R5 Space

Mathematics
Main article: Three-dimensional space

Not to be confused with Space (mathematics).
In modern mathematics spaces are defined as sets with some added structure. They
are frequently described as different types of manifolds, which are spaces that
locally approximate to Euclidean space, and where the properties are defined
largely on local connectedness of points that lie on the manifold. There are
however, many diverse mathematical objects that are called spaces. For example,
vector spaces such as function spaces may have infinite numbers of independent
dimensions and a notion of distance very different from Euclidean space, and
topological spaces replace the concept of distance with a more abstract idea of
nearness.
Physics
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F → = m a → {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}=m{\vec {a}}}
Second law of motion

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Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics, meaning that it cannot
be defined via other quantities because nothing more fundamental is known at the
present. On the other hand, it can be related to other fundamental quantities.
Thus, similar to other fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space can be
explored via measurement and experiment.
Today, our three-dimensional space is viewed as embedded in a four-dimensional
spacetime, called Minkowski space (see special relativity). The idea behind space-
time is that time is hyperbolic-orthogonal to each of the three spatial dimensions.
Relativity
Main article: Theory of relativity
Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were viewed as
independent dimensions. Einstein's discoveries showed that due to relativity of
motion our space and time can be mathematically combined into one object–spacetime.
It turns out that distances in space or in time separately are not invariant with
respect to Lorentz coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski space-
time along space-time intervals are—which justifies the name.
In addition, time and space dimensions should not be viewed as exactly equivalent
in Minkowski space-time. One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, time
and space coordinates are treated differently both in special relativity (where
time is sometimes considered an imaginary coordinate) and in general relativity
(where different signs are assigned to time and space components of spacetime
metric).
Furthermore, in Einstein's general theory of relativity, it is postulated that
space-time is geometrically distorted – curved – near to gravitationally
significant masses.[25]
One consequence of this postulate, which follows from the equations of general
relativity, is the prediction of moving ripples of space-time, called gravitational
waves. While indirect evidence for these waves has been found (in the motions of
the Hulse–Taylor binary system, for example) experiments attempting to directly
measure these waves are ongoing at the LIGO and Virgo collaborations. LIGO
scientists reported the first such direct observation of gravitational waves on 14
September 2015.[26][27]
Cosmology
Main article: Shape of the universe
Relativity theory leads to the cosmological question of what shape the universe is,
and where space came from. It appears that space was created in the Big Bang, 13.8
billion years ago[28] and has been expanding ever since. The overall shape of space
is not known, but space is known to be expanding very rapidly due to the cosmic
inflation.
Spatial measurement
Main article: Measurement
The measurement of physical space has long been important. Although earlier
societies had developed measuring systems, the International System of Units, (SI),
is now the most common system of units used in the measuring of space, and is
almost universally used.
Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is
defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of
exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. This definition coupled with present definition
of the second is based on the special theory of relativity in which the speed of
light plays the role of a fundamental constant of nature.
Geographical space
See also: Spatial analysis
Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing places
on Earth, utilizing spatial awareness to try to understand why things exist in
specific locations. Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow better
navigation, for visualization purposes and to act as a locational device.
Geostatistics apply statistical concepts to collected spatial data of Earth to
create an estimate for unobserved phenomena.
Geographical space is often considered as land, and can have a relation to
ownership usage (in which space is seen as property or territory). While some
cultures assert the rights of the individual in terms of ownership, other cultures
will identify with a communal approach to land ownership, while still other
cultures such as Australian Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to
land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the land.
Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with
decisions made at regional, national and international levels. Space can also
impact on human and cultural behavior, being an important factor in architecture,
where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming.
Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters
is decided internationally. Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to
other spaces—for example to the radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to
cyberspace.
Public space is a term used to define areas of land as collectively owned by the
community, and managed in their name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to
all, while private property is the land culturally owned by an individual or
company, for their own use and pleasure.
Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hypothetical space
characterized by complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a
conceptual tool used to limit extraneous variables such as terrain.
In psychology
Psychologists first began to study the way space is perceived in the middle of the
19th century. Those now concerned with such studies regard it as a distinct branch
of psychology. Psychologists analyzing the perception of space are concerned with
how recognition of an object's physical appearance or its interactions are
perceived, see, for example, visual space.
Other, more specialized topics studied include amodal perception and object
permanence. The perception of surroundings is important due to its necessary
relevance to survival, especially with regards to hunting and self preservation as
well as simply one's idea of personal space.
Several space-related phobias have been identified, including agoraphobia (the fear
of open spaces), astrophobia (the fear of celestial space) and claustrophobia (the
fear of enclosed spaces).
The understanding of three-dimensional space in humans is thought to be learned
during infancy using unconscious inference, and is closely related to hand-eye
coordination. The visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions is
called depth perception.
In the Social Sciences
Space has been studied in the social sciences from the perspectives of Marxism,
feminism, postmodernism, postcolonialism, urban theory and critical geography.
These theories account for the effect of the history of colonialism, transatlantic
slavery and globalization on our understanding and experience of space and place.
The topic has garnered attention since the 1980s, after the publication of Henri
Lefebvre's The Production of Space . In this book, Lefebvre applies Marxist ideas
about the production of commodities and accumulation of capital to discuss space as
a social product. His focus is on the multiple and overlapping social processes
that produce space.[29]
In his book The Condition of Postmodernity, David Harvey describes what he terms
the "time-space compression." This is the effect of technological advances and
capitalism on our perception of time, space and distance.[30] Changes in the modes
of production and consumption of capital affect and are affected by developments in
transportation and technology. These advances create relationships across time and
space, new markets and groups of wealthy elites in urban centers, all of which
annihilate distances and affect our perception of linearity and distance.[31]
In his book Thirdspace, Edward Soja describes space and spatiality as an integral
and neglected aspect of what he calls the "trialectics of being," the three modes
that determine how we inhabit, experience and understand the world. He argues that
critical theories in the Humanities and Social Sciences study the historical and
social dimensions of our lived experience, neglecting the spatial dimension.[32] He
builds on Henri Lefebvre's work to address the dualistic way in which humans
understand space—as either material/physical or as represented/imagined. Lefebvre's
"lived space"[33] and Soja's "thridspace" are terms that account for the complex
ways in which humans understand and navigate place, which "firstspace" and
"Secondspace" (Soja's terms for material and imagined spaces respectively) do not
fully encompass.
Postcolonial theorist Homi Bhabha's concept of Third Space is different from Soja's
Thirdspace, even though both terms offer a way to think outside the terms of a
binary logic. Bhabha's Third Space is the space in which hybrid cultural forms and
identities exist. In his theories, the term hybrid describes new cultural forms
that emerge through the interaction between colonizer and colonized.[34].

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Mathematics

Main article: Three-dimensional space

Second law of motion

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