Matrix Algebra

11

This unit is designed to introduce the learners to the basic concepts

associated with matrix algebra. The learners will learn about
different types of matrices, operations of matrices, determinant and
matrix inversion. This unit also discusses the procedure of
determining the solution of the system of linear equations by using
inverse matrix method, Gaussian method and Cramer’s’ Rule.
Some relevant business and economic applications of matrix
algebra are also provided in this unit for clear and better
understanding of the learners.
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Lesson-1: Matrix: An Introduction

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

State the nature of a matrix;

Explain matrix representation of data.

Define different types of matrices.
Introduction
J. J. Sylvester was the first to use the word ‘matrix’ in 1850 and later on
in 1858 Arthur Cayley developed the theory of matrices in a systematic
way. Matrix is a powerful tool of modern mathematics and its study is
becoming important day by day due to its wide applications in every
Matrix arithmetic is
branch of knowledge. Matrix arithmetic is basic to many of the tools of basic to many of the
managerial decision analysis. It has an important role in modern tools of managerial
techniques for quantitative analysis of business and economic decisions. decision analysis.
The tool has also become quite significant in the functional business and
economic areas of accounting, production, finance and marketing.
Matrix
Whenever one is dealing with data, there should be concern for
organizing them in such a way that they are meaningful and can be
readily identified. Summarizing data in a tabular form can serve this
function. A matrix is a common device for summarizing and displaying
numbers or data. Thus, a matrix is a rectangular array of elements and A matrix is a
has no numerical value. The elements may be numbers, parameters or rectangular array of
variables. The elements in horizontal lines are called rows, and the elements and has no
elements in vertical lines are called columns. numerical value.

A matrix is characterized further by its dimension. The dimension or

order indicates the number of rows and the number of columns contained
within the matrix. If a matrix has m rows and n columns, it is said to have
dimension ( m × n ), which is read as: m by n.

 a 11 a 12 a 13 
 
Example: A =  a 21 a 22 a 23 
 a a 33 
 31 a 32

Types of Matrices:
Row Matrix: The matrix with only one row is called a row matrix or
row vector.
For example: A = (2 3 4 ) .
Column Matrix: The matrix with only one column is called a column
matrix or column vector.
2 
 
For example: A =  3 
4 
 

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Row matrix and column matrix are usually called as row vector and
column vector respectively.
Square Matrix: If the number of rows and the number of columns of a
matrix are equal then the matrix is of order n × n and is called a square
matrix of order n.
1 2
For example: A =  
3 4 
Rectangular Matrix: If the number of rows and the number of columns
of a matrix are not equal then the matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
1 2 3
For example: A =  
4 5 6 
Singular matrix: A square matrix A is said to be singular if the
determinant formed by its elements equal to zero.
2 1
For example: Let A =  .
4 2 
Determinant of A = A = ( 2 × 2) − ( 4 × 1) = 0 .
Hence A is a singular matrix.
Non-singular Matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if the determinant formed by
its elements is non-zero.
5 3
For example: A =  
2 4 
A = (5 × 4) − (3 × 2) = 20 − 6 = 14 .
Hence A is a non-singular matrix.
Null or Zero Matrix: The matrix with all of its elements equal to zero is
called a null matrix or zero matrix.
0 0
For example: A =  
0 0 
Diagonal Matrix: A matrix whose all elements are zero except those in
the principal diagonal is called a diagonal matrix.
 a 11 0 0
 
For example: A =  0 a 22 0
 0 0 a 33 

Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix, whose diagonal elements are equal, is
called a scalar matrix.
5 0
For example: A =  
0 5 

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Sub-Matrix: A matrix that is obtained from a given matrix by deleting

any number of rows and any number of columns is called a sub-matrix of
the given matrix.
5 3 2
1 2  
For example: A =   is a sub-matrix of B = 1 1 2
3 4 7 3 4 

Unit matrix or Identity matrix: A matrix with every element in the
principal diagonal equals to one and all other elements equal to zero is
called a unit matrix. A unit matrix is a square matrix. It is denoted by I.
1 0
For example: A =  
0 1
Equal Matrix: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if their
corresponding elements are equal.
1 3 1 3
For example: Let A =   , B =   then A = B
4 2 4 2 
Transpose of a Matrix: If the columns of a given matrix A are changed
into rows or the rows are changed into columns, the matrix thus formed
is called the transpose of the matrix A and it is generally denoted by AT.
1 2 3 1 4 7
   
For example: Let A =  4 5 6  then A =  2
T
5 8
7 8 9  3 6 9 
 
Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is called symmetric if it be same
as its transpose so that A = AT.
a h g a h g
   
For Example: Let A =  h b f  then A =  h
T
b f
g f c  g f c 
 
i.e., A = AT, so A is a symmetric matrix.
Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is called skew-symmetric
if AT = – A.

 0 h g
 
For example: Let A =  - h 0 f
- g -f 0 

0 -h -g 
 
then AT = A T =  h 0 - f  = −A
g f 0 

i.e., AT = − A , hence A is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Involuntary Matrix: A square matrix A is called involuntary matrix
provided it satisfies the relation A2 = I, where I is the identity matrix.

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1 1 
For example: A =  
0 - 1
Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called idempotent matrix
provided it satisfies the relation A 2 = A .
 2 -2 4
 
Example: A =  - 1 3 4
 1 -2 - 3 

Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called nilpotent matrix of order
m provided it satisfies the relation Am = 0 and Am −1 ≠ 0 , where m is a
positive integer and 0 is the null matrix.
 1 2 5
 
For example: A =  2 4 10  since A ≠ 0, A2 = 0
- 1 -2 - 5 

Complex Conjugate of a Matrix: It is a matrix obtained by replacing all
its elements by their respective complex conjugates.
2 + 3i 5 2 − 3i 5 
For example: If A =   then A =  
3 -3i 7 3 + 3i 7 
Hermitian Matrix: A matrix having complex elements of a square
matrix A is a Hermitian matrix. If ( A) ′ = A , then A is called Hermitian
matrix.
Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A matrix having complex elements for matrix
A.( A) = − A. A is skew hermitian matrix.
Co-factor Matrix
A matrix, which is formed by the co-factors of the corresponding
elements, is called co-factor matrix and is denoted by AC .
a11 a12 a13 
 
For example: If a matrix, A =  a 21 a 22 a 23 
a31 a32 a33 
c11 c12 c13 
then, the co-factor matrix, A = c 21 c22 c23 
C
 
c31 c32 c33 
Adjoint Matrix:
The Adjoint matrix is the transpose of the co-factor matrix, that is
adjA = A j = (cof A) T
Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if
AAT = AT A = I , where I is an identity matrix and AT is the transpose
matrix of A.

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Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. What do you understand by matrix?
2. Why matrix algebra is so important in business and economics?
Explain.
3. Discuss the various types of matrices.
4. In an examination, 20 students from college A, 30 students from
college B and 40 students from college C appeared. Only 15
students from each college could get through the examination. Out
of them 10 students from college A, 5 students from college B and
10 students from college C secured full marks. Write down the
above data in matrix form.

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Lesson-2: Matrix Operations

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Express the concept of matrix operations;

Add or subtract given matrices;

Multiply given matrices.
Introduction
The operations of matrices are addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of which addition and multiplication are the main operations. In
this lesson we will discuss some of the operations of matrix algebra.
Matrix Addition
Two matrices of the same dimensions are said to be conformable for
Two matrices of the
same dimensions are
addition. The addition is performed by adding corresponding elements
said to be conform- from the two matrices and entering the result in the same row-column
able for addition. position of a new matrix.
If A and B are two matrices, each of size m × n then the sum of A and B
is the m × n matrix C whose elements are C ij = Aij + Bij ; i = 1, 2, 3…
m and j = 1, 2, 3, ….n.
Properties of Matrix Addition:
• Commutative law: Matrix addition is commutative. If A and B are
two matrices of same order m × n , then A + B = B + A .
• Associative law: Matrix addition is associative. If A, B and C are
three matrices of same order m × n , then A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B) + C .
• Distributive law: If A and B are two matrices of same order m × n ,
and K is any scalar, then K ( A + B ) = KA + KB .
• Existence of additive identity: If O denotes null matrix of the same
order as that of A, then A + O = A = O + A .
• Existence of an additive inverse: If A be any given m × n matrix
and there exists another m × n matrix B such that
A + B = O = B + A ; where O be the m × n null matrix.
• Cancellation law: If A, B and C are three matrices of same
order ( m × n ) , then A + C = B + C ⇒ A = B .
Example-1:

Find the sums A + B of the following matrices

8 9 13 4
A =   and B =  
12 7 2 6 

Solution:
8 + 13 9 + 4   21
A + B =   =
13 

 12 + 2 7 + 6  14 13 

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Matrix Subtraction
The subtraction of two matrices is possible only when they are of the
The subtraction of two
same order. Such matrices are said to be conformable for subtraction. matrices is possible
The subtraction is performed by subtracting corresponding elements of only when they are of
the two matrices and entering the result in the same row-column position the same order.
of a new matrix.
If A and B are two matrices, each of size m × n then the subtraction of A
and B is the m × n matrix C whose elements are C ij = Aij − Bij ; i = 1, 2,
3… m and j = 1, 2, 3, ….n.
Example-2:
Find the difference A − B of the following matrices
3 7 11 6 8 1
A =   and B =  
12 9 2 9 5 8 
Solution:
3 − 6 7 −8 11 − 1   − 3 −1 10 
A − B =   = 
 12 − 9 9−5 2 − 8   3 4 − 6 

Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix

A matrix can be multiplied by a constant by multiplying each component A matrix can be mult-
in the matrix by the constant. The result is a new matrix of the same iplied by a constant by
multiplying each com-
dimensions as the original matrix.
ponent in the matrix
If K is any real number and A = [aij] is an m × n matrix, then the by the constant.
product KA is defined to be the matrix whose components are given by K
times the corresponding component of A, i.e., KA = [Kaij]
Laws of scalar multiplication:
(i) K ( A + B ) = KA + KB
(ii) ( K1 + K 2 ) A = K1 A + K 2 A
(iii) IA = A
(iv) ( K 1 K 2 ) A = K 1 ( K 2 A) .
Example-3:

1 0 1
 
If A =  2 1 2  , Find 5 A .
3 2 1 

Solution:

1 0 1  5 0 5 
   
5A = 5  2 1 2  = 10 5 10 
3 2 1  15 10 5 


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Multiplication of Matrices
If the number of If the number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of
columns of the first rows of the second matrix, such matrices are said to be conformable for
matrix is equal to the multiplication. Let A be a matrix of order m × p and B be a matrix of
number of rows of the
second matrix, such
order p × n . Then the product AB is defined to be a matrix C of order
matrices are said to m×n .
be conformable for
multiplication. Properties of Matrix Multiplication
• Associative law: Multiplication of matrices is associative i.e.
A( BC ) = ( AB)C .
• Distributive law: Multiplication of matrices is distributive with
respect to matrix addition i.e. A( B + C ) = AB + AC .
• Multiplication of a matrix by a null matrix: If A is n × m and O is
m × n matrices, then AO = O = OA .
• Multiplication of a matrix by a unit matrix: If A is a square matrix
of order n × n and I is the unit matrix of same order,
then IA = A = AI .
• Multiplication of matrix by itself: If A is a square matrix then
A. A = A 2 .
Example-4:

 2
 
Find AB , where A = [9 11 3] and B =  6 
7
 
Solution:
The matrices A and B are conformable for multiplication. The
dimensions of A and B are 1 × 3 and 3 × 1 respectively, i.e., the product
matrix AB will be 1 × 1 and a scalar, derived by multiplying each
element of the row vector by its corresponding element in the column
vector and then summing the products.
AB = [(9 × 2) + (11 × 6) + (3 × 7)] = 18 + 66 + 21 = 105.
Example-5:
2 3 1 1 2 - 1
If A =   and B =  .
0 - 1 5 0 - 1 3 
Find (i) 3 A − 4 B
(ii) 2 A − 3B
Solution:
2 3 1  1 2 -1
(i) 3 A − 4 B = 3  –4  
0 -1 5  0 -1 3 

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6 9 3  4 8 -4 
=  –  
0 - 3 15  0 -4 12 
6 - 4 9-8 3 - (-4) 
=  
 0 - 0 - 3 - (-4) 15 - 12 
2 1 7
=  
0 1 3 

2 3 1  1 2 -1
(ii) 2 A − 3B = 2   – 3  
0 -1 5 0 -1 3 
4 6 2  3 6 - 3
=  –  
0 -2 10   0 -3 9 
4 - 3 6-6 2 - (-3) 
=  
 0 - 0 - 2 - (-3) 10 - 9 
1 0 5
=  
0 1 1 
Example-6:

3 1 2 1 4
   
If A =  0 1 1  and B =  2 2
1 2 0  1 0 
 
then find AB. Whether BA exists? Give reason.

Solution:
3 1 2 1 4
   
AB =  0 1 1 × 2 2
1 2 0  1 0 
 
 3.1 + 1.2 + 2.1 3.4 + 1.2 + 2.0 
 
=  0.1 + 1.2 + 1.1 0.4 + 1.2 + 1.0 
1.1 + 2.2 + 0.1 1.4 + 2.2 + 0.0 

7 14 
 
= 3 2
5 8 


Here A is a matrix of order 3 × 3 and B is a matrix of order 3 × 2. Hence

BA does not exist as number of columns in B is not equal to the number
of rows in A.

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Example-7:
2 3
 1 -2 3  
If A =   and B =  4 5 .
- 4 2 5 2 1 

Find AB and show that AB ≠ BA
Solution:
2 3
1 -2 3  
AB =  × 4 5
- 4 2 5  2
 1 
 1.2 + ( -2).4 + 3.2 1.3 + (-2).5 + 3.1
=  
 - 4.2 + 2.4 + 5.2 - 4.3 + 2.5 + 5.1 
 0 -4
=  
10 3 
2 3 
   1 -2 3
and BA =  4 5  ×  
2 1   - 4 2 5 
 
 2.1 + 3.(-4) 2.(-2) + 3.2 2.3 + 3.5 
 
=  4.1 + 5.(-4) 4.(-2) + 5.2 4.3 + 5.5 
 2.1 + 1.(-4) 2.(-2) + 1.2 2.3 + 1.5 

 - 10 2 21 
 
=  - 16 2 37 
- 2 -2 11 

Hence, AB ≠ BA.
Example 8:

1 2 2
 
Evaluate A2 − 4 A − 5I , where A =  2 1 2  and
2 2 1

1 0 0
 
I = 0 1 0
0 0 1


Solution:

1 2 2  1 2 2 9 8 8
2
     
A = 2 1 2 ×  2 1 2 = 8 9 8
2 2 1  2 2 1 8 8 9 
 

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9 8 8 1 2 2 1 0 0
2
     
A − 4 A − 5I =  8 9 8 – 4 2 1 2 – 5 0 1 0
8 8 9  2 2 1 0 0 1
  
9 - 4 + 5 8-8+ 0 8 - 8 + 0
 
= 8 - 8 + 0 9-4-5 8-8+ 0 
8 - 8 + 0 8-8+ 0 9 - 4 - 5 

0 0 0
 
= 0 0 0  = φ, where φ is a null matrix.
0 0 0 


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Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
 1 2
1. If A =   , find A2 + 3 A + 5 I where I is unit matrix of
− 3 0
order 2.
1 2 4 5
2. If A =   and B =   . Find a matrix C such that
3 4 6 7 
A + B = 2C .
3 -3 4
 
3. If A =  2 -3 4  , find A3 .
0 -1 1 

1 2 
  3 5 9
4. Given A =  3 6  , B =  
5 6 -2 1
 8 
(i) Write down the order of the matrices A and B.
(ii) Write down the order of the product AB.
(iii) Calculate AB.
(iv) Is it possible to calculate BA?
(v) Is AB = BA?
(vi) Are the following possible for operation?
A + B, A – B, 2B and A2

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Lesson-3: Determinant
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

State the concept of determinant;

Describe the advantages of determinant;

Express the Cramer’s rule;

Solve the system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.
Introduction
The present lesson is devoted to a brief discussion of determinants and
their more elementary properties. The determinant concept is of a
particular interest in solving simultaneous equations.
Determinant
An important concept in matrix algebra is that of the determinant. If a If a matrix is square,
matrix is square, the elements of the matrix may be combined to compute the elements of the
a real-valued number called the determinant and is denoted either by the matrix may be combi-
symbol ∆ , or by placing vertical lines around the elements of the matrix ned to compute a real-
valued number called
(like |A|) or simply by det.A. The signs of the successive terms in the the determinant.
expansion of determinants will be alternately positive and negative until
the last term is reached.

a11 a12 a13 


If, A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a31 a32 a33 
a11 a12 a13
Determinant of A will be denoted by ∆ = A = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
Types of Determinants
First Order Determinant: A determinant of the first order is defined by
the determinant of a 1 × 1 Matrix. The determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix is
simply the value of the one element contained in the matrix.
Let, A = [a11 ] be a square matrix. Then A = a11 be a determinant
of first order.
Second Order Determinant: A determinant of the second order is
defined by the determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix.
 a11 a12 
Let, A =  is a 2 × 2 matrix and the determinant of A
 a21 a 22 
is

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a11 a12
A= = a11a 22 − a12 a 21
a 21 a 22
That is the value of the determinant is given by the difference of the
cross products.
Third Order Determinant: A determinant of the third order is defined
by the determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix.
a11 a12 a13 

Let, A = a 21 a 22 a 23  is a 3 × 3 matrix and the determinant

a31 a32 a33 
of A is
a11 a12 a13
A = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
Minors and Co-factors: The method discussed earlier applies for
calculating the determinant of a 2 × 2 or 3× 3 matrix. It does not,
however, apply to matrices of higher dimensions. It is required a
procedure for calculating a determinant that applies to any square matrix.
This procedure is termed as the method of co-factor expansion. Before
discussing the method of co-factor expansion, we must define two terms
minor and co-factor.
Minors
The minor of an element is defined as a determinant by omitting the row
The minor of an
element is defined as a and the column containing the element. Thus, a minor is the determinant
determinant by of the sub matrix formed by deleting the i-th row and j-th column of the
omitting the row and matrix.
the column containing
the element. a11 a12 a13 

If a matrix, A =  a 21 a 22 a 23 
a31 a32 a33 
a 22 a 23
then – minor of a11 = M 11 =
a32 a33
a 21 a 23
minor of a12 = M 12 =
a31 a33
a 21 a 22
minor of a13 = M 13 = and so on.
a31 a32
Co-factors
A co-factor is a minor The co-factor of an element is the co-efficient of the element in the
with a prescribed expanded form and is equal to the corresponding minor with proper sign.
sign. Thus, a co-factor is a minor with a prescribed sign. The rules for the sign

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of a co-factor of any element = ( − 1) i + j × its minor, where i = number of

row and j = number of column.
The co-factor of a ij = c ij = ( −1) i + j M ij
For example, co-factor of a11 = ( −1)1+1 M 11 = M 11
co-factor of a12 = ( −1)1+ 2 M 12 = − M 12
Example-1:
Find the minors and co-factors of the elements at the 1st row of the
determinant
1 2 3
4 5 0
3 2 7
Solution:
5 0
The minor of the element 1, i.e., a11 is M 11 = = 35
2 7
4 0
The minor of the element 2, i.e., a12 is M 12 = = 28
3 7
4 5
The minor of the element 3, i.e., a13 is M 13 = = –7
3 2
The co-factor of 1, i.e., a11 is C11 = ( −1)1+1 .35 = 35
The co-factor of 2, i.e., a12 is C12 = ( −1)1+ 2 .28 = 28
The co-factor of 3, i.e., a13 is C13 = ( −1)1+ 3 (-7) = -7

Expansion of Determinant and Use of Sarrus Diagram

a11 a12 a13
Let A = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
If the co-factor of a11 , a12 and a13 are A11 , A12 and A13
respectively, then
A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13
Sarrus Diagram: We can find out determinant value of a given matrix We can find out
very conveniently by using Sarrus diagram. It is found by the following determinant value of a
process: given matrix by using
Sarrus diagram.
(i) Rewrite the first two columns of the matrix to the right of the
original matrix.
(ii) Locate the elements on the three primary diagonals (P1, P2, P3)
and those on the three secondary diagonals (S1, S2, S3).
(iii) Multiply the elements on each primary and each secondary
diagonal.

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(iv) The determinant equals the sum of the products for the three
primary diagonals minus the sum of the products for the three
secondary diagonals.

a11 a12 a13 


Let A = a 21 a 22 a 23  , the determinant may be found by the

a31 a32 a33 
following process

S1 S2 S3
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
P1 P3 P2

Thus, algebraically the determinant value is computed as

A = (a11a 22 a33 + a12 a 23 a31 + a13 a 21 a32 ) − (a31 a 22 a13 + a32 a 23 a11 + a33 a 21 a12 )
a11 a12 a13
Hence expansion of the determinant of a 21 a 22 a 23 will be
a31 a32 a33

= a11 ( a 22 a33 − a 32 a 23 ) − a12 ( a 21 a33 − a 31 a 23 ) + a13 (a 21 a 32 − a 31 a 22 )

= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13

Example-2:
1 5 3
Find the value of 2 0 5
-4 1 -2
Solution:
1 5 3
Let D = 2 0 5
-4 1 -2
= 1 (0 – 5) – 5 (– 4 + 20) + 3 (2 – 0)
= (–5 – 80 + 6) = 79.
Properties of Determinants
Certain properties hold for determinants. The following properties can be
useful in computing the value of the determinant.
• If two rows or columns are interchanged in a determinant, the sign
of the determinant changes but its value is unchanged.
• If rows are changed into columns and columns into rows, the
determinant remains unchanged.
• If two rows or columns are identical in a determinant, it vanishes.

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• If all the elements of any row or column are zero, the determinant
is zero.
• If any multiple of one row or column is added to another row or
column, the value of the determinant is unchanged.
• If any row or column is a multiple of another row or column, the
determinant equals to zero.
Example-3:
1 1 1
Show that a b c = ( a − b)( b − c )( c − a )
a2 b2 c2
Solution:
Applying C′1 = C1 – C2; C′2 = C2 – C3 we get
0 0 1
a-b b-c c
a 2 - b2 b2 - c2 c2
1 1
= (a – b) (b – c)
a+b b+c
= (a – b) (b – c) (c – a)
Example-4:
Show that
a + b + 2c a b
c b + c + 2a b = 2( a + b + c ) 3
c a c + a + 2b
Solution:
Applying C′1 = C1 + C2 + C3, we get

2a + 2b + 2c a b
= 2a + 2b + 2c b + c + 2a b
2a + 2b + 2c a c + a + 2b
1 a b
= 2(a + b + c) 1 b + c + 2a b
1 a c + a + 2b
Applying R′1 = R1 – R2; R′2 = R2 – R23

0 - (a + b + c) 0
= 2(a + b + c) 0 (a + b + c) - (a + b + c)
1 a c + a + 2b
= 2(a + b + c)3

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Example-5:
1 x y+z
Show that 1 y z+x =0
1 z x+y
Solution:
Applying C 3′ = C2 + C3 we get,
1 x x+y+z
= 1 y x+y+z
1 z x+y+z
1 x 1
= ( x + y + z) 1 y 1
1 z 1
= 0.
Example-6:
1 1 1
Solve the equation x a b =0
x3 a3 b3
Solution:
Applying C′2 = C2 – C1; C′3 = C3 – C2 ; we get
1 0 0
x a-x b-a =0
x3 a3 - x3 b3 − a 3

a-x b-a
=0
a3 - x3 b3 − a 3

or, ( a − x )( b − a )( b 2 + ab + a 2 − a 2 − ax − x 2 ) = 0
or, ( a − x )( b − a )( b 2 + ab − ax − x 2 ) = 0
or, − ( a − x )( b − a )( x 2 + ax − ab − b 2 ) = 0
or, ( a − x )( b − a )( x 2 + ax − ab − b 2 ) = 0

− a ± a 2 − 4( − ab − b 2 )
∴ x = a or x =
2
− a ± a 2 + 4ab + b 2 )
or, x = a or x =
2
∴ x = a, b, − (a + b)

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Cramer’s Rule and Its use in the Solution of Equations

Cramer’s rule is a simple rule using determinants to express the solution
of a system of linear equations for which the number of equations is
D
equal to the number of variables. This rule states xi = i where xi is the
D
i-th unknown variable in a series of equations, D is the determinant of the
coefficient matrix, and Di is the determinant of a special matrix formed
from the original coefficient matrix by replacing the column of
coefficients of x i with the column vector of constants. Thus, Cramer’s
rule can be fruitfully applied in case D ≠ 0 .
Example-7:
Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule.
5 x − 6 y + 4 z = 15
7 x + 4 y − 3 z = 19
2 x + y + 6 z = 46
Solution:
5 −6 4
Here D = 7 4 − 3 = 419
2 1 6
15 −6 4
Dx = 19 4 − 3 = 1257
46 1 6

5 15 4
Dy = 7 19 − 3 = 1676
2 46 6

5 −6 15
Dz = 7 4 19 = 2514
2 1 46
x y z 1
We know from the Cramer’s Rule, = = =
Dx D y Dz D
Dx 1257
Hence x = = =3
D 419
Dy 1676
y= = =4
D 419
Dz 2514
z= = = 6.
D 419

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Example-8:
Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule.
x+ y+z =9
2 x + 5 y + 7 z = 52
2x + y − z = 0
Solution:
1 1 1
Here D = 2 5 7 =–4
2 1 -1
9 1 1
Dx = 52 5 7 =–4
0 1 -1
1 9 1
Dy = 2 52 7 = –12
2 0 -1
1 1 9
Dz = 2 5 52 = – 20
2 1 0
x y z 1
We know from the Cramer’s Rule, = = =
Dx D y Dz D
Dx −4
Hence x = = =1
D −4
Dy − 12
y= = =3
D −4
D − 20
z= z = = 5.
D −4

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Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. Find all the minors and co-factors of the following determinant
1 2 3
4 5 7
-2 8 1

1 a a2
2. Show that 1 b b 2 = ( a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
1 c c2

a−b−c 2a 2a
3. Show that 2b b−c−a 2b = (a + b + c) 3
2c 2c c-a −b

x+ y x y
4. Find the value of x x+z z
y z y+z
5. Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule:
x + 5y − z = 9
3x − 3 y + 2 z = 7
2 x − 4 y + 3z = 1
6. Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule:
x − y + z =1
x + y − 2z = 0
2x − y − z = 0

p+x q+x r+x

7. Solve the equation q+x r+x p+x =0
r+x p+x q+x

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Lesson-4: Matrix Inversion

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain inverse matrix;

Solve system of linear equations by inverse matrix method.
Introduction
The operation of dividing one matrix directly by another does not exist in
matrix theory but equivalent of division of a unit matrix by any square
matrix can be accomplished (in most cases) by a process known as
inversion of matrix. The concept of inverse matrix is useful in solving
simultaneous equations, input-output analysis and regression analysis.
If A is a square matrix Inverse Matrix
of order n, then a
square matrix B of the If A is a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of the same
same order n is said order n is said to be inverse of A if AB = BA = I (unit matrix).
to be inverse of A if
AB = BA = I (unit Methods of Matrix Inversion
matrix).
There are several methods for determining the inverse of a matrix; two of
these are discussed in below.
(i) Co-factor matrix method.
(ii) Gauss- Jordan Elimination method.
Working Rule for Inverse Matrix (Co-factor matrix method)
To evaluate the inverse of a square matrix A, we should follow the
following steps:
(i) Evaluate |A| for the matrix A and be sure that |A| ≠ 0
(ii) Calculate the co-factors of all the elements of the matrix A.
(iii) Find the matrix of the co-factor AC.
(iv) Then find the Adjoint of A by taking transpose of AC such that
Adj A = (AC)T.
(v) Finally divide all the elements of Adj A by |A| to get the
required inverse A-1.
Example-1:
2 4
Find the inverse of the matrix, A = 
3 8
Solution:
2 4
The determinant of the matrix A is, A = =4≠0
3 8
 8 -3 
The co-factor matrix of A is, A C =  
- 4 2 
 8 −4 
The Ad joint matrix of A is, A j = 
 −3 2 

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Therefore, the inverse of A is,

1 j 1  8 −4 
A−1 = A = 
∆ 4  −3 2 

Example-2:
 1 2 0
Find the inverse of the matrix, A =
 1 0 − 1 

− 1 3 2 
Solution:
1 2 0
The determinant of the matrix A is, A = 1 0 −1 = 1
−1 3 2
 3 −1 3
The co-factor matrix of A is, AC =  − 4 2 − 5
 
 − 2 1 − 2
 3 −4 − 2
The Adjoint matrix of A is, A J =  − 1 2 1
 
 3 − 5 − 2 
Therefore, the inverse of A is,
 3 −4 − 2  3 −4 − 2
1 J 1
−1
A = A = −1 2 1 = − 1 2 1
∆ 1  
 3 −5 − 2   3 −5 − 2 

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

To determine the inverse of an m × m matrix ‘A’, following are the steps
(i) Determining the determinant value of A, whether it is non-
singular or not.
(ii) Augmenting the matrix A with an m × m identity matrix,
resulting in ( A I ).
(iii) Performing row operations on the entire augmented matrix so as
to transform ‘A’ into an m × m identify matrix. The resulting
matrix will have the following form ( I A −1 ) where, the A −1
can be read to the right of the vertical line.
Example-3:
3 7
Find the inverse of the matrix, A = 
2 5
Solution:
Augmented the matrix ‘A’ by 2 × 2 identity matrix, we get –

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3 7 1 0
 
2 5 0 1
 7 1 
1 0 / 1
3 3 applying r1 = r1 ×
  3
2 5 0 1
 7 1 
1 3 3
0 /
  applying, r2 = r2 − r1 × 2
0 1 2
− 1
 3 3 

 7 1 
1 0  applying, r / = r × 1
3 3 2 2
  3
0 1 −2 3

1 0 5 −7 / 7
  applying, r1 = r1 − r2 ×
0 1 −2 3 3
 5 − 7
So, the inverse of ‘A’ is, A −1 = 
− 2 3

Solution of Linear Equations by Using Inverse of Matrix

Matrix algebra Matrix algebra permits the concise expression of a system of linear
permits the concise equations. The inverse matrix can be used to solve a system of
expression of a system simultaneous equations. Let a system of linear equations are:
of linear equations.
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = k1
a 21 x + a 22 y + a 23 z = k 2
a 31 x + a32 y + a 33 z = k 3
It can be written in the matrix form as follows:

 a11 a12 a13   x   k1 

    
 a21 a22 a23   y  =  k 2 
a a32 a33   z   k3 
 31
 a 11 a 12 a 13  x  k1 
     
AX = B ; where, A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  , X =  y  , B =  k2 
a a 33  z  k 
 31 a 32    3
−1
X =A B

Example-4:
Use matrix inversion to solve the following system of equations

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4x 1 + x 2 − 5x 3 = 8
− 2x 1 + 3x 2 + x 3 = 12
3x 1 − x 2 + 4x 3 = 5
Solution:
The given system of equations can be written in the matrix form
 4 1 − 5  x1  8 
− 2 3 1  = 12
  x2   
 3 −1 4   x3  5 
X = A −1 B
4 1 -5
Now A = - 2 3 1 = 98
3 −1 4
13 11 -7 
The co-factor matrix of A is A = 1 C
31 7 
16 6 14
13 1 16 
The Adjoint matrix of A is, A j = 11 31 6 
− 7 7 14
13 1 16 
1 
6 
1 −1
∴ The inverse of A is, A = A j = 11 31
∆ 98 
− 7 7 14
13 1 16  8  2
1 
−1
X = A B=  11 31 6  12 = 5 
98
− 7 7 14 5  1 

∴ x1 = 2, x2 = 5, x3 = 1.

Example-5:
Solve the following system of equations by using Gaussian method.
x+ y+z =7
x + 2 y + 3 z = 16
x + 3 y + 4 z = 22
Solution:
Given system of equations in matrix form
1 1 1 x  7 
1 2 3  y  = 16 
    
1 3 4  z  22

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1 1 1 x  7 
0 1 2   y  = 9  ; Applying R = R – R R = R – R
     2 2 1; 3 3 1

0 2 3  z  15

1 1 1  x   7 
0 1 2   y  =  9 ; Applying R3 = R3 - 2R2

0 0 - 1  z  − 3
x + y + z =7
Hence y + 2z = 9
− z = −3
Thus, z = 3, y = 3, x = 1.
Example-6:
Solve the following system of equations by using Gaussian method.
2x − 5 y + 7z = 6
x − 3y + 4z = 3
3x − 8 y + 11z = 11
Solution:
Given system of equations in matrix form
2 -5 7  x  6 
1 −3 4   y  = 3 
    
3 -8 11  z  11
1 -3 4   x  3 
2 −5 7   y  = 6 
    
3 -8 11  z  11
1 -3 4  x  3 
0 1 − 1  y  = 0 ; Applying R = R – 2R ; R = R – 3R
     2 2 1 3 3 1

0 1 - 1  z  2

1 -3 4 x   3
0 1 - 1 
 y =  0  ; Applying R = R - R
     3 3 2

0 0 0 
 z   2
x − 3y + 4z = 3
Hence y−z=0
0=2
Since, 0 = 2 is false, the given system of equations has no solution. So
given system of equations is inconsistent.

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Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
2 1 -1 
1. Find the inverse of the matrix, A =  0 2 1 

 5 2 2 

 1 3 4 
2. Find the inverse of the matrix, A =  3 -1 6 

 - 1 5 1 

3. Solve the following system of equations by using Gaussian method.

2x − 5 y + 7z = 6
x − 3 y + 4z = 3
3x − 8 y + 11z = 11
4. Use matrix inversion to solve the following system of equations:
x+ y+z =3
x + 2 y + 3z = 4
x + 4 y + 9z = 6
5. Use matrix inversion to solve the following system of equations:
x + 2 y + 3z = 6
2x + 4 y + z = 7
3 x + 2 y + 9 z = 14

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Lesson-5: Application of Matrices in Business

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

Develop matrices by using given business information;

Apply the concepts of matrices to solve the business problems.
Introduction
Matrix is the powerful tool in modern mathematics having wide
applications. Demographers, sociologists, economists use matrices in
Matrix algebra
permits the concise
different way. Many economic relationships can be approximated by
expression of a system linear equations. Matrix algebra permits the concise expression of a
of linear equations. system of linear equations. Let us know few applications of matrices in
business.
Illustrative Example
Example-1:
A manufacturer produces three products A, B, C that he sells in the
market. Annual sales volumes are indicated as follows:
Market Products
A B C
I 8000 10000 15000
II 10000 2000 20000

(i) If unit sale prices of A, B and C are $2.25, $1.50 and 1.25
respectively, find the total revenue in each market with the help of
matrices.
(ii) If the unit costs of the above three products are $1.60, $1.20 and
$0.90 respectively, find the gross profit with the help of matrices.
Solution:
(i) The total revenue in each market is given by the product matrix:
 8000 10000 
 
(2.25 1.50 1.25) 10000 2000 
15000 20000 

= [51750 50500]
The total revenue from the market I is $51750 and the total revenue
from the market II is $50500.
(ii) The total cost of products with the manufacturer sells in the markets
are:
 8000 10000 
 
(1.60 1.20 0.90)  10000 2000 
 15000 20000 

= [38300 36400]

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The total cost of products that the manufacturer sells in the market I
and II are $38300 and $36400 respectively.
Required gross profit = (Total revenue received from both the
markets) – (Total cost of products that the manufacturer sold in both
the market)
= (51750 + 50500) – (38300 + 36400)
= 102250 – 74700
= 27550.
Example-2:
A finance company has offices located in every division, every district
and every thana. Assume that there are five divisions, thirty districts and
two hundred thanas. Each office has one head clerk, one cashier, one
clerk and one peon. A divisional office has in addition one office
superintendent, two clerks, one typist and one peon. A district office has
in addition one clerk and one peon. The basic monthly salaries are as
follows: office superintendent $500, head clerk $200, cashier $175 clerks
and typists $150 and peon $100. Using matrix notation, find the
following
(i) The total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken
together.
(ii) The total basic monthly salary bill of each kind of office and
(iii) The total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices taken together.
Solution:
Let the number of offices can be arranged as elements of a row matrix
A = (5 30 200)
The composition of staff in various offices can be arranged in a 3 × 6
matrix
1 1 1 3 1 2
 
B = 0 1 1 2 0 2
0 1 1 1 0 1 

The basic monthly salaries of various types of employees of these offices
 500 
 
 200 
 
correspond to the elements of the column matrix, C = 175 
150 
150 
 
100 
 
(i) Total numbers of posts of each kind in all the offices are the
elements of the product matrix AB.

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1 1 1 3 1 2
AB = (5  
30 200)  0 1 1 2 0 2
0 1 1 1 0 1 

= [5 235 235 275 5 270]
Thus, the required numbers of posts in all the offices taken together
are 5-office superintendent, 235 head clerks, 235 cashiers, 275
clerks, 5 typists and 270 peons.
 500 
 
 1 1 1 3 1 2   200 
  175  1675 
(ii)  0 1 1 2 0 2   = 875 
0   150   
 1 1 1 0 1    625 
150
 
100 
 
Thus, the total basic monthly salary bill of each divisional, district
and Thana offices are $1675, $875 and $625 respectively.
(iii) Total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices is the element of the
product matrix ABC,
1675 
 
i.e., ABC = (5 30 200) ×  875  = 159625.
 625 
 
Thus, the total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices taken
together is $159625.
Example-3:
Three persons A, B and C posses Tk.3000, Tk.2000 and Tk.2500
respectively. A with his entire amount purchased 5 shares of Tk.X each, 3
shares of Tk.Y each and 4 shares of Tk.Z each. B purchased 3 shares of
Tk.X each, 4 shares of Tk.Y each and 2 shares of Tk.Z each with his
entire amount and C purchased 4 shares of Tk.X each, 3 shares of Tk.Y
each and 4 shares of Tk.Z each with his entire amount. Determine the
value of each share of different types.
Solution:
We have, 5x + 3y + 4z = 3000
3x + 4y + 2z = 2000
4x + 3y + 4z = 2500
5 3 4
D= 3 4 2 = 10
4 3 4
3000 3 4
Dx = 2000 4 2 = 5000
2500 3 4

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5 3000 4
Dy = 3 2000 2 = 1000
4 2500 4
5 3 3000
Dz = 3 4 2000 = 500
4 3 2500
From Cramer’s rule we know that,
x y z 1
We know from the Cramer’s Rule, = = =
Dx D y Dz D
Dx 5000
Hence x = = = 500
D 10
D y 1000
y= = = 100
D 10
D 500
z= z = = 50.
D 10
Example-4:
To control a certain crop disease it is necessary to use 7 units of chemical
A, 10 units of chemical B and 6 units of chemical C. One barrel of spray
P contains 1 unit of A, 4 units of B and 2 units of C. One barrel of spray
Q contains 3 units of A, 2 units of B, and 2 units of C. One barrel of
spray R contains 4 units of A, 3 units of B and 2 units of C. How much of
each type of spray should be used to control the disease?
Solution:
Let x barrels of spray P, y barrels of spray Q and z barrels of spray R be
used to control the disease. Then we can write,
x + 3y + 4z = 7
4 x + 2 y + 3 z = 10
2x + 2 y + 2z = 6
The given information can be written under the matrix form as follows:
 1 3 4   x  7 
4 2 3   y  = 10
    
 2 2 2   z  6 
−1
x   1 3 4  7 
 y =  4 2 3  10
    
 z   2 2 2  6 
 1 3 4 
Let A =  4 2 3 

 2 2 2 

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1 3 4
The determinant of the matrix A is, A = 4 2 3 =8
2 2 2
 -2 -2 4 

The co-factor matrix of A is, A = 2 C
-6 4 

 1 13 − 10
 -2 2 1 

The Adjoint matrix of A is, A = − 2 J
-6 13 

 4 4 − 10 
Therefore, the inverse of A is,

 -2 2 1 
1 J 1 
A = A = − 2
−1
-6 13 
∆ 8
 4 4 − 10 
x   -2 2 1  7 
 y  = 1 − 2 -6 13  10
  8   
 z   4 4 − 10  6 
x  12
 y  = 1 4 
  8 
 z  8 
3 
x   2
 y =  1 
   2
 z  1 
 
Hence 1 1 barrels of the spray P, 1 barrel of spray Q and 1 barrel of
2 2
spray R should be used to control the disease.
Example-5:
The cost of manufacturing the three types of motorcars is given below:
Car Labor hours Material used Subcontracted works
A 40 100 50
B 80 150 80
C 100 250 100
Labor cost $2 per hour, per unit material cost is $0.5 and one unit of
subcontracted work costs $1. Find the total cost of manufacturing 3000,
2000 and 1000 vehicles of type A, B, C respectively. If the selling prices
of car A, B, C are $2000, 3500 and $4500 respectively, then find the
profit from selling those cars.

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Solution:
Consider the following matrices,
40 100 50  2 
M = 80 150 80 N = 10
   
100 250 100 1 

180 
MN = 315
 
425
This column matrix represents cost of each car A, B, C in that order.
Let P = (3000 2000 1000), this row matrix represents number of cars
A, B, C to be manufactured in that order.
Now PMN = (1595000)
Thus total cost of manufacturing three cars A, B, C is $1595000.
2000
Let Q = 3500 ; this column matrix represents the selling price of A, B,
 
4500
C.
2000
Now, Total Revenue = PQ = (3000 2000 1000) 3500
 
4500
= 17500000
Profit = Total revenue – Total cost = 17500000 – 1595000 = 15905000.

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Questions for Review

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have
understood and can apply the learning you have accomplished by
answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. A, B and C has Tk.480, Tk.760 and Tk.710 respectively. They
utilized the amounts to purchase three types of shares of prices x, y
and z respectively. A purchases 2 share of price x, 5 of price y and 3
of price z. B purchases 4 shares of price x, 3 of price y and 6 of price
z. C purchases 1 share of price x, 4 of price y and 10 of price z. Find
the value of x, y and z.
2. A manufacturing unit produces three types of television sets A, B, C.
The following matrix shows the sale of television sets in two
different cities.
A B C 
 
 400 300 200 
 300 200 100 

If cost price of each set A, B, C is Tk.1000, Tk.2000, and Tk.3000
respectively and selling prices are Tk.1500, Tk.3000, Tk.4000
respectively, find the total profit using matrix algebra only.
3. The following matrix represents the results of the examination of
MBA.
1 2 3 4
 
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 

The rows represent the three sections of the class. The first three
columns represent the number of students securing 1st, 2nd and 3rd
divisions respectively in that order and fourth column represents the
number of students who failed in the examination.
(i) How many students passed in three sections respectively?
(ii) How many students failed in three sections respectively?
(iii) Write down the matrix in which number of successful students is
shown.
(iv) Write down the column matrix where only failed students are
shown.
(v) Write down the column matrix showing students in the 1st
division from three sections.
4. A publishing house has two branches. In each branch, there are three
offices. In each office, there are 3 peons, 4 clerks and 5 typists. In
one office of a branch, 6 salesmen are also working. In each office of
other branch 2 head clerks are also working. Using matrix notation
find
(i) the total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken
together in each branch.
(ii) the total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken
together from both the branches.

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