separation. Separations
are extremely common in chemical manufacture. In fact, much processing equipment is devoted
to separate one phase or one material from the other. There are two types of separation:
diffusional and mechanical separation.
Diffusional Separation

• Diffusional separation is a technique used for the separations of homogeneous mixtures.

• This separation involves the transfer of the material between the phases.
• Following are the well adopted methods for the diffusional separations.
o Distillation
o Crystallization
o Absorption
Mechanical Separation

• The techniques used for the separation of the heterogeneous mixtures.

• These are based on the physical differences between the particles such as size, shape or
density.
• It can be applied for separating solids from solids, solids from liquids and also solids from
the gases.
• There are further two types of mechanical separations:
o Classification
o Screening
Classification of Solids
Particle classification is an important unit process in many industries and finds demanding
applications in mineral processes, food processing, pharmaceutical, and toner or powder paint
industries. Particle classification is defined as a method sorting an initial distribution of particles
to achieve a desired degree of uniformity, according to a chosen parameter. Classifiers are so
designed that the fine and coarse particles have different velocities or motion directions. The fine
and coarse products are collected according either to time or to the locations in the classifiers. A
classifier is usually a complex system since a number of forces can be involved in determining
trajectories of particles. These forces include +drag forces by fluids, gravitational forces,
centrifugal forces, and so on.
Classification is applied for the separation of solids from the gases and solids from liquids.
Screening is used for the separation of solids from solids
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN HANDLING OF SOLIDS
Separation techniques are essentially methods of purification. Homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures can be separated into their components by several physical methods. The choice of
separation techniques is based on the type of mixture and difference in the chemical properties
of the constituents of a mixture.
Sieving
Sieves, or sifters, are devices for separating wanted elements from unwanted material or
for characterizing the particle size distribution of a sample, typically using a woven screen such
as a mesh or net or metal. A strainer is a form of sieve used to separate solids from liquid. Sieving
is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes. Coarse particles are separated or
broken up by grinding against one-another and
screen openings. Depending upon the types of
particles to be separated, sieves with different
types of holes are used. Sieves are also used to
separate stones from sand. Sieving plays an
important role in food industries where sieves
(often vibrating) are used to prevent the
contamination of the product by foreign bodies.
Mechanical Screening Sieve

Mechanical screening, often just called screening, is the practice of taking granulated ore
material and separating it into multiple grades by particle size. This practice occurs in a variety of
industries such as mining and mineral processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical, food, plastics, and
recycling. A screening machine consist of a drive that induces vibration, a screen media that
causes particle separation, and a deck which holds the screen media and the drive and is the
mode of transport for the vibration.
Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separation is a process in which magnetically susceptible material is extracted
from a mixture using a magnetic force. This separation technique can be useful in mining iron as
it is attracted to a magnet. In the machine, the raw ore is fed onto a conveyor belt which passes
underneath two pairs of electromagnets under which further belts run at right angles to the feed
belt. The first pair of balls are weakly magnetized and served to draw off any iron ore present.
The second pair are strongly magnetized and attracted the wolframite, which is weakly magnetic.
These machines are capable of treating 10 tons of ore a day.
Leaching
Leaching is the process of extracting substances from a solid by dissolving them in a liquid,
either naturally or through an industrial process. In the chemical processing industry, leaching
has a variety of commercial applications, including separation of metal from ore using acid, and
sugar from sugar beets using hot water.

EQUIPMENTS INVOLVE IN HANDLING OF SOLIDS

Particle classification is defined as a method sorting an initial distribution of particles to
achieve a desired degree of uniformity, according to a chosen parameter. Classifiers are so
designed that the fine and coarse particles have different velocities or motion directions. The fine
and coarse products are collected according either to time or to the locations in the classifiers. A
classifier is usually a complex system since a number of forces can be involved in determining
trajectories of particles. These forces include drag forces by fluids, gravitational forces,
centrifugal forces, electrostatic or magnetic field forces, inertial forces, Basset forces, pressure
gradient forces, concentration gradient forces, particle-particle interactions, and so on.
Classifiers are traditionally grouped into wet and dry classifiers. The difference between
dry and wet methods is the medium of suspension being used. Wet classifiers use liquids as the
medium of suspension while dry classifiers use gases. However, several technologies can be
operated under either dry or wet conditions. The examples include sieving and cyclone
classification. Classification techniques can be also classified into mechanical and non-mechanical
classifiers regardless the working medium. Mechanical classifiers incorporate moving parts which
influences the motion of particles. Non mechanical classifiers use fluid drag only to separate
particles. In terms of the forces exerted to particles, classifiers can be categorized into two major
types: gravitational classifiers and centrifugal classifiers. Gravitational classifiers are generally
used to separate very large particles and are mostly seen as a pre-treatment stage. This is
because gravity itself does not provide sufficient partition power in classifying small particles.
The advantage of centrifugal classifiers is the possibility of obtaining fine cut sizes due to a high
partition power
Dry Classifiers
Dry classification is widely used in many industrial processes. In comparison to wet
classification, dry classification does not need drying and slurry treatment. When dry
classification uses air as the working medium, it often refers to air classification. As a complement
of sieving, air classification can separate smaller or larger particles than commercial sieving sizes.
Therefore, air classification manages a wider range of materials, typically from 2 mm down to 5
µm. The primary application of air classification is to achieve a narrower size range of product,
which produce better flow characteristics and enhance the properties of the final product.
Elutriation
Elutriation is a process of washing fines by air while allowing the coarse product settling.
The bulk of unclassified powders are usually introduced to the elutriator from the middle inlet.
The air stream flows upwards and washes the fine particles from the bulk. The lighter or finer
particles are lift against gravity to a fine collector overhead. The denser or larger particles are too
heavy to be raised and fall against airflow into the coarse collector below. The cut size is
controlled by varying the gas velocity. Various geometries of the elutriators have been studied,
which includes cylindrical, conical and even horizontal elutriators
Segregation
Segregation may occur when a binary mixture is fluidized in a fluidized bed. Measures are
taken to prevent segregation, which makes classification by fluidized bed unusual. This is because
segregation is often incomplete under normal operations. In order to make classification
processes feasible, some modifications to the fluidized bed must be made to enhance the degree
of particle segregation.
Cross-flow classifiers
Cross-flow classifiers are designed so that the
direction of airflows is perpendicular to the gravity. As
shown in Figure 5, the gas is injected to the classifier
horizontally from the inlet on the left wall. The material
inlet is nearby the gas nozzle and the powders are fed
downwardly into the classifier. The particles are spread
to a fan-shape in the chamber. The particles are separate
since the coarse powders and the fine powders have
different trajectories in the separation zone due to the
fluid drag forces and gravitational forces. The coarse
powders settle quicker than the fines. By inserting the
several plates at certain distances to the gas inlet, the
classified particles are collected into fractions.
Cascade Air Classifier
The Zigzag classifiers consist of several inclined branch
pipes vertically arranged to form a zigzag separation zone, as
shown in Figure 6. These inclined pipes have rectangular cross-
section and are inclined alternately to the left and to the right
at the same angle. An inlet is opened at the top or the middle
of the classifier in order that the materials to be classified are
fed into it. The coarse fractions fall to the bend where they
need to cross through the classifying airflow coming from
below. The separation of fines takes place at each bend and several bends are required to
increase the sharpness of separation.
Vortex Air Classifier
Vortex air classifiers belong to centrifugal
classifiers. Rumphf firstly systematically investigated
this type of classifiers. Commercial vortex air
classifiers are available from Alpine, as shown in
Figure 11. It is the first industrial design which
separates particles at size cut about 10 µm. An
advantage of the vortex air classifiers is that de-
agglomeration occurs during classification which
leads to good dispersion the raw materials in airflow.
The disadvantage is that the product to air ratio has
significant effects on the cut size. To solve this
problem, a vane is installed in the classifier to create
a forced vortex in which the circumferential velocity
component is determined by the rotor speed.

Rotating Wheel Classifier

Rotating wheel classifiers use rotating blades to create
the air vortex or the centrifugal field. The advantage of a
rotating wheel classifier is the elimination of any
external compressor to send air as in a vortex air
classifier. In addition, the volumetric flow rate of air
required for classification is much less in the rotating
wheel classifier.
Circulating Air Classifier
Circulating air classifiers are widely used in
cement industry. It has generally complex interior
geometry. One type of such devices is shown
schematically in Figure 14 [35]. Particles are fed
from the top onto a plate where the particles are
scattered by rotation of the plate. Circulating
airflows carry the fine particles to the outer wall
(annular chamber). The air flows back to the
classification chamber via vanes and leave the fine
particles fall into the fine’s collector. The coarser
particles remain in the interior chamber and falls
into the coarse collector below.
Electrostatic Classifier
The conventional classifiers have in general cut size above 1 µm. However, finer end
products are required to obtain better product characteristics for example in toner industry.
Electrostatic classification is a process by which aerosol particles are fractionated according to
their electric mobility.
Sedimentation Classifier
Spiral classifiers and rake classifiers are two types of sedimentation classifiers. A typical
spiral classifier consists of a sloping elongated round-bottom tank and a sand-raking spiral. The
raw materials are fed to the central section of the pool and flow to the weir while the suspended
particles settle down. Four zones can be identified in the poor, which are stationary zone, moving
zone, hindered settling and free settling zone. The cut size depends on a number of parameters
including the height of the weir, angle of tank slope, viscosity of the mixture, and so on.
Secondary fresh water may be supplemented to clean the coarse fraction before discharging.
Spiral classifiers produce coarse particles in good quality while they are generally not used in
separating fine particles.
Hydraulic Classifier
Hydraulic classifiers differ from sedimentation
classifiers in that particle settling directions are in opposite
to fluid movement. One of hydraulic classifier is Hukki
classifier invented by Hukki in 1960s. It is a mechanical cone
classifier consisting of a cylinder and a conical tank. The
materials are fed from top to a slowly rotating disk. A vane
is placed above the disk to generate upward water current.
The coarse particles escape from the upward stream and
go to the lower part of the classifier where being washed
by water jet. The device has around 50% of overflow
capacity for 74 µm particles but the overflow drops
dramatically for finer particles. Therefore, it has been used
to treat low quality classifier sands.

Significance of separation and classification of solids in the manufacturing process of

industrial plants
Separation processes are essential elements of the technological foundations of the seven
IOF industries included in this report. For the chemical and petroleum refining industries,
separation processes are used to separate and purify the products of reactions. For the
aluminum, steel, and metal casting industries, separation processes are used, among other
things, to purify molten metal and to sort scrap.
For the glass industry, separation processes are essential to the recycling of preened
postconsumer cullet, and for the forest products industry, separations are involved in nearly all
process steps of pulping and papermaking. In addition to the importance of separation
technologies in industrial processes, separation processes also present opportunities for waste
reduction and more efficient use of energy and raw materials. New developments in separation
technologies are, therefore, critical for the continued productivity and global competitiveness of
these industries
Separation Processes for the Chemical and Petroleum Refining Industries
The chemical and petroleum refining industries have a number of separation issues in
common. In addition to general improvements in process efficiency, the panel identified two
separation technology areas with the potential to meet some of the needs of both industries:

• separation methods that use multiple driving forces, including processes in which a
naturally occurring driving force for a specific operation is enhanced by an intervention
that changes the system thermodynamics or in which two or more separation techniques
 are coupled (combined membrane separations and distillation; affinity-based adsorbent
separations; and electrically aided separations)
• separations associated with chemical reactions, in other words, methods that combine
reaction and separation in one process step (reactive metal complex sorbents and
chemically facilitated transport membranes; coupled chemical synthesis and separation
processes; membrane reactors; and electrochemical methods of separation).
Bulk Sorting Technologies for the Materials Processing Industries
A number of the materials processing industries (aluminum, steel, metal casting, glass,
and the polymer-recycling sector of the chemical industry) identified separation needs that
can be classified as materials handling and sorting issues, specifically, high-speed scrap
separation. Examples include separation of wrought from cast aluminum alloys, separation
of aluminum scrap from other metals, separation of copper and other contaminants from
solid steel scrap, and separations of polymers for recycling.
Research and development in this area should focus on making processes more economical.
Higher speed sorting technologies, such as air jet and conveyer belt technology systems,
could be developed and implemented. This is an area where several industries could benefit
from research and development of the same technology, including:

• on-line sensors for high-speed analysis of the composition of streams and the makeup of
individual objects in these streams
• physical separation techniques, including gravity separations (e.g., air jet separations,
flowing film separations), magnetic separations, and electrical separations (e.g.,
electrostatic separation and tribo-electrification)
• high-speed sorting technologies, including the fundamental mechanics of high-speed
conveying, techniques to position individual scrap pieces in sequential arrays before
analysis, and methods for physically diverting the analyzed pieces by material type.
Drying and Dewatering Technologies
Another cross-cutting area for research is drying and dewatering technologies. Several
industries, including the chemical, petroleum refining, metal casting, and forest products
industries, have identified separation needs that could be met by improvements in drying and
dewatering technologies. Examples include: the removal of solvents from polymers
(devolatilization) in the chemical industry; the removal of entrained water from crude oil and
the drying of natural gas in the petroleum refining industry; the drying of ceramic casting
materials and reclamation sand in the metal casting industry; the drying of paper in the
papermaking process of the forest products industry; and the drying of sludges from waste
gas scrubbing and wastewater treatment.
SAFETY PROTOCOLS
Industrial Hazards and Prevention Systems

HAZARD is a situation that possess a level of threat to life, health, property or environment.
INDUSTRIAL HAZARD may be defined as any condition produced by industries that may cause
injury or death to personnel or loss of product or property. SAFETY in simple terms means
freedom from the occurrence of risk or injury or loss. INDUSTRIAL SAFETY refers to the protection
of workers from the danger of industrial accidents.
GENERAL HAZARDS IN INDUSTRIES

• FIRE HAZARDS
• MECHANICAL HAZARDS
• ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
• CHEMICAL HAZARDS
• PHARMACEUTICAL HAZARDS
• RADIATION HAZARDS
• DUST EXPLOSION
FIRE HAZARDS
o Fire is an exothermic chemical reaction between oxygen and fuel.
o Combustion Slow combustion e.g.: cotton waste burning Rapid combustion eg: petroleum
product Spontaneous combustion e.g.: paint, scrap
o The effect of fire on people take the form of skin burns.
o Fire can take several different forms including jet fires, pool fires and boiling liquid
expanding vapor explosion.
SOURCES OF FIRE HAZARDS
o Hot surfaces Combustible and flammable liquids
o Heat utilization equipment (over heating)
o Chemical process equipment
o Lightening
o Gas cylinders
o Ovens and furnaces
o Reactor
o Welding and cutting
o Spark from metal to metal contact
o Carelessness
Steps to be taken when a fire occurs:
o Don’t panic Raise the alarm
o Evacuate the premises
o Turn off the gas supply
o Attack the fire with extinguisher
o Or vacate the place in case of fire safe methods to be followed
o Stair cases only to be used for evacuation
o Exit doors should be closed after getting out
o Go down the stair case to the ground
o Walk do not run
o Encounter heavy smoke crawl on the floor, do not talk, cover the nose and mouth with a
wet cloth
CONTROL OF FIRE ACCIDENTS
o Fire protection is an important part of good housekeeping.
o Prohibition of smoking in manufacturing area
o Oxygen present in atmosphere may be reduced by dilution with gases as Nitrogen, Carbon
dioxide.
o Identification and control of ignition sources in areas where flammable chemicals are
stored/handled/transferred.
o Elimination of ignition sources.
o Careful plant layout.
o Fire resistance brick walls or reinforced concrete walls.
o Suitable exit facility to be provided.
o Adequate ventilation facility.
o Sprinkler with reliable water supply.
o Installation of sufficient fire alarms.

MECHANICAL HAZARDS
Occurs due to:
o Large number of equipment
o Crowded work place conditions
o Frequent interaction between worker and equipment
o Insecurely fixed machines
o Worn and teared parts
o Dangerous Parts
o Negligence
 o Improper maintenance of equipment. Most common in metal industries and construction
sites.
Factors responsible are:
o PHYSICAL – Physical capability of worker may not meet the job requirement.
o PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS: a) Age b) Gender c) Time d) Experience
Safety measures for Mechanical hazards
o All machinery must be fenced or mechanical interlocking or photocell.
o Machine should be fitted with emergency shut down system.
o Turn key system for cleaning and for repairing.
o Control system override should be monitored.
o Operator must have a safe distance from the machine.
o Stop and lock button for machines.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
o BUILDING PLANNING: -- Floors must be non-slippery type -- Enough space to move easily
-- Easy access of workers to the safety switches
o SAFE MATERIAL HANDLING: --All material handling equipment should be repaired and
maintained properly.
o PERSONNEL PROTECTIVE DEVICES: -- Protection of head by using hard hats and helmets -
- Ears by using ear muffs and plugs -- Face by using face masks

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Electricity is the flow of electrons through a substance which allows transfer of electrical
energy from one position to another. How Shocks occur? Current Level Probable Effect on Human
body1 mA Slight tingling sensation.5 mA Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing.6-30 mA
Painful shock, muscular control is lost.50-150 mA Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe
muscular contraction and death is possible1000-4300 mA Muscular contraction and nerve
damage occur. Death is most likely.10,000 mA Cardiac arrest, severe burns and probable death.
The most frequent causes of electrical injury/death are:
1.Contact with power lines
2.Path to ground missing or discontinuous
3.Equipment not used in manner prescribed
4.Improper use of extension and flexible cords
5. Electric shocks and burns due to poor indication facilities
 6. wiring faults and improperly wired equipment
7. Sparking at loose connection
Safety Measures for electrical hazards:
o Design a safer system
o Implement a safe electrical work program
o Observe work practice
o Use protective equipment
o Use warning labels
o Recheck the equipment everyday
o Heat producing electrical equipment
o Overhead electrical wire should have extra care
o Recheck the lines everyday
o Proper training to workers
PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
o Proper maintenance of wiring and equipment.
o High voltage equipment should be properly enclosed. Indication of danger sign at every
high voltage terminal.
o Safe work project
o Insulation, guarding, grounding, electrical protective devices.
o Worker should avoid working with the equipment in wet clothes and shoes.
o Water supply should be far away from electrical circuits.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Chemical hazards are: - Toxic - Corrosive - Irritant - Carcinogenic - Flammable – Mutagenic
Chemical reactions may get out of control due to:
o Wrong raw materials
o Raw materials with impurities
o Changed operating conditions
o Time delay
o Equipment failure
Effects of chemicals on exposure:
o Skin burn
o Anthrax
o Ulcer in hand, nose etc.
 o Cancer
o Irritation on wind pipe
o Many chemicals can cause severe burns, if they come in contact with living tissue.
o Living tissue may be destroyed by following chemical reactions: -Dehydration by strong
dehydrating agents -Digestion by strong acids and bases -Oxidation by strong oxidizing
agents
PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
o Solvents used in extraction, purification of synthetic drugs and chemical analysis should
be handled with care.
o Flammable and explosive chemicals should be kept at proper distance.
o Tolerance level for toxic chemicals set by federal regulation have to be followed.
o Suitable label to the chemicals for proper handling.
o Personal protective cloth
o Application of cream before commencement of work.
o Use of Goggles
o Safety regulation and protecting measures of good housekeeping principles.
References
Separation and Classification of solids
Balag, Y.A. Separation and Classification of Solids. retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/392563376/IP4-Separation-and-Classification-of-Solids-
docx
Ahmed, W. (2014). Separation, screening and classification. retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/vicky937/separation-screening-and-classification
Processes involved in handling of solids
Balag, Y.A. Separation and Classification of Solids. retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/document/392563376/IP4-Separation-and-Classification-of-Solids-
docx
Equipment involved in handling of solids
Yang, W. (2007). Particle separation and classification. retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305220838_Particle_separation_and_classification
Significance of separation and classification of solid in Industries
Separation Technologies for the Industries of the Future. (1998). Chapter: 11 Conclusions and
Recommendations. retrieved from https://www.nap.edu/read/6388/chapter/13
Safety Protocol
Abhilash, R. (2012). Industrial hazards and prevention systems. retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/mallikarjunvasm/industrial-hazards-and-prevention-systems