Intermediate Algebra

A Functional Approach Teaching Notes

Brendan Kelly
Emina Alibegović
Rebecca Noonan-Heale
Anna Schoening
Amanda Cangelosi
1 Functions 1 1

1 Functions 1
1.1 Introduction to Relationships
Mathematics is a tool to understand the world we live in. Scientists, social scientists, engineers,
business leaders, health care providers, and politicians require a high degree of quantitative literacy
to accomplish their goals. This course will give you a mathematical foundation to enter a wide range
of disciplines.

Question 1.1 At the Mauna Loa observatory in Hawaii, the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere has been measured since 1958. Here is a graph of the data.

370
CO2 Concentration in ppm

360

350

340

330

320

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year

a. What relationship does the graph allow us to analyze?

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b. Describe what you notice about the graph.

c. The data shows seasonal fluctuation. Can you make a hypothesis about what drives this
fluctuation?
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Question 1.2 Imagine yourself climbing a sledding hill, then sledding down.
a. Which of the graphs depicted below best represents your trip up and down the hill?

Graph A Graph B
8 8
7 7
Speed (mph)

Speed (mph)
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
time(sec) time(sec)

Graph C
8
7
Speed (mph)

6
8
5
7
4
Speed (mph)

6
3
5
2
4
1
3
0 10 20 30 40 50 2
1
time(sec)

b. Use your answer from a. to determine how fast you were moving after...

i. 10 seconds? ii. 25 seconds?

c. Use your answer from a. to determine when you were moving...

i. 3 miles per hour? ii. 1 mile per hour?

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Question 1.3 The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes the unemployment rate in
the United States every month.

Unemployment Rate (%) 3

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Months after January 2015

a. What is a striking difference between this graph and the graph of CO2 level in Question 1.1?

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b. What is the dependent variable?

c. What is the independent variable?

d. Describe any trends you notice.

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Question 1.4 The connection between smoking and lung cancer is well established. Public health
officials quantify individuals’ smoking habits using the unit of pack-year. It’s used in a clinical
context to measure a person’s exposure to tobacco and assess their risk of developing lung cancer
or other pathologies related to tobacco use. A pack-year is calculated by multiplying the number of
packs of cigarettes smoked per day by the number of years the person has smoked.
For example, 1 pack-year is equal to
• smoking 1 pack per day for 1 year;

• two packs per day for half a year, and so on.

a. If you smoke one half a pack per day for 5 years, how many pack-years have you smoked?

b. Use the axes below to describe what you think the relationship is between pack-years consumed
and a 65 year old smoker’s relative risk of lung cancer.

1.2
1.1
1
.9
.8
Relative Risk (%)

.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Pack-years

c. What is largest possible output in this relationship? What is smallest possible output in this
relationship?

d. Consider the following fact: 20% of people who die from lung cancer in the United States every
year have not smoked or used any other form of tobacco1 . Does this fact make you change
your graph at all?

A model showing the relationship between the relative risk of lung cancer and smoking habits for a
65 year old man is pictured below2 .
1 cancer.org
2 American Association for Cancer Research
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1.2
1.1
1
.9
.8
Relative Risk (%)
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Pack-years

e. Use the graph to approximate the relative risk of lung cancer if a smoker has smoked 80
pack-years of cigarettes.

f. Use the graph to approximate how many pack-years a 65 year old smoker would have had to
consume to have a 50% chance of developing lung cancer.

g. What other variables do you think could impact the relative risk of lung cancer?

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Question 1.5 Simon is riding a ferris wheel at his school’s annual carnival. The ferris wheel has a
diameter of 14 meters.

a. Use the axis below to describe the relationship between Simon’s distance to the center of the
ferris wheel and the time he spends on the ferris wheel.
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Distance (meters) 6

2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (minutes)
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b. Pick the graph below that would best describe the relationship is between Simon’s distance to
the center of the ferris wheel and the time he spends on the ferris wheel.

Distance (meters) Graph A Graph B Graph C

Distance (meters)

Distance (meters)
Time (minutes) Time (minutes) Time (seconds)
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Question 1.6 The ACT is a standardized test for high school achievement and college admissions.
Higher education admissions officers are concerned about the predictive power of ACT scores. Below
is the graph of the relationship between GPA and ACT scores for 400 random students from the
graduating class of 2017 at the University of Utah3 .

4
College GPA
3

5 10 15 20 25 30
ACT Math Score

a. This graph is substantially different than all other graphs we have seen so far. What is the
main difference?

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3 University of Utah Registrar

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The line below represents a mathematical model that allows us to use an ACT Math Score to
predict GPA.

College GPA
3
2
1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ACT Composite Score

b. The Admissions Office at the University of Utah wants to make sure that admitted students
are set up for success. If a student enters the University of Utah with a 15 Math ACT score,
what GPA would the mathematical model predict?

c. What other variables do you think are important in thinking about predicting student success?

d. Do you think the mathematical model is a good model?

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1.2 Relations and Functions

So far we have used graphs to describe relationships between quantities. In fact, there are many
ways to describe relationships: words, graphs, lists of ordered pairs, tables, and expressions. Our
goal is develop a fluency with all these modes of thinking about relationships. Let’s look at some
examples, old and new.

Question 1.7 Here is a list of ordered pairs:

{(2, 3), (−1, 4), (−1, −2), (3, −2.5), (4, 0)}
We generally think of the first coordinate as the input and plot it on the horizontal axis; the second
coordinate is the output and we plot it on the vertical axis.

a. Complete the table for the list of ordered b. Plot the ordered pairs on the graph.
pairs above. 5
4
input output 3
2
1

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5

Question 1.8 Below is the graph from our sledding adventure. It showed the relationship between
speed and time.

Graph B a. List at least three pairs from this relation:

8
7
Speed (mph)

6
5
4
b. Can you list all the pairs for this relation?
3
Explain.
2
1

0 10 20 30 40 50
time(sec)

Question 1.9 The following tables give several examples of relations. They have been grouped into
two categories: the ones in Group 1 share a feature that the ones in Group 2 do not have. Study
the two groups, and decide what the reason for the grouping may have been.
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Group 1 Group 2

a. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3} c. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3}

A B A B
1 2 1 2
2 3 2 3
3 1 2 1
3 1

b. A = {−3, 0, 1}, B = {3, 8, 10} d. A = {−4, −3, 1}, B = {3, 8, 10},

A B A B
−3 3 −3 3
0 3 1 8
1 8 −4 3
−3 10

Reason:

Question 1.10 We again see table of relations grouped into two categories. The ones in Group 1
share a feature that the ones in Group 2 do not have. Study the two groups, and decide what the
reason for the grouping may have been.
Group 1 Group 2

a. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3} c. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3}

A B A B
1 2 1 2
2 3 2 1
3 1 3

b. A = {−3, 0, 1}, B = {3, 8, 10}

A B d. A = {−3, 0, 1}, B = {3, 8}
A B
−3 3
1 8
0 3
0 3
1 8

Reason:
1 Functions 1 12

Definition 1 A function f from a set A to a set B is a relation that assigns to each element
x in A exactly one element y in the set B. The set A is called the domain (or set of inputs)
of the function f , and the set B contains the range (or set of outputs)

Important Notes:

• Each element in A must be matched with an element in B.

• Some elements in B may not be matched with any element in A.

• Two or more elements in A may be matched with the same elements in B.

• An element in A cannot be matched with two different elements in B.

Convention:
• The symbol f (x) is the output associated to x.

• We read f (x) as the value of f at x or simply f of x.

Question 1.11 Identify the domains and ranges of the following functions:

a. Table: b. Graph: c. Verbal:

f (x)
4
•
x g(x) •2 A function that gives the
2 0 age of each student in the
7 3 x class.
−8 3 −4 −2 2 4
−2

−4

This definition of function is provided by Ron Larson in his Precalculus text.

1 Functions 1 13

Question 1.12 Below is the graph from Question 1.6 which shows the relationship between 400
random graduating students’ GPA and their composite ACT score4 . The line represents a function
f that uses ACT score to predict GPA.

4
College GPA 3

5 10 15 20 25 30
ACT Math Score

a. What is the domain of f ?

b. Use the graph to approximate the following:

i. f (5) iii. f (7)

ii. f (6)

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In Question 1.12.b. we used a graph to approximate outputs of the function f . We are unable to
use the graph to find exact values of the outputs.

c. A table can summarize some exact outputs of x f (x)

f , but it would never be able to tell you all of 5 2.64
the outputs of f . Why? 10 2.79
15 2.94
20 3.09

d. An algebraic rule is a way to calculate the output given any input. In this example there
is an algebraic rule to represent f . For any input x, we have f (x) = .03x + 2.49. Use this
algebraic rule to calculate exactly

i. f (5) iii. f (7)

ii. f (6) iv. f (8)

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1.3 Review of Important Skills

Question 1.13 The following frequently circulates Facebook. What is your answer?

Question 1.14 Simplify the expressions:

a. 5 − 2 + 8 3(8 − 4)
c. 5 −
4

b. 13 − 52 d. 13 + (−5)2

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Question 1.15 Reduce the fractions:

36 300
a. b.
30 24

Question 1.16 Add the fractions:

1 3 5 2
a. + b. −
2 10 4 7

Question 1.17 Multiply and divide the fractions:

1 3 5 7 4 10
a. · b. ÷ c. ÷
2 10 4 4 5 16

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Question 1.18 Nick thinks that (x + y)2 = x2 + y 2 . How could you convince him that he is mis-
taken?

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Question 1.19 Combine like terms to simplify the expressions.

a. 4x2 + 3x − 2 − (7x2 − 5x + 6) b. 4x5 + 9x3 − 8x2 + 2(3x5 + x9 ) − 2x3

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1.4 Working with Multiple Representations of Functions

Question 1.20 Given the function b, answer the questions:

x b(x) a. b(C) =

A E

B B b. for what x does b(x) = E ?

C E

D A c. for what x does b(x) = A ?

Question 1.21 Given the function g, answer the questions:

g(x) a. g(3) =

b. for what x does g(x) = −1 ?

2

x
−4 −2 2 4
• c. for what x does g(x) = 0 ?
−2

−4
d. What are the x-intercepts of g?

e. What are the y-intercepts of g?

Question 1.22 How would you find the y-intercept?

Question 1.23 What equation would you want to solve to find the x-intercept?
1 Functions 1 19

Question 1.24 For the description below, make a table of four (x, y) pairs that fit the description.
Then in the last column, write down the algebraic equation that describes the relationship.
The y-coordinate is always three more than the x-coordinate.

x 2 3.7 −5 a Equation:

y
Function: f (x) =
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1.5 Identifying Functions

Question 1.25 Decide if the following are functions. Explain why or why not.5

a. h
y
4
3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3
−4

b. A = {1, 2, 3}. The pairs are: {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.

c. A = all the parents, B = is the set of all the people, pairs (p, c) are formed whenever p is a
parent of c.

d. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 26645}, B is {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , }, an input is a number d from A which represents

the dth day in the life of Joe, and the corresponding output is the number of text messages
Joe sent on day d.

5 It may help to graph some of these relations, or to give examples of pairs that belong to them.
1 Functions 1 21

e. Below is the graph we have seen before of the relationship between college graduating GPA
and ACT scores for 400 random students6 .

College GPA
2

5 10 15 20 25 30
ACT Math Score

f. The graph below:

y
4
3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3
−4

Question 1.26 How many times can a vertical line intersect the graph of a function?

Question 1.27 How many times can a horizontal line intersect the graph of a function?

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1.6 Finding Domains from Graphs of Functions

Question 1.28 Consider the functions shown below. Describe the domain and range for each
function in words.

a. hi h
y Domain:
6
5
4
3
2
1
Range:
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

b. hi h
y Domain:
4
3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 Range:
−1
−2
−3
−4
1 Functions 1 23

It will be efficient to use symbols to describe sets of numbers, rather than words. Work at
becoming fluent in using the notation below.

Different Ways to Describe Sets of Numbers:

Words all real numbers all real numbers all real numbers all real numbers except -1
greater than or greater than or
equal to -3 and less equal to 1
than 1

Number
Line

Interval
Notation

Inequality
Notation

Notes:

• Square brackets [ and ] are used ...

• Round brackets ( and ) are used ...

Question 1.29 Describe the following sets with NUMBER LINE and INTERVAL notation.
a. all real numbers less than 5

b. 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
2 Constant Rates of Change 24

2 Constant Rates of Change

2.1 How do you measure steepness?
Question 2.1 Kingda Ka is a steel accelerator roller coaster located at Six Flags Great Adventure
in Jackson, New Jersey. It is the world’s tallest roller coaster, the world’s second fastest roller
coaster, and was the second strata coaster ever built. The steepest portion of Kingda Ka is a 418
foot drop. During the 418 foot drop the train moves 25 feet horizontally.

Your friends Nancy and John are debating if Kingda Ka is steeper than Wicked, a roller coaster at
Lagoon Amusement Park in Farmington, Utah. Lagoon does not advertise the specs of Wicked as
well as Six Flags does. However, Nancy and John have a photograph of them on the ride. They
measure the drop in the photograph is 15 cm and after the drop the train has only been displaced
1 cm horizontally.

Is there enough information to determine which roller coaster is steeper? Explain.

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Question 2.2 What makes a line a line?

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Definition 1 The slope of a line segment between points A and B is defined as the ratio of the
change (a.k.a. difference) in the y-coordinates and change in x-coordinates of the two points:
change in y yA − yB
slope = =
change in x xA − xB

Question 2.3 Find the slope of the line shown

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

a. −4

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

b. −4

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

c. −4

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

d. −4
2 Constant Rates of Change 27

Question 2.4 What do lines with a positive slope look like?

Question 2.5 What do lines with a negative slope look like?

Question 2.6 The slope between two points is the quotient  of the difference
 between their y-
change in y
coordinates and the difference between their x-coordinates .
change in x
a. What does this mean for the slope of a vertical line?

b. What does this mean for the slope of a horizontal line?

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2.2 Rates of Change

Question 2.7 Federal Student Aid, a part of the U.S. Department of Education, is the largest
provider of student financial aid in the nation. Federal Student Aid reports that the average interest
rate for student loans is currently 3.9%. Their website includes a calculator to help students estimate
future monthly payments. There are many different types of loans, each offering a different schedule
for repayment. Below is a table that shows the minimum monthly payment on a loan with a 3.9%
interest rate, which is paid off over 10 years with equal payments being made each month.

a. Complete the following table.

Initial Loan Value ($) Monthly Payments ($ per month) Total Repayment ($)

10,000 101 12, 120

20,000 202

30,000 303

b. Graph the data in the table below.

325
300
Monthly Payments ($ per month)

275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25

10,000 20,000 30,000

Initial Loan Value ($)

c. What do you notice about the data?

studentaid.ed.gov/sa/
2 Constant Rates of Change 29

d. Using the above data, how much would you anticipate the monthly payment for an initial loan
of $40, 000 would be?

e. If you borrow $5, 000, what will your monthly payments be?

f. How much does borrowing one more dollar change your monthly payment?

g. If you borrow $0, what will your monthly payments be?

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As you continue to plan for financial reality of a college education, you should contact a financial
aid counselor at the University of Utah. Consultations are free and can help you navigate your
financial obligations 1 .
1 financialaid.utah.edu/maintaining-aid/counseling
2 Constant Rates of Change 30

2.3 Review of Linear Equations and Expressions

Question 2.8 Which of the following are expressions? Which are equations? Explain the difference.

a. 3x + 4 = 9 b. 3x + 4 c. 3(x + 4) − 8x + 9(7 − x)

Question 2.9 Which of the following can you solve? Which can you simplify? To which can you
do neither? Explain how you can tell. Then either simplify or solve.

a. 3x + 4 = 9 b. 3x + 4 c. 3(x + 4) − 8x + 9(7 − x)
2 Constant Rates of Change 31

Question 2.10 Solve the equations.

a. 3x + 4 − 10 = 11(x − 2) − x b. x+2
5 +3 = x−1

Question 2.11 Solve the inequalities. Write the answers as inequalities and intervals.

a. 2x − 52 > 10x − 20 b. −3(x + 4) ≤ 12

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2.4 Linear Functions

Definition 2 A linear function is a function given by an algebraic rule of the form:

f (x) = mx + b,
where m and b are real numbers.

Question 2.12 Which of the following functions are linear?

f (x) = x · 4 − 21 Linear Not Linear

g(x) = 4x2 + 5 Linear Not Linear

2
h(x) = x +2 Linear Not Linear

j(x) = (−π)x Linear Not Linear

Question 2.13 Given a linear function, f (x) = mx + b, calculate the y-intercept.

Question 2.14 Given a linear function, f (x) = mx + b, choose two points on the line and calculate
the slope.

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Question 2.15 Different communities use different units of measurement to measure the tempera-
ture. Below is a table that summarizes some important temperatures using Celsius (C) and Fahren-
heit (F).

Important Temperature Degrees (C) Degrees (F)

Water Freezes 0 32
Water Boils 100 212
Pleasant Day 25 77
Cold Day -5 23
Room Temperature 20 68

a. Plot the data from the table.

degrees (F)
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
degrees (C)

b. What do you notice about your graph?

2 Constant Rates of Change 34

c. If temperature increases by one degree Celsius, by how much does the temperature increase
on the Fahrenheit scale?
2 Constant Rates of Change 35

d. If temperature increases by 5 degrees Celsius, by how much does the temperature increase on
the Fahrenheit scale?

e. If temperature increases by half a degree Celsius, by how much does the temperature increase
on the Fahrenheit scale?

f. If temperature decreases by one degree Celsius, by how much does the temperature change on
the Fahrenheit scale?

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We can think of this as a function f . Given a temperature x in degrees Celsius, let f (x) be
the corresponding temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

g. What is the y−intercept? What does it represent?

h. What is the slope? What does it represent?

i. Find the algebraic rule for the function f that outputs the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
for a given input temperature measured in degrees Celsius.

j. What will the temperature be in Celsius if it is 72 degrees Fahrenheit?

2 Constant Rates of Change 37

2.5 Making use of Slope Intercept Form

Question 2.16 Graph the functions or equations.

a. y = − 53 x − 1 b. g(x) = 2x + 5 c. x = −2
y g(x) y
6 6
6
4 4
4
2 2
2
x x
2 4 6 x −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−6 −4 −2 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 −2
−2 −2
−4 −4
−4
−6 −6
−6

Question 2.17 Think of two ways to plot the graph of f (x) = −2(x + 1) − 3. Then choose one and
plot the graph.
y
6

x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2

−4

−6

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Question 2.18 Below are the graphs of three different functions. Write the algebraic rule for each
function.

y y y
4 g 4 4
f h
2 2 2

x x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4
−2 −2 −2

a. −4 b. −4 c. −4

Question 2.19 Which of the following graphs could possibly be a graph of the linear function f
given by f (x) = −πx + 73? Explain.

a. b. c.
2 Constant Rates of Change 39

Question 2.20 For each pair of points, graph the line that goes through the two points. Find the
slope of the line the pair of points determine.

a. i. (−1, 3) and (2, 7). y

8

2
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

−4

−6

ii. (2, −4) and (5, 0) space filler −8

b. i. (0, 0) and (2, 7) y

8

2
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

−4

−6

ii. (0, 0) and (−7, 2) space filler −8

Question 2.21 Looking at the examples above, describe the relationship between whether and how
the lines intersect and their slopes .

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Question 2.22 Write two pairs of numbers that are negative reciprocals.

Question 2.23 Why do perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative reciprocals?

Question 2.24 Decide if the graphs of the following pairs of linear functions are parallel, perpen-
dicular, or neither.

a. f (x) = 7x − 1 b. h(x) = 2x − 1
g(x) = −7x + 1 j(x) = − 21 x − 1

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Question 2.25 Find the equation of the line described.

a. Contains (2, −7) and (5, 3). b. Contains (−4, 1) and is parallel to the graph
of 2x − 9y = 47.

c. Contains (3, −8) and is perpendicular d. Has x-intercept with x-value 5 and y-intercept
to the graph of y = 0.2x + 11 with y-value −6.
2 Constant Rates of Change 42

Question 2.26 Find the particular equation of the line described.

a. Is vertical, and contains (−13, 8). b. Is horizontal, and contains (22, π).

c. Has the x-axis as its graph. d. Has an undefined slope, and contains (5, 7).
2 Constant Rates of Change 43

2.6 Working with Linear Functions

Question 2.27 Kahlil is driving down to Zion. The entire way down he has the cruise control set
to 70 miles per hour.

a. Graph Kahlil’s speed as a function of time.

350

280
Speed (Miles per Hour)

210

140

70

1 2 3 4 5

Time (hours)

b. Graph Kahlil’s distance traveled as a function of time.

350

280
Distance (Miles)

210

140

70

1 2 3 4 5

Time (hours)
2 Constant Rates of Change 44

Question 2.28 Teacher pay in Salt Lake City School District is commensurate with experience and
education. The following chart provides details about the pay scale2 .

Bachelors Bachelors +20 Bachelors +40 Masters

Years Experience
& Certificate & Certificate & Certificate & Certificate
0 43,887 45,810 47,955 48,823
1 43,887 45,810 47,955 48,823
2 45,607 47,455 49,611 50,477
3 47,370 49,111 51,290 52,160
4 49,193 50,854 53,028 55,732
5 51,109 52,681 54,881 57,613
6 53,108 54,559 56,740 59,580
7 55,137 56,530 58,741 61,609
8 58,044 61,465 60,765 63,693

a. Jazmin just graduated from the University of Utah with a BA in math and a Teaching Cer-
tificate. Her first job is teaching math for SLCSD. Is the function describing her salary after
x years of working a linear function? How do you know?

b. SLCSD needs to constantly adjust the pay scale to remain competitive. One possibility for the
new Bachelors & Certificate scale is after x years, teachers would be paid f (x) = 42000 + 2000x
dollars.

i. What does the slope of this function represent in this context?

ii. What does the y-intercept represent?

2 http://www.slcschools.org/
2 Constant Rates of Change 45

Question 2.29 If a computer program has a loop in it, the length of time it takes the computer to
run the program varies linearly with the number of times it must go through the loop. Suppose a
computer takes 8 seconds to run a given program when it goes through the loop 100 times, and 62
seconds when it loops 1000 times.

a. Plot the graph of this function. b. Write the algebraic rule for the function ex-
pressing the time the program runs in seconds
in terms of the number of times it executes the
loop.

60

50
Time (seconds)

40

30

20

10

300 600 900

loops

c. Predict the length of time needed to run a program which loops 30 times; which loops 10,000
times.

d. Suppose the computer takes 23 seconds to run the program. How many times does it go
through the loop?

e. How long does it take the computer to go through one loop?

2 Constant Rates of Change 46

2.7 Systems of Linear Equations

Question 2.30 The following is a reprint of snip-it from the New York Times3 .

...
The article ironically includes enough information to determine the number of digital sales and the
number of digital rentals. As an important problem solving strategy, we begin by giving our variables
names. Let x be the number of millions of digital sales and let y be the number of millions of digital
rentals.

a. What relationships between x and y are we given in the article?

b. Determine how many digital rentals there were in the first four days.

c. Determine how many digital sales there were in the first four days.

3 https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/29/business/media/the-interview-comes-to-itunes-store.html
2 Constant Rates of Change 47

d. Interpret your answer on a graph:

Digital Rentals (millions) 2.5

1.5

.5

0
0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Digital Sales (millions)

h
h Punchline:

h
2 Constant Rates of Change 48

Question 2.31 Solve the system of equations: 3y = −15x + 18 and y + 2x = 5.

Question 2.32 Solve the system of equations: 2y = −4x + 8 and y + 2x = 5.

2 Constant Rates of Change 49

Question 2.33 Consider two different linear functions h and j. Which of the following statements
are always true?

a. Their graphs intersect in 1 point. c. Their graphs could intersect in more than
one point.

b. Their graphs either intersect in 1 point or d. Their graphs don’t intersect if the slopes
don’t intersect. are opposite reciprocals.

6x−10
Question 2.34 Consider the functions h(x) = −3x + 5 and j(x) = −2 .

a. Find the value(s) of x such that h(x) = j(x), or if none exist, explain why not.

h h Punchline:

h
2 Constant Rates of Change 50

Question 2.35 Given the system of equations:

y = 3x + 5
2x − y = 1

a. Solve the system of equations algebraically, b. Check your answer by graphing.

that is: find a pair of numbers, x and y
y
which make both equations true.
16

12

x
−16 −12 −8 −4 4 8 12 16

−4

−8

−12

−16

Question 2.36 Given the system of equations:

3x − 4y = 10
6x = 8y − 4.
a. Solve the system of equations algebraically. b. Check your answer by graphing.
y
16

12

x
−16 −12 −8 −4 4 8 12 16

−4

−8

−12

−16
2 Constant Rates of Change 51

Question 2.37 When we were working on converting Celsius to Fahrenheit, Nick noticed a pattern
in the data. He noticed that the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit is always larger than the
temperature in degrees Celsius.

Important Temperature Degrees (C) Degrees (F)

Water Freezes 0 32
Water Boils 100 212
Pleasant Day 25 77
Cold Day -5 23
Room Temperature 20 68

a. What do you think about Nick’s observation?

b. Investigate Nick’s observation graphically.

F
80

60

40

20

C
−80 −60 −40 −20 20 40 60 80

−20

−40

−60

−80
2 Constant Rates of Change 52

c. Investigate Nick’s observation algebraically.

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 53

3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I

3.1 Bacteria
Question 3.1 A colony of bacteria is being grown in a laboratory. The colony contains one million
bacteria at 12 : 00 noon (time 0), and the population is doubling every hour.

a. How long do you think it would take for the population to exceed 1 billion (1 thousand million)?
2 billion? Write down your guesses and compare with other students’ guesses.

b. Make a table of values showing how this population of bacteria changes as a function of time,
one hour from noon, two hours from noon, etcetera. For now, leave the third column blank.
Then graph the points. Scale is shown.

Number of bacteria Number of bacteria Million Bacteria

t (in millions) (in millions)
with exponents with exponents 33

0 Brendan 1 27

1
21
2
15
3
9
4
3
5
−2 2 4 6 Hours
6 −3

c. In the third column in Part b. write the population at each time as a power of 2 (for example,
4 is 22 .)
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 54

d. What would the population be t hours after noon? (Write this as a power of 2.)

e. Estimate how many bacteria there would be at 1:30 pm.

f. How many bacteria would your model predict there was at 10:00 am?

g. Predict when there will be 1 billion bacteria.

Definition 1 An exponential function is a function of the form:

f (x) = abx ,

where a 6= 0, b > 0 and b 6= 1.*

h Punchlines and Lingering Questions:

* We will think about the requirements that b > 0 and b 6= 1 after graphing.
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 55

3.2 Rules for Exponents

Definition 2 An exponent is a convenient way to write repeated multiplication. Given a
positive integer b, the following notation represents the product of b many a’s.

b many a’s

ab = a · a · a · .... · a

a is called the base and b is called the exponent.

In each of the following questions, think about the meaning of the exponent rather than trying
to recall a formula.

Question 3.2 Rewrite the following expressions so that each answer has only one exponent.

a. (22 )3 55
d.
52

b. (24 )5
e. 24 34

c. (25 )27
36
f.
46

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 56

We now make use of exponent rules for positive integers to help us broaden our conception of ab .

Question 3.3 Question 3.1.f. asked us to determine the number of bacteria at 10 : 00 am. This is
equivalent to evaluating the negative exponent 2−2 . We will now make sense of negative exponents
generally.

a. Simplify x7
. What rule did you use? 57
x5 c. Evaluate by canceling common factors.
58

57
b. Evaluate using the same rule.
58 d. What do you conclude?

Brendan Kelly h

Question 3.4 Write the following expressions without negative exponents:

a. 2−1 b. 3−1 c. 5−3 1

d.
3−2

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 57

Question 3.5 We evaluate 20 in two ways:

a. Use your exponent rules to simplify 2−1 21 . d. Fill out the table. Use the patterns in the
table to determine the value of 20 .

x 2x

3 23 = 8

b. Use your definition of 2−1 to simplify 2−1 2.

1

-1

-2

c. Use your above answers to

decide the value of 20 . -3
vspacevspacevspa cevspacevspacevspacevs-
pacevspacevsp acevspacevspacevspacevs-
pacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevs-
-4
pacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevvspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspacevspa

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 58

Question 3.6 What is 00 ? Select your answer:

a. 0 c. ∞

b. 1 d. None of the above.

Question 3.7 Create tables for two functions that could help you consider 00 .

x f (x) = x0 x f (x) = 0x

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 59

Question 3.8 Simplify the following. Show one or more steps of work to justify answers. Write
the answers using positive exponents and no parentheses.
a  a −3
a. b.
a−2 b

 a 0  a 5
c. d.
b a4

 3
e. (a−2 a3 )−2 a8 b−5
f.
b−1

Question 3.9 Suppose the directions stated to write the answers in the form ax or ax by , where x
and y could be positive or negative. Which answers would change? What would they be?
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 60

Question 3.10 Simplify these expressions by following your instructor’s instructions. Write the
answers using positive exponents and a simplified leading coefficient.
 0
(5t)−2 10tr5 a · a2 · (−a)4
a. · −1 b.
tr3 3r a7 · (−a)3

Question 3.11 Simplify these expressions. Write the answers using positive exponents and a sim-
plified leading coefficient.
 2
3x (−4xy 5 )3
a. · 2x−5 b.
4y 8x−3 y 2
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 61

3.3 Constant Percent Change

Question 3.12 Assume you invest $1, 000 in a savings account that pays 5% a year compounded
annually1 . Let m(t) be the amount of money in the account t years after the initial deposit.

a. How much money will you have after one d. Fill in the table below.
year?
t m(t)

0 $1000

b. How much money will you have after two 3

years?

...

50

c. How much money will you have after three e. Is m a linear function? Is it exponential?
years? How do you know?

f. Write an algebraic rule for m(t).

h
h Punchline:

1 Compounded annually means that the bank pays the interest once a year. The interest you earned in one year

begins to accrue interest in the second year.

3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 62

3.4 Graphs of Exponential Functions

Question 3.13 Below is a copy of the table for f (x) = 2x that you have completed.
a. Use the table to graph the function:

4
x f (x) = 2x
2
2 4

1 2 −2 −1 1 2

0 1

1
-1 2

1
-2 4

b. Fill in two more rows on the table and sketch the graph on the new scale below.

32
x f (x) = 2x

24
4

16

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 63

1 x
Question 3.14 Below is a table for f (x) = 2 .

a. Use the table to graph the function:

4
1 x
x f (x) = 2
2
1
2 4

1 1 2
1 2
−2 −1

0 1

-1 2

-2 4

b. Fill in two more rows on the table and sketch the graph below.

32
1 x
x f (x) = 2

-3

24

-4

16

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

h
h Punchline:

Bk
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 64

Question
3.15 Use tables to sketch the graph the functions given by the rules f (x) = 5x and
g(x) = 15 .
x

a. Fill out the table and sketch a graph.

x f (x) = 5x

-1

-2

b. Fill out the table and sketch a graph:

1 x
x g(x) = 5

-1

-2
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 65

Question 3.16 Look at the graphs you drew in Questions 3.13, 3.14, and 3.15.
a. All four graphs share a common point. Which point is this?

b. All four graphs have the same domain and range. What is the domain? What is the range?

c. Use Questions 3.13, 3.14, and 3.15 to help you sketch a graph of f (x) = bx . Articulate why
this is the general shape.

Case b > 1 Case 0 < b < 1

d. Explain the significance the x-axis plays for an exponential graph as above.

e. What would the graph of h(x) = 1x look like?

h
h Punchline:

h
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 66

3.5 Modeling

Question 3.17 In 1975 the amount of milk consumed by the average American was 29 gallons.
Since 1975, that consumption has been roughly decreasing at a rate of 1% per year2 .

a. About how much milk did the average American consume in 1976?

b. About how much milk did the average American consume in 1980?

c. Write an algebraic rule for the function M (t), the amount of milk consumed by the average
American t years after 1975.

d. Sketch the general shape of the graph of M (t).

Average American’s Milk Consumption
(gallons per year)

Years Since 1975

e. What does your model predict for the future of milk consumption?

f. What do you think is driving the decrease in milk consumption in America?

h h Punchline:

2 http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/05/16/528460207/why-are-americans-drinking-less-cows-milk-its-
appeal-has-curdled
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 67

Question 3.18 Social media has created a way to quickly share information. Marketing teams at
companies like Google and Facebook create mathematical models to describe the spread of informa-
tion on social media. One of the most popular viral videos of all time is Gangnam Style. Gangnam
Style is a YouTube video that became popular in July, 2012; by December 21st , 2012 the video was
the first video in history to have over 1, 000, 000, 000 views.

To model the sensation of viral videos, assume that on day zero there was one view and that each
viewer sends the video to exactly 2 new people who watch it the next day.
a. How many times was the video viewed on the day one?

b. How many times was the video viewed on the day two?

c. Let v(n) be the number of views on the n-th day. Fill in the following table and sketch a
graph.

32

n v(n)
28
0
24
1

20
Views on the n−th Day

3 16

4
12

5
8
6

2 4 6
Days

d. Write down an algebraic rule for the function v(n).

e. Exponential functions are supposed to model a constant percent change. Is that happening in
this situation?
3 Exponents and Exponential Functions I 68

f. Was your graph continuous? Explain your answer.

g. The graph below is data from YouTube about the actual cumulative number of views of
Gangnam Style. Compare it to the model (which predicted the number of views n days after
the release of the video). Discuss how well the model did at describing the data. Why?

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 69

4 Functions II
Question 4.1 I was at the store and overheard the following conversation:

Customer: I have a 20% off coupon. I would like you to apply it after the 8% sales tax to maximize
my savings.

Cashier: No, you want me to apply it before the tax. That way the tax is applied to a smaller
price.

Who was correct?

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 70

4.1 Combining Functions

h
h
h Function Composition: Given two functions f and g, we define a composition of f and g
h to be a new function obtained by applying g and then applying f :

(f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a))
g f
a −−−→ g(a) −−−→ f (g(a))
h

Question 4.2 We are given tables for two functions, f and g shown in tables. Use these tables to
evaluate the expressions. If you don’t have enough information to evaluate the expression, report
what additional information you would need.

x f (x) x g(x)
−4 5 −4 5
−1.6
√ 0 −1.6
√ 3
2 −1.6 2 8
5 −1.6 5 12

a. (f ◦ g)(−4) = d. (g ◦ f )(−1.6) =

b. (g ◦ f )(−4) = e. (f ◦ f )(−4) =

c. (g ◦ f )(5) = f. (g ◦ g)(5) =
4 Functions II 71

Question 4.3 Two functions h and j are given, h(x) = 2x + 1 and j(x) = x − 3. Find the following,
simplifying if possible.

a. (h ◦ j)(0) = b. h(x) · j(x)

c. (j ◦ h)(x) = d. (h ◦ j)(x) =

Question 4.4 We have two functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x7 . Find the following.

a. (f ◦ g)(x) b. (g ◦ f )(x) c. f (x) · g(x)

Question 4.5 Given two functions f and g.

a. Does (f ◦ g)(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) sometimes, always, never?

i. sometimes ii. always iii. never

b. Support your answer.

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 72

Question 4.6 Two functions f and g are given by their graphs.

y
y 6
5 5
f g
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5
−6

Evaluate the following, using the graphs. Approximate when necessary or state when the information
is not available.

a. (f ◦ g)(2) = c. g(−4) · f (−4) =

b. f (2) · g(2) = d. (g ◦ f )(−4) =

Question 4.7 Below is the portion of the graph for the function f .

a. What is f (2)?

b. What is (f ◦ f )(0)
2

c. What is (f ◦ f ◦ f )(3)? 1 2 3
4 Functions II 73

Question 4.8 The functions h and j are defined by algebraic rules; h(x) = 5x2 + 1 and
j(x) = 2x2 − 7. Find and simplify the following.

a. h(x) · j(x) = b. (j ◦ j)(x) =

Question 4.9 Expand the product 3 · 15 using different models

Area Model Table Model Distributive Property

4 Functions II 74

Question 4.10 Expand the products using different models

Area Model Table Model Distributive Property

a. (2x+1)2

b. (2x + 5)(3x + 2)

Table Model Distributive Property

4 Functions II 75

c. (x − 5)(x + 2)

Table Model Distributive Property

4 Functions II 76

Question 4.11 The functions h and j are defined by algebraic rules; h(x) = 5x2 + 1 and
j(x) = 2x2 − 7. For the given pair of combinations find a simplified formula.

a. h(x) · j(x) = b. (j ◦ j)(x) =

Question 4.12 Use the expression 7x3 − 2x + 3x4 to give an example of the following:
1. degree of a term

2. degree of a polynomial

Question 4.13 Combine like terms to simplify the expression 2(6 + 7x2 − 5x) + 4x2 − 8. Write the
answer so that the degrees of terms are decreasing.
4 Functions II 77

4.2 The Opposite Relationship

Question 4.14 Brianna is driving to the store. Here is the graph of f (t), her distance in miles t
minutes after the start of her drive.

a. Fill in the following table.

6
t f (t)
5
0 f
4

Distance (miles)
2
3

3 2

1
5

1 2 3 4 5 6
b. How long did it take Brianna to drive 2
miles? Time (Minutes)

d. How long did it take Brianna to drive 4

miles?
c. How long did it take Brianna to drive 3
miles?

h
h Punchline:
4 Functions II 78

h
h
h Inverse Function: For a given function f we form an inverse relation g by exchanging the h h
h coordinate pairs belonging to f : if (a, b) is in f , then (b, a) is in g. If g is also a function, then
hwe say that f is invertible, and that g is the inverse of f .

hNote: If f is invertible, then its inverse function is denoted by f −1 , and is read the
hthe inverse of f or f inverse.
h

e. What does the function f −1 , the inverse function of f , represent? Fill in the table and sketch
the graph. Label f −1 .

t f (t) t f −1 (t)
6

0 0 0
5

4 1 1
1 2 2

3
3 3 3

2
5 4 4
1

1 2 3 4 5 6

f. How do the domain and range of f −1 relate to the domain and range of f ?

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 79

Question 4.15 Values from two functions g and h are summarized below. One is invertible and
one is not. Decide which one is NOT invertible and explain why.

x g(x) x h(x)

1 9 1 9

2 2 2 9

3 5 3 5

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 80

Question 4.16 Suppose the following graph shows the temperature at Salt Lake City Airport over
a particular 36-hour period. Let f (t) be the temperature at time t. Is f invertible? How can you
tell?
36

32

28

24
Temp (C ◦ )

20

16

12

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36

Time (hours)

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 81

Question 4.17 Values of a linear function f are summarized below.

x 3 4 −3
f (x) 5 7 −7

a. Write an algebraic rule for f . b. Find an algebraic rule for f −1 .

c. Evaluate f (7). d. Evaluate f −1 at the answer you got for part

c. Explain what happened.

e. Simplify (f −1 ◦ f )(x). f. Predict what (f ◦ f −1 )(x) would be. Explain

your reasoning.

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 82

h
h
h Alternative Definition of Inverse Function:
hhWe say that a function f is invertible (has an inverse function) if there is a function g for which:

(g ◦ f )(a) = a, for all a in the domain of f

hhand
(f ◦ g)(b) = b, for all b in the domain of g
h
4 Functions II 83

Question 4.18 The graph of an invertible function m is shown.

a. Make a table for some points of m(x).

hi
8 x m(x)

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

−4

−6

−8

b. Make a table for some points of m−1 (x).

x m−1 (x)

c. Graph m−1 on the same grid as m. How are the graphs related?

h
h Punchline:

h
4 Functions II 84

Question 4.19 Almost all linear functions are invertible. What kind of linear functions are not
invertible?

There are many ways to find inverses of invertible linear functions.

Question 4.20 Find the inverse of f (x) = 3x + 4 in two ways.

a. Using tables and the equations of lines. b. “Switching” (Switch x and y, then solve for
y)

Question 4.21 Find the inverse of f (x) = 5 .

x−2
How can you check your answer?

Question 4.22 Let f be the function f (x) = −5 + x. Find f −1 (7), without finding f −1 (x).
4 Functions II 85

Question 4.23 Is f (x) = 10x invertible? How do you know?

5 Undoing Exponential Functions 86

5 Undoing Exponential Functions

5.1 Super-Scientific Notation
Question 5.1 Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation.

a. 1200 c. 400,000

b. 32,600,000 d. 0.0000346

Numbers can also be written as powers of 10. We call this, “Super Scientific Notation.”

Question 5.2 Write three examples of numbers written as powers of 10.

Question 5.3 Think about the number 2500.

a. Explain why 2500 must be a power of 10 with an exponent between 3 and 4.

b. Using trial and error on your calculator, find the exponent  such that 10 = 2500. How
accurate can you be?
5 Undoing Exponential Functions 87

Question 5.4 Express the numbers in the table super-scientific notation. Try to be accurate to at
least 2 decimal places.

Number Number in S-SN Exponent from S-SN

10

333

-2500

314156

1000

Some of these exponents seem to be numbers with decimal representations that follow no pattern
and the process of finding them is time-consuming.

Question 5.5 We can extend this idea.

a. Using your calculator, estimate the exponent to which we raise 3 to get 1200. Obtain 3 decimal
places of accuracy.

b. Are there some bases that wouldn’t be good choices to play a game like this with?

c. Are there some numbers that you can’t express in Super-Scientific Notation?
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 88

5.2 Logarithms
We introduce new notation to describe the exponents we were using in Super Scientific Notation:

Definition 1 The logarithm logb (x) is the exponent to which we raise b to get x.
• We require b > 0 and b 6= 1.

• We say logb (x) aloud as “log base b of x.”

Question 5.6 Translate the logarithmic expressions into words and simplify them if possible.

Words Work
log5 (125) =

log9 (1) =

log2 (64) =

 
1
log3
3

log5 (8) =

Question 5.7 Above, we see that log5 (8) does not simplify so easily. What number is log5 (8)
approximately?

h
h Punchline

h
5 Undoing Exponential Functions 89

Note: log(x) is short hand for log10 (x).

Question 5.8 Evaluate each of the following logarithms by using the relationship between expo-
nents and logarithms.
 
a. log(100) 1 c. log2 (8)
b. log10
10, 000

Question 5.9 Evaluate each of the following logarithms by using the relationship between expo-
nents and logarithms.

 
a. log3 (39 ) b. log 102 · 105 26
c. log2
210

Question 5.10 Approximate the values of the logarithms below by giving two consecutive integers,
one of which is a lower bound and the other an upper bound for the expressions given. Do this
without a calculator. Explain your reasoning.

a. log7 50 b. log10 (0.5)

5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 90

Question 5.11 Simplify the following expressions as much as possible

a. log2 32 f. log7 (1)

b. log5 25 g. log100 10000

1 1
c. log3 h. log1/2
9 8

1
d. log i. 5log5 11
100

e. 7log7 3 j. 9log3 (4)

5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 91

Question 5.12 When a new technology (like iPods, Facebook, Twitter, etc.) starts to become
popular, it often experiences exponential growth. In 2007, Facebook reported that the number
of Facebook members was growing exponentially by about 3% per week. On October 25 of that
year, Facebook reached 50 million members. Assume the growth trend continuous and answer the
following questions.

a. Write an algebraic rule for a function F (t) that gives the number of millions of Facebook
members t weeks after October 25th.

b. To figure out when there would be 100 million Facebook users which equation do we need to
solve?

c. Solve the equation you set up in b.

d. When would there be 150 million Facebook users?

e. When would there be 200 million Facebook users?

h
h Punchline
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 92

5.3 Logarithmic Functions

Definition 2 We can define a logarithmic function:

f (x) = logb (x)

• We still require b > 0 and b 6= 1.

• Note: the output of f is the exponent to which b is raised to get the input x.

Question 5.13 Let f (x) = log2 (x) and g(x) = log3 (x) In each part, write what the function equals
and then fill in the blank with < (less than), > (greater than), or = (equal).
   
a. f (1) g(1) 1 1
b. g 0 c. f 0
3 16

Question 5.14 Let f (x) = log2 (x). In each part, fill in the blank with < (less than), > (greater
than), or = (equal).
   
a. f (15) 4 b. f (500) f (501) 1 2
c. f f
3 3

h
h Punchline
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 93

Question 5.15 Without looking back in your notes, sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x . Does f (x) have
an inverse function? How do you know?

Question 5.16 Calculate the inverse of f (x).

36

28

20

12

−2 2 4 6
−4

Place
Chapter 3 Question: A colony of bacteria is being grown in a laboratory. The colony contains
one million bacteria at 12 : 00 noon (time 0), and the population is doubling every hour.
g. Calculate when there will there be one billion bacteria.

h
h Punchline
5 Undoing Exponential Functions 94

Question 5.17 Rewrite exponential statements as logarithmic statements and vice-versa. Note the
inverse functions involved.

Partner Facts Inverse functions

log5 (125) = 3 k −1 (x) = log5 (x)

log9 (1) = 0 m−1 (x) = log9 (x)

26 = 64 n(x) = 2x

Question 5.18 Let f (x) = log6 (x). Compute the following or note that the answer does not exist.

a. f (6) c. f (0) e. 6f (x)

b. f −1 (6) d. f −1 (0) f. (f ◦ f −1 )(x)

5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 95

5.4 Graphing Logarithmic Functions

Question 5.19 Graph f (x) = log3 x:

a. Fill in the table for the logarithmic function, f (x). Then graph f (x).

f (x)

x f (x) = log3 (x) 6

4
3 1

2
9

x
1 −2 2 4 6 8 10
3

−2
−2
−4
3
−6

−5

b. Fill in the information about the function f .

domain: base:

range: asymptote:
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 96

Question 5.20 Graph f (x) = log5 x:

a. Fill in the table for the logarithmic function, f (x). Then graph f (x).

f (x)

x space holder f (x) = log5 (x) 6

x
−2 2 4 6 8 10

−2

−4

−6

b. Fill in the information about the graph of f .

domain: base:

range: asymptote:
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 97

Question 5.21 Look at the graphs you drew in Question 5.20 and Question 5.19.
a. Your two graphs share a common point. Which point is this?

b. Your two graphs have the same domain and range. What is the domain? What is the range?

c. Use Question 5.20 and Question 5.19 to help you sketch a graph of f (x) = logb (x) for b > 1.
Articulate why this is the general shape.

d. Explain the significance the y-axis plays for a logarithmic graph above.

e. Ron thinks that g(x) = log2 (x) has a horizontal asymptote. Is Ron correct?

Question 5.22 Find the x-value such that f (x) = log3 (x) = 4
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 98

5.5 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Question 5.23 Solve the following equations.

a. log3 x = 4 c. log3 x = −3

b. 3 · log 1 x = 12
2

d. 5 · log4 x = 5

h
h Punchline
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 99

Question 5.24 Solve the following exponential equations.

a. 2x = 16 b. 4x−1 = 16

1
c. 5x = 9 d. 32x = 3

e. 3 · 2x = 96 6x
f. = 30
10

Question 5.25 What is the difference between an exact and approximate answer?

h
h Punchline
5 Undoing Exponential Functions: Logarithms 100

Question 5.26 We use linear and exponential functions to model specific types phenomenon. An
important skill is to decide which type of function matches the situation. Describe when you would
use each.

Linear Exponential
f (x) = mx + b f (x) = abx

Question 5.27 How have we seen logarithmic functions crop up in modeling?

Question 5.28 As soon as you drive a new car off the dealer’s lot, the car is worth less than what
you paid for it. This is called depreciation.
You are considering a 1999 Mazda Miata for $19,800 which depreciates at 22% a year or a 1996
Honda Civic EX for $16,500 which depreciates at $2000 per year.

a. Which car’s value can be modeled with a linear function? Which with an exponential function?
How can you tell?

b. Write the algebraic rules for the functions M (t) and H(t) that give the value of a 1999 Mazda
Miata and a 1996 Honda Civic t years after purchase.

c. How much will the Miata be worth after 4 years?

d. You could instead buy a 1967 Ford Mustang for $4,000 that is appreciating at 10% per year.
What will its value be in 4 years?

e. When will the Ford be worth $10,000?

6 Rectangular Pastures 137

6 Rectangular Pastures
Question 6.1 Cedric and Neville went on a road trip to southern Utah. Cedric noticed that all the
pastures were rectangles of about the same proportion. Cedric thought there was a reason for these
proportions, and this would save resources used to fence the pastures. Neville thought this was a
coincidence since a fixed amount of fence will always enclose the same amount of area. What do you
think? Formulate here a short argument that supports either Cedric’s opinion or Neville’s opinion.

: This short motivational chapter is about presenting a modeling context that requires a function that
is not linear, exponential, or logarithmic. The problem discussed here is the isopermetric question for
quadrilaterals. This chapter is a prime opportunity for
• Students to critique the reasoning of others.

• Make sense of a problem and persevere.

• Reflect on our problem solving process and take an inventory of their problem solving skills of
making a table, drawing graphs, connecting our work to real world context.
It is the first time we have a need for a quadratic function.
: The last time I taught this problem I showed a picture from google earth showing the squares of all
the farms in southern Utah

At the start of this you could do a clicker question: do you agree with Neville or you agree with Cedric.
The clicker question probably will be pretty split between Neville and Cedric. Use this as a way to start
small group conversations. Monitor the groups and see what ideas they have. Be ready to sequence
these ideas in class wide discussion. Make sure you have one student ready to describe two rectangles
that have the same perimeter, but have different areas.
It is fascinating to look at all the squares in the satellite picture. This is a randomly chosen place, most
farming communities look this way. Students have lots of plausible ideas of what makes the square like
grid. Irrigation was a one idea that students definitely liked. One student thought it could be city regu-
lations. I definitely see the merit to how the circle irrigation plots end up being squares, but what about
the fields that don’t have circle irrigation? I don’t know about the city regulations, but it seems less
likely that the city requires square farms. Once a few ideas were out in the open I tried to corral stu-
dents to engaging with the fencing argument more specifically than thinking about all the plausible rea-
sons that the fields could be squares.
It would be wonderful as
Page 100
6 Rectangular Pastures 138

Question 6.2 Suppose you are a rancher and had 28 kilometers of fence. You want to build the
largest possible rectangular pasture. What dimensions should the pasture be?
Outline possible approaches to answering this question. What might you, or someone else, try to do
to solve this problem?
: This question takes the framing question from the last page and makes the situation more concrete.
The following few pages gives students scaffolding to solve the problem. Here it is important to ideate
strategies that could help students find success. Have students think about the tools that we have
been using: drawing a picture, finding a function to describe the relationship, understanding variables,
making a table, drawing a graph, writing a verbal description. This problem is about making explicit
the problem solving strategies implicit in all the scaffolding we give students. -After students move
through the scaffolding you can reflect back on which strategies worked.
Page 101

h
h Punchlines:

h
6 Rectangular Pastures 139

Question 6.3 We will investigate our main problem in several steps.

a. Draw 6 rectangular pens having a perimeter of 28 on the coordinate axis. Like below.

b. Label the coordinate in the upper right hand corner of each pen.

c. Make a table showing all the coordinates on your graph. Look for a pattern and make three
more entries in the table.

Length Width
14
10 4
12

10
Width (km)

4 (10,4)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Length (km)

Question 6.4 The point (10, 4) is the upper right corner of a plausible pen.
: This question is all about having students make sure they are actually making sense of their work.

a. What does the sum of 10 and 4 numbers represent in this problem?

b. What does the product of 10 and 4 numbers represent in this problem?

c. How many rectangles are there whose perimeter is 28?

(a) 14 (c) 28

(b) 15 (d) Too many to count

6 Rectangular Pastures 140

d. For each rectangle from part c. compute the area.

length width area length width area

10 4

e. Of all the rectangular pens recorded on your chart, which rectangular pen enclosed the largest
area?

f. Make a graph of the area as a function of length. Connect the points on your graph with a
smooth curve.

100

90

80

70

60
Area (km2 )

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Length (km)

h
h Punchlines:
: The graph is symmetrical so we can find the absolute maximum. It should be half way be-
tween the two x−intercepts.
6 Rectangular Pastures 141

We will now articulate our findings algebraically.

g. Let A(l) be the function that describes the area of a pasture that has a 28 km perimeter and
a length of l kilometers. Write an algebraic formula for A(l).

h. If you had 28 km of fencing and wanted to make the largest possible rectangular pasture, what
would its length, width, and area be? Explain.

i. In this question we will interpret the graph. Below is a sketch of what your graph in f. should
have looked like.

a. Where does the graph cross the x-axis? What do these numbers tell us about the situa-
tion?

b. If you increase the length by one kilometer, does the area increase or decrease? Does it
change the same amount each time? Explain.

c. Label the highest point on the graph.

:
• The function we are interested in is a quadratic function since the highest power of x we
see is x2 . The graphs of quadratic functions are called parabolas. We will be turning our
attention to studying quadratic functions. Make sure to use these words now so that you
can refer to them later.

• Use the diagram to the left to label the vertex, the x-intercepts, and the line of symmetry.

• We could calculate the vertex because we knew there was symmetry.

h
h Punchlines:

h
7 Quadratic Functions 142

7 Quadratic Functions
7.1 Graphs of Quadratic Functions 1
Question 7.1 Let f (x) = x(8 + x). Fill in the table and graph the function:

x f (x) = x(8 + x) 20

16

12

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−4

−8

−12

−16

−20

Question 7.2 Let g(x) = (x − 4)(8 + x). Fill in the table and graph the function:

x g(x) = (x − 4)(8 + x) 40

32

24

16

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−8

−16

−24

−32

−40

h
h Punchline:
: Encourage students to be efficient about choosing values for their table. Which values were helpful
last time?
• x−intercepts

• Line of symmetry.

• y−intercept.
7 Quadratic Functions 143

Question 7.3 Let h(x) = x2 + 5x + 6. Fill in the table and graph the function.

x h(x) = x2 + 5x + 6 20

16

12

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−4

−8

−12

−16

−20

h
h Punchlines:
: Don’t let get students get to deep in the weeds here. The point is that since function is not pre-
sented in factored form, it is much more difficult to be efficient. We use this as motivation to learn
to factor.
7 Quadratic Functions 144

7.2 Factoring Expressions

We have encountered a question that we were unable to resolve in an efficient manner:
• Graph the function f (x) = x2 + 5x + 6.

Question 7.4 What made this question more difficult than other similar questions?

Question 7.5 Our goal is to write x2 + 5x + 6 as the product of two linear expressions. This process
is called factoring.
a. Each term on the left hand side of the equation can be interpreted geometrically. Explain how
the figures from left to right represent x2 , 5x, and 6, respectively.

6
x x

x 5 1

: Students need to understand that if we consider the area of all three rectangles, we get an ex-
pression on the left hand side of the given equation. Rectangle vs square might come up here.

When we factor x2 + 5x + 6 we are representing the above area as the area of a single rectangle.

x+a

x a

x
x+b

b. Find a and b such that x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + a)(x + b). Use the picture to help determine the
values of a and b.

c. Write x2 + 5x + 6 in factored form.

: Some students will complain about being asked to show models, especially if they know algebraic
methods. If they complain, ask them if they can explain why the algebraic method works. Emphasize
that the model is a picture that gives an explanation of why the algebraic method works. If students
just have memorized a process, they often forget or make mistake. If they have taken the time to deeply
understand the model, they can usually do the process correctly. They should be familiar with the mod-
els. On quizzes and tests we will specify whether a specific model needs to be used or a student can use
any method. If its the latter, then an algebraic method is fine.
7 Quadratic Functions 145

Question 7.6 Factor the following expressions, using the table model:
: We still ask and answer the question “What numbers add to -7 and multiply to -18?” to fill in the
table model, but this helps students visualize we we ask these questions.

a. x2 − 7x − 18 c. −5x2 + 10x + 15

b. 2x2 + 9x + 10 d. x2 − 16

Question 7.7 Factor the following expressions. Using a particular model is not required.

a. 6x2 − 12x b. −5x2 + 40x

7 Quadratic Functions 146

7.3 Solving Quadratic Equations with Factoring (Solving Method 1)

Question 7.8 Why might you want to solve a quadratic equation to graph a quadratic function?

Question 7.9 Is x = 4 a solution to the equation x2 + 4x − 4 = 0? Explain what it means to solve

an equation.

Question 7.10 Solve the following equations:

a. (x − 6)(2x − 1) = 0 b. (12x + 3)4x = 0 c. (x − 2)(x + 2) = 12

: Many students will attempt

to set the factors equal to 12.
However there are many pos-
sibilities, one doesn’t have to
be 12.

Question 7.11 Ethan wonders how we know that f (x) = (x − 2)(x + 2) has only two x−intercepts.
What would you tell him?
: Many students will believe that Ethan is correct in asserting that there are two x−intercepts. Few will
be able to answer the subtler question of why there are only two.
7 Quadratic Functions 147

Question 7.12 If ab = 0, which of the following is impossible? Explain.

a. a 6= 0 and b 6= 0 c. a = 0 and b 6= 0

b. a 6= 0 and b = 0 d. a = 0 and b = 0

Zero product property: When the product of two quantities is zero, one of the quantities
must be zero.

If ab = 0, then a = 0 OR b = 0.

Question 7.13 Use Property 7.3 to solve the following equations:

a. (2x + 3)(10 − x) = 0 b. (3x − 3)(4x + 16) = 0

Question 7.14 Solve for x : x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

: The left-hand-side is the same as Question 7.5 which opened up our factoring investigation.

h
h Punchline:

: The Zero Product Property assures us that f (x) = (x − 2)(x + 2) only has two x-intercepts.
h
7 Quadratic Functions 148

Question 7.15 Solve the following quadratic equations using factoring and using the zero-product
property. Use the table model for some or all of the factorization. Check your factorization by
distributing it back out, verifying that your factorization indeed equals the original expression.

a. x2 + 8x + 12 = 0 d. 6x(x + 1) + x = 5

b. x2 = 10x − 25 e. 64x2 − 9 = 0

c. 5x + 2 = −3x2 f. 14x2 = 18x

7 Quadratic Functions 149

7.4 Using Factoring to Graph Quadratic Functions

Question 7.16 Let f (x) = x2 + 5x + 6. Graph f .
: This is the same as Question 7.19 which opened up our factoring investigation and solve for the x-
intercepts in Question 7.15 a. Encourage students to be efficient table makers.

x f (x) 10

0
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

Question 7.17 Let g(x) = −x2 − 4x + 12. Graph for g.

x f (x) 20

16

12

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−4

−8

−12

−16

−20
7 Quadratic Functions 150

Question 7.18 Graph the following function.

a. f (x) = 4x2 + 16x + 7

: Factoring quadratics with a leading coefficient other than 1 is difficult for students.

f (x) = (2x + 1)(2x + 7)

x f (x) 20

16

12

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−4

−8

−12

−16

−20

h
h Punchline:
: Many things go into graphing a quadratic function. Our strategy is to
• factor

• zeros

• x-coordinate of vertex

• y-coordinate of vertex

• Thoughtful connection of points.

h
7 Quadratic Functions 151

Question 7.19 Graph the following functions.

a. g(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 105

: Students can factor a 3 out of each term which saves them so much energy.

g(x) = 3(x2 + 12x + 35) = 3(x + 7)(x + 5)

x f (x) 50

40

30

20

10

0
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−10

−20

−30

−40

−50

b. f (x) = x2 + 6x + 6

: Doesn’t factor. Let students experience that it doesn’t factor. This will make us really do some
more work over the next few weeks! In this example let students plot 3 points get stuck and then
we move forward. Eventually we circle back with more techniques.

x f (x) 50

40

30

20

10

0
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−10

−20

−30

−40

−50

h-
h Punchline:
7 Quadratic Functions 152

: Are current technique cannot help us graph all quadratic functions. Some are not able to be fac-
tored. Quadratics that can’t be factored, you are on notice.
8 Falling Objects 153

8 Falling Objects
: This chapter is designed to help students see that quadratic functions model constant acceleration.
• Students will explore this by modeling the motion of a falling rock. This edition scaffolds the
problem differently. There is now a hypothetical case for students to consider what if the rock’s
speed were constant. In Chapter 2, there is a problem about constant speed of an object. The
previous experience will hopefully allow students to see that the distance the rock travels is the
area under the curve in a case that is more familiar.

• The example of a falling rock turns classic black box applications problems into a sense making
activities.

• Building on the idea that quadratic fu

• The chapter ends with an impetus to try and undo the function f (x) = x2 .
: This section is tough to teach. Every time I teach this lesson I need to invest time thinking about how
it will go.

Question 8.1 The tallest building in Salt Lake City is the Wells Fargo Center.
: The last time I taught this section I brought a tennis ball to class and a ladder (i just asked the cus-
todian if I could borrow a latter). I labeled the tennis ball “2 lb rock” and the ladder “Wells Fargo Cen-
ter.” As students walked in I alternated between climbing up the ladder and handing out chalk, telling
students to draw the graph that represents the height of the ball as a function of time. The collection
of graphs I got was the start of a wonderful conversation. Here is a sample of some that students might
draw.
I refused to answer any specific see part b.

a. Let h(t) represent the height of the rock t seconds after you let go of the rock. Sketch a graph
for h(t).
height (feet)

time (seconds)

: The scale is purposefully not included because we want to model the general phenomenon and
not get tied down to specific points. What we hope students will draw is a decreasing concave
down function.

b. What information would be helpful in making a more accurate sketch of h(t)?

: I hope that students will talk about the height of the tower or the speed of the ball. One thing
that would be really fun to model would be air resistance or terminal velocity. Tell students that
they should take a course on differential equations to add this into their model...
8 Falling Objects 154

Important information:

• The Wells Fargo Center is 416 feet tall.

• Free falling objects experience constant acceleration due to the force of gravity. For
feet
each second the rock is falling, the speed of the rock increases by 32 second .

c. Use the important information to refine your sketch.

450

360
height (feet)

270

180

90

time (seconds)

: There is purposefully no scale on the x−axis. This because we still need to make sense of how
long it takes for the rock to hit the ground.

d. Would a linear model be a good choice to model h(t)? Explain.

: Two ways to slice this:

• That there is not a constant rate of change so it cannot be a linear function.

• Visually they will see that the graph is not a line and therefore h(t) cannot be a linear
function.

e. Would a exponential model be a good choice to model h(t)? Explain.

:
• Students know the general shape of an exponential graph and it doesn’t resemble either.

• Nothing is changing at a constant percent change.

8 Falling Objects 155

f. Imagine that the speed of the rock v(t) was a constant 32 feet per second. Graph v(t).

: Constant functions are weird to students. They have seen a constant function back in Chapter
1 with Simon on the Ferris Wheel. They also saw a constant function in Chapter 2 with constant
speed. That problem was designed to help here. I wouldn’t necessarily mention that by name, but
hopefully students have some memory of itt.

t v(t) 180

1 double filler 150

32

2 32 120

speed( second
feet
)
- 90
3 32
60
4 32
30

5 32
1 2 3 4 5
time (seconds)

: The constant velocity case is so much easier than the constant acceleration case. We have done
a problem similar in Chapter 2 just to be more prepared for this moment. Hopefully students will
see that the distance should be represented by the area under the curve.

g. Use your graph to estimate how far the rock has traveled after 3 seconds.

: You need to get students to see that you are multiplying 3 seconds by 32 feet per second to
calculate 96 feet. This is also represented by the area under their graph from t = 0 to t = 3. This
idea has to land if you the next page to have a chance of going well.

h. Use your graph to estimate how far the rock traveled after x seconds.

: They should expect that since the rock has a constant rate of change they get a linear func-
tion. Relate this back to the area under the curve from t = 0 to t = x.

i. Is this model reasonable?

: This model is not reasonable. We know from our conversation on the previous page that the
model should not be linear.
8 Falling Objects 156

Let v(t) represent the speed of the rock t seconds after you drop the rock. Remember the
feet
actual physics here is that every second the speed increases by 32 second .

j. Fill in the following table for v(t) and sketch a graph of v(t).

t v(t) 180

1 double filler 150

2 120

speed( second
feet
)
- 90
3
60
4
30

5
1 2 3 4 5
time (seconds)

k. Write the algebraic rule for v(t).

l. Use your graph to estimate how far the rock has traveled after 3 seconds.

: A first attempt at this is saying that for one second the rock was traveling 32 feet per second,
for one second the rock was traveling 64 feet per second, and for one second the rock was travel-
ing 96 feet per second. This would mean that in 3 seconds the rock traveled 192 feet. Hopefully
students uncover this wonderful estimate on their own or with some small nudges. What the stu-
dents might not realize was that they were assuming constant speed on the intervals [0, 1], [1, 2],
and [2, 3]. Help them graphically see what they just accomplished

You can ask them if there estimate was an over estimate or an under estimate. They will hope-
fully see it is an over estimate. A next question to ask would be how could we do better? Well
either they will say more rectangles or jump to the area of the triangle. Either way this is where
you want to land. You can let your students know that these are big ideas that they will see in
calculus. It is important to help students vision a pathway for themselves through more mathe-
matics.

m. Generalize your findings in l. to find an algebraic formula for h(t).

: h(t) = 416 − 16t2 Here students might not be making sense of variables. They need to see that
this question is asking for us to calculate the height of the rock t seconds after you drop the rock.
The last question was asking about how far the rock has traveled.

Punchline:
: Constant acceleration can be modeled by quadratic functions. This is a really impor-
tant punchline that needs to be stressed.
8 Falling Objects 157

Question 8.2 Below are three tables that summarize some values of three different functions, f (x),
g(x), and h(x).

x f (x) x g(x) x h(x)

1 3 1 10 1 27

2 7 2 13 2 9

3 13 3 16 3 3

4 21 4 19 4 1

5 31 5 22 1
5 3

a. One of the three functions is a linear function. Which one? How did you know?

: Organizing your work in the following way will help prepare students for what is to come with
analyzing second differences:

b. One of the three functions is an exponential function. Which one? How did you know?

h
h Punchline:
:
• Students can look for constant rate of change to identify a linear function.

• Students can look for a constant percent change to identify a exponential function.

• How can we tell if a function is quadratic?

8 Falling Objects 158

Question 8.3 We can use a table to decide if a function has a constant rate of change or if there
was a constant percent change. This lets us decide if a function is linear or exponential. We can
also use a table to decide if a function is modeling constant acceleration - and so we can decide if a
function is quadratic.

a. Let f (x) = x2 + x + 1. Fill in the following table:

x f (t)

1 double and triple filler and quad

2 double and triple filler and quad

3 double and triple filler and quad :

4 double and triple filler and quad

5 double and triple filler and quad

b. Calculate a few second differences of this sequence. To help you organize your thoughts, use
the table above.

h
h Punchline:
: Every quadratic function has a constant second difference. It becomes a way for us to eliminate
functions as possibly being quadratic.

h
8 Falling Objects 159

Question 8.4 The tallest building in Salt Lake City is the Wells Fargo Center. The Wells Fargo
Center is 416 feet tall. If you drop a 2 lb rock from the top of the Wells Fargo Center, how long will
it take to hit the ground?

a. We came up with a function h(t) = 416 − 16t2 to describe the height of the rock t seconds after
you let go of the rock. What was the second difference for this function? What were the other
big insights we had in this chapter?

b. Use h(t) to finally answer the question, how long will it take the rock to hit the ground?

: We go back to the open of the chapter and try and solve this equation h(t) = 0. It will require
us to use a square root which will require us to dig in to square roots in the next chapter.
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 160

9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function

: This section is brief introduction to square roots. We want students to see that
• Quadratic functions are not invertible and so you have to restrict the domain.

Question 9.1 Is f (x) = x2 an invertible function? Explain your reasoning.

Page 122

x f (x) 6

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2

−4

−6

h
h Punchlines:
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 161

: The short answer to the question above is clearly no. Hopefully students will see that f (x) = x2 isn’t
invertible in two different ways.
• Seeing repeated outputs in the table.

• Noting that the graph doesn’t pass the horizontal line test
The follow up question is can you restrict the domain f (x) = x2 is invertible. This question is too
vague, but should still be productive. This conversation should land on the following convention.
√
• g(x) = x is the inverse function for f (x) = x2 if you restrict the domain to [0, ∞)
The following picture could be helpful to draw:

√ √
• A verbal description of x can also be useful: f (x) = x outputs the nonnegative number
whose square is x. Students might want√to relax to the positive number whose square is x,
however this means we haven’t defined 0.
√
• We could also use a geometric lens. f (x) = x outputs the length of a square whose area is x.
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 162

9.1 Square Root Function

√
Question 9.2 We investigate the function s(x) = x. Page 123
a. Complete the table for s and then graph the function.

x s(x) s(x)

8
4
6

9
4

-1
2

0 x
−4 −2 2 4 6 8

−2
2

−4

:
• The position of the 0 in the table is strategic. I think after seeing that −1 is not in the
domain students could be tempted to think that 0 is also not in the domain.
√
• Some students might think that 9 = ±3. This should be addressed.
√
• Some students might not be convinced that 2 is a number. Geometrically we can show
that the square root of 2 is the length of the diagonal of a square with side length of 1.

b. From the graph find:

the domain the x-intercept(s) the y-intercept

h
h Punchlines:
√
: Report the domain of x in two different ways:
• [0, ∞)

• 0≤x<∞
It is worthwhile to mention to students that we made a choice for the restricted domain. Another fine
choice would have been (−∞, 0], but we choose to be more positive.
After students plot the points, help them see again that the inverse function is the reflection across the
line y = x.
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 163

Question
√ 9.3 Evaluate each of the following square roots by using the relationship between x2 and
x. Page 124
: To answer these questions we want students to think about the inverse relationship.√ Just like we did
for logs, it is useful to rephrase these questions with words. For example, considering 25 is asking the
question, “What is the number whose square is 25”?

√ √ √ q
a. 64 b. 49 c. −36 d. 1
4

Question 9.4 Approximate the values of the square roots below by giving two consecutive integers,
one of which is a lower bound and the other an upper bound for the expressions given. Do this
without a calculator. Explain your reasoning
: It will be interesting to see the strategies emerging here. Hopefully students will search for consecu-
tive square numbers.

√ √
a 89 b 26

: This is the answer to Question 8.4.

Question 9.5 Evaluate each of the following square roots. Assume that all variables are positive.
p √
a. x6 y 4 b. 16a32

Question 9.6 Simplify the following square roots by removing all square factors from the square
root.
√ √ p
a. 18 b. 12a3 b4 c. 8x10 y 15
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 164

Question 9.7 Below are some students’ thoughts about inverting f (x) = x2 . Identify which stu-
dents are confused and think about how you would help them see their misconception. Page 125
√
a. Jean thinks that g(x) = x is the inverse function of f (x) = x2 .

√
b. Morgan thinks that 4 = ±2.

√
c. Chris thinks that 0 doesn’t exist.
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 165

√ √ √
d. Neha thinks a+b = a + b. Page 126

√ √ √
e. Wal thinks ab = a b

h
h Punchlines:
: Each comment here something important to go over. Here are all the highlights:
√
• g(x) = x is the inverse of f (x) = x2 only if you restrict the domain of f (x). If you don’t
restrict the domain, your inverse is not a function for example you end up pairing 1 with ±1.

• The square root function only produces one output. The output is the nonnegative number
whose square was the input.
√ √
• 0 = 0 since 00 and 0 is in the restricted domain of g(x) = x we choose.
√ √ √
• a + b 6= a + b. Hopefully students can try some examples.
√ √ √ √ √
• ab = a b if a and b are non-negative. We can see this by squaring a b .
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 166

9.2 Using Square Roots to Solve Quadratic Equations

(Solving Method 2)
Question 9.8 Solve the following equations.
: Highlight the distinction between exact and approximate answers.Discuss the meaning of ±
Page 127

a. x2 = 4 b. x2 = 26
: This was the equation we were called to
solve in 8.4

c. x2 = −9
: We do not cover complex numbers in Math 1010. This will be covered in Math 1050. Let your
class know that in our class, they should double-check the calculations and respond “this is not a
real number.” In Math 1050, they will have the tools to describe the complex number.

d. (4 − 3x)2 = 16 e. (x + 3)2 − 3 = 0

: This equation is equivalent to

x2 + 6x + 6 = 0.

In Question 7.19 we were unable to solve this

equation. It gives us hope that we can make
some progress.
9 Square Roots: Inverting a Quadratic Function 167

h
h Punchlines:
: We now can solve quadratic functions we were unable to solve before.
10 Quadratic Functions II 167

10 Quadratic Functions II
: This chapter brings us back to quadratic functions. We pick quadratic functions up again knowing
that they model constant acceleration and how to take square roots. The key results in this chapter are
completing the square and the quadratic formula.
• Completing the square is done by using a picture. We harvest what we planted back in Chapter 1
and have tended to throughout the course, a pictorial understanding of the distributive property.
This gives a more geometric idea of what is meant by completing square.

• The quadratic formula is given to students and they practice using it before we demonstrate that
it is true. This is tact that might be uncomfortable to mathematicians, but to a student this
epistemology will feel good. They see a formula that can be used to solve equations, they make
use of the formula, and then we show that why this formula mysterious formula always work.

• The chapter ends with helping students make sense of the different tools that we use to better
understand quadratic functions, factoring, completing the square, and quadratic functions. In
Section 8.4 we put these different tools to use in order to graph quadratic functions. An
important outcome is that students be know which tool to reach for. Students should see that
different forms make it easy to figure out different pieces of the graph. The completed square form
makes it easy to identify the vertex, the factored form makes it easy to see the x-intercepts, and
the standard form makes it easy to see the y-intercept.

• The last section goes back to an old question about fuel efficiency. There is definitely a positive
feeling among students to going back to a question that we were unable to solve and see that we
have grown so much.

Question 10.1 Graph the following function.

a. Below is a graph of f (x) = x2 .

10 i. What are the important x-values?

−4 −2 2 4

b. Let g(x) = (x − 1)2 − 5. What do you think the important x−values for this function will be?

c. Use your answer from the previous question above to create a table, then graph the function.
Make sure you identify the vertex.

x g(x)
10 Quadratic Functions II 168

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2

−4

−6

h-
h Punchline:
: This problem serves a few purposes:
• Origin Shift Value - This is a strategy that will allow for efficient table making. We use this
strategy again for square root functions.

i. We want students to see that plugging in x = 1 into (x − 1)2 will have have the same
outcome as plugging 0 into x2 .

ii. We also want to students to see that it is easy to read of the value of f (1) = −5.

• We are able to find the x-intercepts using our techniques from our work in Question ??.
These two important techniques rely on the function being presented in the form (x + a)2 + b. High-
lighting the usefulnesses of writing quadratic functions in the form

f (x) = (x + a)2 + b.

We will now take up how to put quadratic functions in this form.

10 Quadratic Functions II 169

10.1 Completing the Square

In Question 10.1, we found it much easier to graph g(x) = x2 − 2x − 4 because it was written in a
convenient form g(x) = (x − 1)2 − 5. Having the function in this form enabled us to find the vertex
and the x-intercepts. Our goal in this section is to manipulate any quadratic functions into the form
g(x) = A(x + B)2 + C.
: Hopefully all of our hard work with using the Table Model will now pay off. The method will also be
a sense making activity that could be reconstructed instead of something to memorize. The important
pieces to make sure to hammer home are
• Completing the square, much like factoring, is a process that we carry out on expressions.

• We are trying to rewrite an algebraic expression in a square form, (x + a)2 + b.

Question 10.2 In this question we are going to investigate how to turn x2 + 8x + 11 into the more
convenient form (x + 4)2 − 5.
a. Label the sides of the square and rectangle below so that the total area is x2 + 8x.

: Observe that we are ignoring the 11 at this point.

b. Our goal is to cut these pieces up and rearrange them into a square. Here is how one student
did this: she chopped the 8x rectangle in half. Label each side length. Has the area changed?
10 Quadratic Functions II 170

c. In the picture below one of the rectangles has been moved to the bottom. Label the side
lengths. Has the area changed?

d. Notice that this arrangement almost makes a square.

• What is the area of the three figures originally drawn?

• What would be the area of the square if that missing piece were included?

• What is the area of the missing piece?

e. Write an algebraic equation that relates the three expressions you just wrote above: the area
of the entire square, the area of missing piece, and x2 + 8x.

f. Rewrite x2 + 8x + 11 in completed square form.

h-
h Punchline:
: We could repeat this process to any expression of the form x2 + ax.

h
10 Quadratic Functions II 171

Question 10.3 In the following example, notice how the procedure varies if you are rewriting an
expression or solving an equation. Use the diagram to help.

a. Rewrite x2 + 10x − 15 in completed square : It’s good practice to show students how
form. to rewrite this expression. Students some-
time set the expression equal to 0, change
it to completed square form, and then
change it back to an expression. Help stu-
dents see the logical flaws, if brought up.
Although the correct answer is reached,
the process has two incorrect leaps.

b. Solve x2 + 10x = 15.

Question 10.4 Rewrite the expression x2 − 12x − 14 in completed square form using a picture to
organize your thoughts.

: Again, if students complain about being asked to show models and ask just to use algebra, empha-
size that they should practice with the models a few times and be able to solve them that way if asked.
However, on later problems, they will be able to choose their methods.

h
h Punchline:
: By abstracting the idea of the area model, we can again arrive at the table model. The table model
allows us to reason through the process while freeing us from making sure that everything is to scale.
10 Quadratic Functions II 172

Question 10.5 Rewrite the expression 2x2 −12x+11 in completed square form using a table model.

: There are two methods for dealing with quadratic expressions whose leading coefficients that are not
equal to one.
• In this example we could complete two squares.

• Another option is to factor out the two and work with just one square

• Drawing two pictures reinforces the understanding of what the coefficients mean.

• Emphasize that the complete square process as we have done it requires the leading coefficient to
be one.

Question 10.6 Solve the equation 5x2 + 20x = −8 using a picture to help you complete the square.
10 Quadratic Functions II 173

Question 10.7 Solve the equations using a table model to help you complete the square.
a. −x2 − 5 = −2x

b. 3x2 + 12x = 19
10 Quadratic Functions II 174

Question 10.8 First, decide which method for solving quadratic equations would be most efficient
for the equation at hand, then solve.

: Interleaving problems is important. It helps students practice thinking about which tool they will
pick. Make sure you let students work on this without any guidance of which strategy to choose.

a. −2x2 + 9x + 5 = 0 c. −9(x − 5)(x + 2) = 0

: Completing the square or factoring : Zero product property.
(−2x − 1)(x − 5)

d. 4x2 − 24x = −15

b. (x + 3)2 = 2
: Complete the square: 4(x − 3)2 − 36 =
: Making use of square roots. −15

h
h Punchline:
: This exercise presents interweaving of examples. It is up to the students to decide which tool will
work best. You don’t want to use a hammer to get a screw in the hole.

h
10 Quadratic Functions II 175

10.2 Solving Quadratic Equations with the Quadratic Formula

The standard form of a quadratic equation:
√ ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2
The quadratic formula is: x = . Page 175
−b± b −4ac
2a

Question 10.9 Use the quadratic formula to solve the following equations.
: Important notes:
• We will not be using complex numbers in 1010. In 1050 students will address complex numbers.
In this course if students need to take the square root of a negative number, we say that there is
no solution in the real numbers. We will not purposefully give problems of this type.

• Remind students it is important to simplify roots and fractions. It helps us communicate answers
in a common language.

a. x2 + 8x + 11 = 0 b. 2x2 − x = 6

Question 10.10 What information does the quadratic formula give about the...
• the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

• the graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

10 Quadratic Functions II 176

Question 10.11 Solve these two equations using completing the square method:
: Work both examples side by side. In the end clean up both answers so they are in the quadratic for- Page 176
mula form. The example in Part a. was chosen because all the coefficients are relatively prime.
: I was trying to figure out how to keep students engaged with this. This approach worked really well. I
worked both the exampl and the general case at the same time. Every few lines, I left a blank in a part
of the solution and had students indicate what should come next using multiple choice clicker questions.
You will see my work for this on the next page. The yellow highlighted parts are what I asked about.
The multiple choice questions I used follow.

a. 3x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 b. ax2 + bx + c = 0

Brendan Kelly

h
h Punchline:
: Completing the square justifies the quadratic formula. This is a huge point. That in order to feel
justified in using the quadratic formula, you need to be comfortable completing the square. Even
though the quadratic formula is a very different algorithm than completing the square, the technical
underpinnings animating the quadratic formula completing the square. This should be celebrated.
10 Quadratic Functions II 177

Multiple Choice Questions:

Question A B C D
36 25 5 10
1
25 36 6 6
b b b2
2 − b2
2a 2a 4a2
ab2 ab2 b2 b2
3 − −
4a2 4a2 4a2 4a2
4 1 12 24 100

5 4a2 5a 4 5
2
6 1 2a 2a 4a
10 Quadratic Functions II 178

Question 10.12 Practice using the quadratic formula to solve the following equations. Page 178

a. x2 = −3x − 5 b. 21x2 + x − 10 = 0

bk
10 Quadratic Functions II 179

10.3 Graphing Quadratic Functions in Completed Square Form

Question 10.13 Graph the function h(x) = (x − 2)2 + 1. Page 179
a. Why does our original strategy for finding the vertex of h not work?

: Reminder that our original strategy was to find the x-intercepts of h and take an average.

b. What is the minimum value of h(x)?

: Break this into parts. What is the minimum value of (x − 2)2 ?

c. Find the input that would give the smallest output for h(x) = (x − 2)2 + 1. Think critically
about which term you have control over.

: There are no x-intercepts. This should be quick for students to recognize if they set the function
equal to zero and use strategies from our chapter on square root functions.

d. Use this information to complete the table for h and then graph the points from the table.

10 x h(x)

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−2

−4

−6

−8

−10
10 Quadratic Functions II 180

Question 10.14 We investigate the function k(x) = −2x2 − 12x − 11. Page 180
a. Write k(x) in completed square form.

b. What is the vertex?

: Ask the students what are our strategies for finding the vertex?
(a) vertex form

(b) knowing the x-intercepts

Both are correct, so it depends on what you want to do afterward. Thinking a few steps ahead is
a difficult process for students. Stress if they think ahead they can save themselves times.

c. What are the x-intercepts?

d. Use this information to complete the table for k and then graph the points from the table.

: Remind students about efficient in the table. What value should we use to make our table. How many
points do we need to get a good shape? We would like students to be able to graph the parabola with 3
well chosen points. Technically a parabola is defined by any 3 points or the vertex and one other point.
We should avoid this technical point.

x k(x) 10

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−2

−4

−6

−8

−10
10 Quadratic Functions II 181

Question 10.15 Without graphing, find information about the function j(x) = x2 − 6x − 1. Page 181
a. Rewrite j(x) in completed square form.

b. Find algebraically

the x-intercept(s) the y-intercept vertex

bk

: (OPTIONAL)...Cut this if short on time.

Question 10.16
Information about each quadratic function is given. Write expressions for the functions in com-
pleted square form, a(x − h)2 + k. Page 181

a. m(x) has vertex (2,3) and passes through b. f (x) has vertex (0,9) and passes through
the point (3,0) the point (−1, 16).

bk
10 Quadratic Functions II 182

10.4 Applications of Quadratic Functions

We have seen three productive ways to write a quadratic function, in standard, factored form, or
completed square form. The format you should use depends on what you are trying to find.

Question 10.17 Use the different forms to find the y−intercept, x-intercepts, and vertex.

Page 182

y-intercept x-intercept(s) vertex

Standard Form: Factored Form: Completed Square/Vertex Form:

f (x) = 2x2 − 16x + 30 f (x) = 2(x − 3)(x − 5) f (x) = 2(x − 4)2 − 2

Question 10.18 If you have found the x−intercepts and you want to find the vertex, is rewriting
the function in vertex form the fastest way to accomplish your goal? Page 182
10 Quadratic Functions II 183

Question 10.19 A car’s gas mileage changes based on the speed the car is driven. The gas mileage
(in MPG) of a new mid-size car is given by the model g(x) = −0.01x2 + 1.16x + 9.36 . The domain
of this model is from 10 miles per hour to 90 miles per hour.

a. Draw a very ROUGH sketch of the graph. Include axes (label what they represent) and the
general graph shape.

b. What part of the graph will help you find the speed that will give the best gas mileage?

c. Find the speed that will give the best gas mileage.
10 Quadratic Functions II 184

Question 10.20 David Ortiz of the Boston Red Sox had an average off the bat speed of 102.2
miles per hour in the 2013 playoffs. His average vertical speed off the bat was 80 feet per second. A
mathematical model for the height of a ball he hit is given by h(t) = −16t2 + 80t where t is the time
in seconds since the ball was hit.
Page 184

a. A sketch of graph of h is on the right.

Label the axes with what they represent.

b. Which part of the graph, the vertex, the x-intercept(s) or the y-intercept gives information
about the following?

i. the initial height of the ball

ii. the highest height of the ball

iii. how long the ball is in the air

c. How long is the ball in the air?

: Make sure students refer back to iii. to help them form a strategy.

d. What was the maximum height of the ball and when does it occur?

: You could ask whether it would have been efficient to do this part before c.. Encourage them to
see why it is not (with our current techniques)

Page 184

e. According to our model, what was the initial height of the ball? What might you need to
change in the h(t) = −16t2 + 80t in order to compensate for the initial height of the ball?

f. What would the maximum height of the ball be now and when would it occur? Try to answer by
thinking about how your answer to e. would change the graph, rather than doing calculations.

: This problem is laying the groundwork for thinking about transformations that is so important
in 1050. We wont delve into in detail because that is 1050 turf, but we do want to plant seeds.
10 Quadratic Functions II 185

Question 10.21 To create a vaccine for a bacterial infection (like tetanus and Haemophilus in-
fluenzae type b) scientists collect toxins from bacteria and use them in small doses in the vaccine.
At the start of this process, the amount of toxin produced increases; however at a certain point, the
product becomes unstable and degrades.

For a certain vaccine, the amount of toxin (in micrograms) after t hours is given by the function

f (t) = −0.85(t2 − 80t)

.
: I think this is how the process works, but if anyone with more insight can say it more precisely, do
chime in!
Page 185

a. What are the t-intercepts of f (t)? What information do they give about the situation?

b. What is the vertex of f ? Round coordinates to two decimal places. What information does it
give about the situation?

: Some students know enough to use auto-pilot to make the connection: the vertex gives the max-
imum amount of vaccine. Help these students dig deeper. Why do we know the vertex will be
a maximum and not a minimum? What information does the x-coordinate of the vertex give?
What information does the y-coordinate of the vertex give?

c. What would be a realistic domain for the model f ? Why?

: We want students to realize it doesn’t make sense for the amount of toxin to be negative, so the
domain would be from 0 to 80 hours.
10 Quadratic Functions II 186

Question 10.22 A set of firework shells is launched from a platform. The function h(x) = −16(x −
2.5)2 + 120 gives the height from the ground in feet of the firework shell x seconds after launch.
a. Find the vertex of h. What information does it give about the situation?

b. Find the y− intercept of h. What information does it give about the situation?

c. After how many seconds is the firework shell 80 feet in the air?

: Note the one useful and the one inapplicable solution.

d. Solve h(x) = 0. What information does this give about the situation?

: If short on time, skip the finding part. The x-intercepts don’t give any useful information about
the situation. One is before it is fired and the other after it exploded.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 184

11 Power Functions and their Inverses

11.1 Power Functions
Page 143

Question 11.1 A country’s income distribution can be represented by a function L(x) called a
Lorenz curve. If we rank the country’s households from lowest to highest income, then L(x) repre-
sents the percent of the country’s total income that the bottom x percent of the population receives.
For example, if the bottom 20% of a country’s population earns 5% of the country’s income, then
L(0.2) = 0.05.
: Practicing graphing functions, knowing about the graph of power functions and generalizing our
work with quadratic functions are all great reasons start the exploration on power functions, however
the main reason we are covering power functions is we want to make use of them as we ask students to
make sense of rational exponents next week.
This chapter on power functions opens with an example from income inequality. We are using this idea
to show the importance of power functions. The central idea here has many different application. From
wikipedia: The concept is useful in describing inequality among the size of individuals in ecology[1] and
in studies of biodiversity, where the cumulative proportion of species is plotted against the cumulative
proportion of individuals.[2] It is also useful in business modeling: e.g., in consumer finance, to measure
the actual percentage y% of delinquencies attributable to the x% of people with worst risk scores.

a. Below are the graphs of two different Lorenz Curves. Which curve describes a country with
more income inequality? Justify your reasoning.

1
Cumulative share of income earned

.8

.6

.4

.2

.2 .4 .6 .8 1
Cumulative share of people from lowest to highest incomes

: Pick a point like (.7,.5) and have students make sense of what this point means in our model.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 185

Cumulative share of income earned

.8

.6

.4

.2

.2 .4 .6 .8 1
Cumulative share of people from lowest to highest incomes
Page 143
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 186

b. Below are two graphs that could not be Lorenz curves. Explain why not. Page 144

Cumulative share of income earned 1

.8

.6

.4

.2

.2 .4 .6 .8 1
Cumulative share of people from lowest to highest incomes

: Encourage students to analyze the point like (.1, .3). This point would say that the bottom ten
percent of income earners earns 30 percent of the income. This is impossible.

1
Cumulative share of income earned

.8

.6

.4

.2

.2 .4 .6 .8 1
Cumulative share of people from lowest to highest incomes

: Encourage students to analyze the point (1, .5). This point doesn’t explain the economy either
because one hundred percent of the population earns 100 percent of the income.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 187

c. Draw a Lorenz curve that would represent perfect equality of incomes. Page 145

Cumulative share of income earned

.8

.6

.4

.2

.2 .4 .6 .8 1
Cumulative share of people from lowest to highest incomes

d. What are some common features of all Lorenz curves?

h
h Punchlines:
: There are a few main observations to make:
• All Lorenz curves should be increasing.

• f (0) = 0

• f (1) = 1

• The curve should stay below the line y = x

• Not mentioned in 1010, but the curves can’t be concave down. They are concave up unless they
are linear.
Notice that functions of the form xa satisfy these conditions for 1 ≤ a. Later once we understand ratio-
1
nal exponents we will come back and see why x 2 can’t be a Lorenz curve. It isn’t worth talking about
here . We will prepare students to understand rational exponents. It would be confusing to dive into
that here #nospoilers.

h
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 188

Economists model Lorenz curves with functions of the form f (x) = xk with k ≥ 1.

Question 11.2 The Lorenz curves we defined have domain and range [0, 1]. Let’s investigate
f (x) = xk with k ≥ 1 more generally on the domain R. Page 146
Evaluate the following:

a. f (0) b. f (1).

c. For different k values, graph f (x). The functions with k = 1 and k = 2 should be familiar by
now.

i. k = 1 ii. k = 2
6 6

4 4

2 2

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

iii. k = 3

: What would be good x values to plug in?

x f (x) = x3 8

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

−4

−6

−8
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 189

iv. k = 4 Page 147

: Useful x-values are -0, x f (x) = x4 6

0.5,0.9, 1, and 1.5. Then
use symmetry.
4

−6 −4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

−6

v. k = 5

: Similar x-values to before : Draw attention to the fact 6

are useful to show the dif- that the graph appears flat
ferences in these graphs on around the origin, but it
the interval [0, 1]. is growing. The growth is
very small. 4
x f (x) = x5

−6 −4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

−6

h Punchlines:
: We want students to be efficient table makers. They should hopefully be choosing posi-
tive and negative values. If you just had positive numbers, you would not see the big dif-
ference between these two functions.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 190

Question 11.3 Draw the general graph for f (x) = xk , with k > 1.
Page 148

f (x) = xk with k f (x) = xk with k

Question 11.4 If Country A has a Lorenz curve that is modeled by x5 and Country B has a Lorenz
curve that is modeled by x2 on [0, 1], which country has more income inequality? What is .52 ? What
is .55 ?

Question 11.5 Is f (x) = xk an invertible function? How do you know?

h
h Punchlines:
: A few big punchlines come from this
• The shape of xk .

• xk is invertible if k is odd.

• xk is not invertible if k is even.

• We will come back to the invertible question in more detail when we cover radical functions.
You don’t need to go into detail here; we will circle back.

h
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 191

11.2 n−th Root Functions

√
: Before starting this, it’s useful to have students remember what x means. Consider doing this
through a clicker question.

√
Question 11.6 We investigate the function f (x) = 3
x. Page 149
√
What does 3 x mean?

: Don’t assume that students know what this notation means. You will need to invite students to the
√ √ √
convention, 3 x · 3 x · 3 x = x. Draw the connection to square roots and look in the punchline box below
for more information about how to sell this.

a. Complete the table for f and then graph the function.

x f (x)

1 6

4
0
2
8
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−1 −2

−4
−8

−6
: After students fill in the table you can ask
them why the inputs were chosen. What other
values would be easy to input into this func-
tion?

b. Report the following:

the domain the x-intercept(s) the y-intercept

h
h Punchlines:
: g(x) = x3 is invertible and we do not need to restrict the domain which makes it very different than
x2 . This means:
√
• We can define f (x) = 3 x to be the inverse function of g(x) = x3 .
√
• f (x) = 3
x outputs the number whose cube equals the input.
√
• A geometric meaning will help students see where the name comes from. f (x) = 3
x outputs the
side length of a cube whose area is equal to the input x.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 192

√
Question 11.7 We investigate the function f (x) = 4
x. Page 150
√
a. Below is a sketch of the graph of g(x) = x4 . Use the graph to sketch the graph of f (x) = 4
x
on the same axis.

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−2

−4

√
b. Report the following for f (x) = 4
x:

the domain the x-intercept(s) the y-intercept

h
h Punchlines:
: g(x) = x4 is not invertible. This should feel very familiar to students from Question 9.1. Hopefully
students will see that f (x) = x4 isn’t invertible by looking at the graph.
Just like we did for h(x) = x2 ask students if we can restrict the domain f (x) = x4 of so it is invertible.
This question should be productive now that we have hashed this out for square roots. This conversa-
tion should land on the following convention.
√
• f (x) = 4 x is the inverse function for f (x) = x4 if you restrict the domain to [0, ∞)
The following picture could be helpful to draw:
√ √
• A verbal description of x can also be useful: f (x) = x outputs the nonnegative number
whose square is x. Students might want√to relax to the positive number whose square is x,
however this means we haven’t defined 0.
√
• We could also use a geometric lens. f (x) = x outputs the length of a square whose area is x.
The following picture could be helpful.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 193

√
Question 11.8 Draw the general graph for f (x) = k
x.
Page 151

√ √
k
x with k even k
x with k odd

√
Question 11.9 Below are some students’ thoughts about f (x) = xk and g(x) = k x when k is a
positive integer. Identify which students are confused and think about how you would help them
see their misconceptions. Page 151

a. Lace thinks that xk ≥ x for every x.

b. TJ thinks that since h(x) = x2 is not invertible, that f (x) = x3 is not invertible.

√ √
c. Joel thinks that 3
x≥ x for x > 0.

√
d. Kristin notices that f (x) = xk and g(x) = k
x share 2 common points.
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 194

√ √ √
e. Dego says k
a + b 6= k
a+ k
b. Page 152

√
f. Molly knows the general shape of k
x because she memorized it.

h
h Punchlines:
: When students get stuck encourage them to try something. A few examples are a great way to gen-
erate knowledge. Tinkering and discovering is at the heart of doing mathematics. Inviting students
into this practice is important.
• xk is invertible when k is odd

• xk is not invertible when k is even.

√ √ √
• k a + b 6= k a + b
k

h
11 Power Functions and their Inverses 195

Question 11.10 Economists have modeled US income inequality using the Lorenz curve:

f (x) = x3.5

This raises an important question that has gone unanswered.

Page 153
: more research needed
12 Exponential Functions II 196

12 Exponential Functions II
: The big goal of this section is to make sense of rational exponents.
Page 154

Question 12.1 Below is a graph of f (x) = 2x

−2 −1 1 2

The graph showcases things we have discovered about exponential functions.

• f (0) = 1 • f (−1) = 12 .

a. How did we go about thinking about what the value of 20 should be?

b. How did we go about thinking about what the value of 2−1 should be?

: An opportunity to revisit how we defined 20 and 2−1 . Hopefully students will recall that these
definitions were a consequence of our exponential rules. The exact argument may or may not be
so fresh for them.

c. Nate thinks that 21.5 should be half way between 21 and 22 . Use the graph above to evaluate
Nate’s idea.
: It is easy see that the the graph is not a line, but when you look between any two integers a line
doesn’t seem like such a bad fit. Hand drawing a line might not work so well on the fly. Practice
or have a computer drawn image ready to help students evaluate Nate’s idea. Even on a computer
you might not see the difference so clearly.

h
h Punchlines:
: A first guess on how to define fractional exponents is to go a fractional amount between the
integer exponents we know how to define. If this were the case, the graph for 2x would be piece-
wise linear and not a curve. We will use rules of exponents just like we did before to figure out
what the definition of a rational exponent should be.

h
12 Exponential Functions II 197

3
d. Calculate (2 2 )2 using our exponent rules. Page 155

: 23 .

√
e. Explain what 23 means.
√
: We now have many ways of thinking about 23 . In this instance I would go with the positive
number so that when you square it you end up with 23 .

3
f. Combine Parts d. and e. to make sense of 2 2
√ 3
: 23 = 2 2 . Yes be excited. This was a long time coming. remember way back when (late
September?) that we asked the next question?

Question 12.2 A colony of bacteria is being grown in a laboratory. It contains a million bacteria
at 12 : 00 noon (time 0), and the population is doubling every hour. How many bacteria are there
after 1.5 hours?
3 √
: This was Question 3.1Bacteriaquestion.3.1.e.BacteriaItem.5 1000000 · 2 2 = 1000000 · 23 ≈ 2828427.12

h
h Punchlines:

h
12 Exponential Functions II 198

1
Question 12.3 Let us redo this for a 2 :
: There was nothing special about 2.
Page 156
 
1 2
a. Calculate a 2

√
b. Explain what a means.

1
c. Combine Parts a. and b. to make sense of a 2 :

h
h Punchlines:
1 √
: a2 = a

h
12 Exponential Functions II 199

7
Question 12.4 What does 2 5 mean?
1
: What about rational exponents that have a denominator different than 2?

Page 157
7
a. Calculate (2 )5 . Assume the exponent rules from before apply.
5

√
5
b. Explain what 27 means.

7
c. Combine Parts a. and b. to make sense of 2 5 .

Question 12.5 Use Questions 12.1, 12.3, and 12.4 to come up with a good definition of 5 n .
m

h
h Punchlines:
m √ √
: 5n = 5 = ( n 5)m
n m

• The first equality is the definition we have landed by using our rules of exponents.
m 1
• The second equality is justified by using our exponent rules 5 n = (5 m )n

h
12 Exponential Functions II 200

Question 12.6 When we defined an exponential function, we precluded functions of the form
f (x) = (−2)x . Do you know why? Page 158

a. Complete the following table. b. Plot the points you found in Part a and con-
nect them with a smooth curve so as to in-
dicate what the graph of f (x) = (−2)x might
x (−2)x look like.
8
3
6

4
2

1
−3 −1 1 3

−2
-1
−4

−6
-2
−8
hi

: If you plot the points in the table you wouldn’t see anything wrong with (−2)x . It oscillates but
actually lots of functions oscillate as you will see in 1060.

1


c. What is f 2 ?
1 √
: This makes the entire thing problematic. We know that (−2) 2 = −2 which is not defined.
12 Exponential Functions II 201

d. Can you find another x value that would be problematic to input into f ?

: If the function were merely poorly behaved at x = 12 , we could excuse that point. It turns out
that any rational number that has an even number in the denominator after you simplify will be-
come problematic. That is a lot of problems!

h
h Punchline:
: Understanding the problems created by our example f (x) = (−2)x shows us why defining g(x) = bx
with b < 0 is problematic.

h
12 Exponential Functions II 202

Question 12.7 Simplify the following. Show work for your answers. Write the answers using
simplified positive exponents. If the answers have fractional exponents, also write them with nth
roots. Page 159
3
a. x 2 x 2
5
x3
c. −1
x 2

 2
6
  x 3 y2
5 4 d.
b. y3 1
x−1 y 2 y 2
3

h
h Punchline:
: We defined rational exponents so that they jive with our exponent rules. So you can do these exer-
cises as if it were September. If students get stuck can they simplify simpler examples? For instance
students make sense of 23 24 = 27 .

h
12 Exponential Functions II 203

Question 12.8 Economists have modeled US income inequality using a Lorenz curve: the function
f (x) = x3.5 . Page 160
a. What does f (.3) mean in context of the Lorenz function?

b. Make sense of the number .33.5 .

c. Use your new understanding of fractional exponents to show that f (1) = 1.

Question 12.9 We have seen that you can use power functions to model economic inequality with
1
Lorenz Curves. The lower the exponent the more equality there was. Could f (x) = x 2 represent a
Lorenz Curve?

h
h Punchline:
: Now that we understand rational exponents we can begin to use them in our modeling endeavors.
When generating strategies to answer this equation help students
• plot points

• use a table

• make sense that a Lorenz curve cannot go above the line y = x.

h
13 Graphing and Solving 204

13 Graphing and Solving

13.1 Recognizing Structure in Solving Equations

Type Equation Key Technique

(x + 3)2 = 5
: Quadratic

p √
: (x + 3)2 = ± 5 : Take square root of both sides.

p
(x + 3) = 5

2(x+3) = 25

2(x+3) = 5

log7 (x + 3) = 5

Question 13.1 Solve the following equations:

√
a. x=7 b. 2x = 8 c. log2 (x) = 4
13 Graphing and Solving 205

Question 13.2 Solve the following equation: 2(x − 5)2 + 7 = 9

: If students don’t know where to start, ask them to solve 2a + 7 = 9 for a.

Page 205

Question 13.3 Solve the following equations:

√
a. x − 3 + 4 = 20 b. 2x−3 + 9 = 41 c. log2 (x − 3) − 2 = 4

√
Question 13.4 Solve the following equation: x+1+7 = 4

Punchline:
: We want students to see the similarities in solving the above equations.
• Isolate (with algebra) the term with x.

• Apply an inverse operation.

• Finish solving for x.

h
13 Graphing and Solving 206

Question 13.5 Solve the following equations:

Page 206
√ √
a. 3−x−2 = 0 b. x+4−1 = 0 c. 2 · 53x−2 + 1 = 51

Question 13.6 Solve the following equations:

a. 4 + 3x−6 = 34 b. 3 · 2x + 5 = 29 c. 2 log(5 − x) = 8
13 Graphing and Solving 207

13.2 Efficient Graphing

Question 13.7 Draw the general graph shape for each of the function or equation types below.
Note any important features.
: I think of this page as an early review for the final. See how much students can remember on their
own/together.

• linear (slope is not 0 or • linear where slope is 0 • linear where slope is

undefined) undefined

• exponential • logarithmic

• quadratic • square root

• xn where n is an odd whole number, • xn where n is an even whole number

but not 1

√ √
• n
x where n is odd and greater than 2 • n
x where n is even and greater than 1
13 Graphing and Solving 208

Question 13.8 We had two strategies for graphing quadratic functions. What were the two
strategies?
: Two strategies: Page 208
1. Find the x-intercepts and vertex
2. Write in completed square form and use an efficient table (by including vertex and points around ver-
tex.
: You can ask if one strategy was more effective than the other. (#1 only worked if the function had
rational x-intercepts...so #2 helped us in more situations) Here, we will be generalizing #2 to use with
other types of functions.
In this class, we’d like student to get really good at using efficient tables to graph to graph square root
and exponential functions. We will always give them to the student in transformation form, i.e. rewrit-
ing something to be in transformation form is not part of what we cover. What the student needs to do
is identify the horizontal shift and input this and other strategic nearby values in their table. Then plot
the graph using points and knowledge of graph shape.
In Math 1010, we intentionally do not cover graphing by transformations. This will be covered in 1050.
Of course, if students already know and figure comfortable using transformations or if they generalize
what they are doing, support them individually, but don’t intentionally lead the class there. Our strat-
egy here is that by using tables, students are exposed to how functions are transforming. When they get
to Math 1050, we hope that generalizing what happens in the table into the theory of function transfor-
mations will come naturally.
We have had many discussions about what to call the value that the graph is shift by. We have used the
language “central table value” and “origin shift value” and ”horizontal shift” before in this class. You
can use what term makes sense for you and your class.
Also, note we only cover square root and exponential equations with the table method. We leave log
functions to future classes. That is because for logs, graphing these with transformation techniques is
easier than trying to figure out efficient tables.

Question 13.9 Let f (x) = (x + 1)2 − 3

a. Use the table below to help graph f (x). Be efficient, the table only has 3 slots.

x f (x) 6

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2

−4

−6
13 Graphing and Solving 209

h
h Punchline:
: We used the x-value for the vertex and one/two points on either side.

h
13 Graphing and Solving 210

√
Question 13.10 We investigate the function f (x) = x + 4 − 1. Page 210
a. What is the domain of f (x)?

b. Fill in a representative set of numbers in the table to get a sketch for f (x).

x f (x) 6

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
: Make sure students use the table efficiently.

−2

−4

−6

c. Does the graph above have the same shape as x f (x)

the earlier square root graph? Were the points
you picked for your table useful? If not, strate-
gically add a few more points to the table and
plot them on the graph.

h
h Punchlines:
: The origin shift value (or whatever your class is calling it) and the domain help us figure out points
to make an efficient table with. Also use inputs that are easy to evaluate the square root of.

h
13 Graphing and Solving 211

√
Question 13.11 We investigate the function h(x) = 3 − x − 2. Page 211
a. What is the domain of the function?

b. Use this information to complete the table for h and then graph the points from the table.

x h(x) 6

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2

−4

−6

c. Estimate from the graph:

the y-intercept(s) the x-intercept

d. Find with algebra:

the y-intercept the x-intercept

13 Graphing and Solving 212

Question 13.12 Graph m(x) = 4x+2 − 3 by using a table efficiently. Page 212

a. important input:

b. table: 6

x m(x) 4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

c. asymptote:

d. Estimate the x-intercept from the graph:

e. Find with algebra:

the y-intercept(s) the x-intercept

13 Graphing and Solving 213

Question 13.13 Graph n(x) = ( 13 )x−2 + 2 by using a table efficiently.

a. important input:

b. table: 6

x n(x) 4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

c. asymptote:

d. Find the y-intercept with algebra:

13 Graphing and Solving 214

13.3 Summary of Functions

This was a question on the Fall 2017 Math 1010 final exam. Answer the question and explain what
to look for in the information provided in order to answer the question.

Question 13.14 Identify the type of function being presented. You only need to give the answer,
however if you are uncertain, work/explanation may earn partial credit. The choices are:

• linear • xn where n is an odd whole number, but not 1

• exponential • xn where n is an even whole number
• logarithmic √
• n x where n is odd and greater than 2
• quadratic √
• n x where n is even and greater than 1
• square root

a. The function given in the table: c. The function in the graph:

6
x f (x) 4
1 62
m
2 40 2
3 22
4 8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
5 -2 −2
−4
Type of function:
−6

Type of function:

b. The function p(t) described below: d. What type of function is g(x) if

g −1 (x) = 3x ?
The total student enrollment at the Univer-
sity of Utah for 2016 was 32,061. The en-
rollment is predicted to increase at a rate of Type of function:
2% each year. Let t be the number of years
after 2016 and p(t) be the total student en-
rollment predicted using this information.

Type of function:
14 Modeling Sea Ice 215

14 Modeling Sea Ice

: This section is about using different functions to model an important event in climate change. We will
use linear functions, quadratic functions, and exponential functions. It should bring back together lots
of key ideas from the semester and highlight the role mathematics plays in science.

: You will probably need to explain this chart. The lightest region is the 2012 sea ice level, the next
color with the lightest color is the 1998 ice level, and the three shades together represent the 1980 level.
To help orient people you can point out Alaska, Greenland, England, ect.

Question 14.1 What do you wonder? What are you curious about? What data would you want
to look at to analyze this problem?

: What follows is a sequence of questions that will help us predict when there will be no arctic sea ice.
Value all students’ curiosities, but dig in if they wonder when there will be no ice.

This section is inspired by the work of emerging scholars TJ Hazen and Johnny Powell. The data used comes
from Polar Science Center.
14 Modeling Sea Ice 216

Below is a graph of the volume of ice (km3 ) measured each September, from 1980 to today. In
1980 there was 17 km3 of sea ice. In September 2017, there was 4.5 km3 of sea ice.

Volume of Ice (km3 ) 20

15

10
September

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Year
We will create different models to analyze the disappearance of Arctic sea ice. In each of the
models, t is the number of years since 1980.
a. If we assume that the ice is shrinking at a constant rate of .3 km3 per year, write a function
f (t) that models the amount of ice in September t years after 1980.

: Students should recognize that this is calling for a linear function.

b. Alternatively, we could assume that the volume of ice decreases by 3% each year. Write a
function g(t) that models the amount of ice in September t years after 1980.

: Exponential functions model constant percent change.

c. What year would your function f (t) predict as having the first iceless September?

: If students are stuck help them devise a strategy, Draw out of the students what part of the
graph will give this information and how do we find it.

d. When would your function g(t) predict the amount of ice to fall below 3 km3 in September.

e. What year would your function g(t) predict as having the first iceless September?

: An exponential function will never predict an iceless September since there is a horizontal
asymptote.
14 Modeling Sea Ice 217

f. Here we see the two models graphs along with the data. Label each function either f (t) or
g(t).

Volume of Ice (km3 ) 20

15

10
September

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

Year

g. Which model do you think is better?

h. Some scientists believe that the rate of change is increasing and the function modeling the
volume of sea ice has constant acceleration.
: This is a call back to the falling objects. We want them to draw a decreasing and concave down
function. We will model this assumption with a quadratic function on the next page.

i. What kind of function would we use to model this assumption?

ii. Sketch a curve that would do this on top of axes above.

14 Modeling Sea Ice 218

i. Working under the assumption that ice is disappearing at an accelerating rate, scientists are
using the following quadratic function to predict the volume of ice in September measured in
(km3 ).
q(t) = −.007t2 − .05t + 15,
where t is the number of years since 1980.

i. Look at the algebraic representation for q(t). What meaning does 15 have in this context?

: Factoring and completing the square seem unreasonably inefficient here. With the
quadratic formula we need to make sure that we have a calculator ready to do some estimat-
ing. Note that we are using continuous model to describe a discrete phenomenon.

ii. What year does this model predict will be the first iceless September?

iii. Does your calculation make sense with the sketch you drew in h.ii.?

j. What other variables do you think influence the rate at which the ice is disappearing?

: The end of the course is important. All semester I have hinted at future mathematics courses. I want
to make sure my students see pathways to the next math course. For most students 1050 will be the
next step I will try and build some excitement for this.