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George A. Matzkanin
TRI/Austin
Austin, TX

This edition of TechSolutions is the second installment in a series dedicated to the subject of nondestructive testing. TechSolutions 1,
published in Volume 1, Number 2 of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, introduced the concept of nondestructive testing and provided brief
descriptions of the various nondestructive testing techniques currently available. This article continues the series and focuses in on the most
common nondestructive testing technique: Visual Inspection. The next TechSolutions article in this series will delve into detail about
another common nondestructive testing technique: Eddy Current Testing. Once the series on nondestructive methods is complete, we will
combine all of the articles into a valuable desk reference on nondestructive testing. - Editor

Selecting a Nondestructive Testing Method, Part II: Visual Inspection

INTRODUCTION noted in the literature that experience in visual inspection and

Visual inspection is by far the most common nondestructive discussion with experienced visual inspectors revealed that this
testing (NDT) technique [1]. When attempting to determine NDT method includes more than use of the eye, but also
the soundness of any part or specimen for its intended includes other sensory and cognitive processes used by inspec-
application, visual inspection is normally the first step in the tors [3]. Thus, there is now an expanded definition of visual
examination process. Generally, almost any specimen can be inspection in the literature:
visually examined to determine the accuracy of its fabrication. “Visual inspection is the process of examination
For example, visual inspection can be used to determine and evaluation of systems and components by use
whether the part was fabricated to the correct size, whether of human sensory systems
the part is complete, or whether all of the parts have been aided only by mechanical The human eye is one of
appropriately incorporated into the device. [2] enhancements to sensory mankind’s most fascinating
While direct visual inspection is the most common input as magnifiers, dental tools and is capable of
nondestructive testing technique (Figure 1), many other NDT picks, stethoscopes, and the assessing many visual
methods require visual intervention to interpret images like. The inspection process characteristics and
obtained while carrying out the examination. For instance, may be done using such identifying various types
penetrant inspection using visible red or fluorescent dye relies behaviors as looking, listen- of discontinuities.
on the inspector’s ability to visually identify surface indications. ing, feeling, smelling,
Magnetic particle inspection falls into the same category of shaking, and twisting. It included a cognitive
visible and fluorescent inspection techniques, and radiography component wherein observations are correlated
relies on the interpreter’s visual judgement of the radiographic with knowledge of structure and with descriptions
image, which is either on film or on a video monitor. The and diagrams from service literature.” [3]
remainder of this article provides a summary of the visual test-
ing method, which at the minimum requires visual contact PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
with the portion of the specimen that is being inspected. The human eye is one of mankind’s most fascinating tools. It
In arriving at a definition of visual inspection, it has been has greater precision and accuracy than many of the most
sophisticated cameras. It has unique focusing capabilities and
has the ability to work in conjunction with the human brain so
that it can be trained to find specific details or characteristics
in a part or test piece. It has the ability to differentiate and
distinguish between colors and hues as well. The human eye is
capable of assessing many visual characteristics and identifying
various types of discontinuities*. The eye can perform accurate
inspections to detect size, shape, color, depth, brightness,
contrast, and texture. Visual testing is essentially used to detect
any visible discontinuities, and in many cases, visual testing
may locate portions of a specimen that should be inspected
further by other NDT techniques.
Many inspection factors have been standardized so that cat-
egorizing them as major and minor characteristics has become
common [4]. Surface finish verification of machined parts has
Figure 1. Visual Inspection of a Torpedo Tube Aboard a Navy
even been developed, and classification can be performed by
Attack Submarine (Photo Courtesy of the Department of Defense; visual comparison to manufactured finish standards. In the fab-
Photo Taken by JO3 Corwin Colbert, USN) rication industry, weld size, contour, length, and inspection for

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surface discontinuities are routinely specified. Many companies • Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors)
have mandated the need for qualified and certified visual weld • Magnifying glasses, eye loupes, multilens magnifiers,
inspection. This is the case particularly in the power industry, measuring magnifiers
which requires documentation of training and qualification • Microscopes (optical and electron)
of the inspector. Forgings and castings are normally inspected • Optical flats (for surface flatness measurement)
for surface indications such as laps, seams, and other various • Borescopes and fiber optic borescopes
surface conditions. • Optical comparators
• Photographic records
INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS • Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems (alone and
Requirements for visual inspection typically pertain to the coupled to borescopes/microscopes)
vision of the inspector; the amount of light falling on the spec- • Machine vision systems
imen, which can be measured with a light meter; and whether • Positioning and transport systems (often used with
the area being inspected is in anyway obstructed from view. CCTV systems)
In many cases, each of these requirements is detailed in • Image enhancement (computer analysis and enhancement)
regulatory code or other inspection criteria [2].
Mechanical and/or optical aids may be necessary to perform Before any mechanical or optical aids are used, the
visual testing. Because visual inspection is so frequently used, specimen should be well illuminated and have a clean surface.
several companies now manufacture gages to assist visual After the eyeball examination, mechanical aids help to improve
inspection examinations. Mechanical aids include: measuring the precision of an inspector’s vision. As specifications and
rules and tapes, calipers and micrometers, squares and angle tolerances become closer, calipers and micrometers become
measuring devices, thread, pitch and thickness gages, level necessary. The variety of gages available help to determine
gages, and plumb lines. Welding fabrication uses fillet gages to thread sizes, gap thicknesses, angles between parts, hole depths,
determine the width of the weld fillet, undercut gages, angle and weld features.
gages, skew fillet weld gages, pit gages, contour gages, and a As it becomes necessary to see smaller and smaller
host of other specialty items to ensure product quality. discontinuities, the human eyes require optical aids that enable
At times direct observation is impossible and remote view- inspectors to see these tiny discontinuities. However, the
ing is necessary which requires the use of optical aids. Optical increased magnification limits the area that can be seen at one
aids for visual testing range from simple mirrors or magnifying time, and also increases the amount of time it will take to look
glasses to sophisticated devices, such as closed circuit television at the entire specimen. Mirrors let the inspector see around
and coupled fiber optic scopes. The following list includes corners or past obstructions. Combined with lenses and placed
most optical aids currently in use [2]: in rigid tubes, borescopes enable the inspector to see inside
specimens such as jet engines, nuclear piping and fuel
bundles, and complex machinery. When the rigid
borescope cannot reach the desired area, flexible
bundles of optical fibers often are able to access the
area. Figure 2 shows visual inspection using a fiber
optic borescope. Some of the flexible borescopes have
devices that permit the observation end of the scope
to be moved around by a control at the eyepiece end.
Some are also connected to CCTV systems so that a
large picture may be examined and the inspection
recorded on videotape or digitally. When the video
systems are combined with computers, the images can
be improved which may allow details not observable
in the original to be seen.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Visual inspection is applicable to most surfaces, but is
most effective where the surfaces have been cleaned
Figure 2. An Inspector at Tinker Air Force Base Gets a Magnified View of an prior to examination, for example, any scale or loose
Engine’s High-Pressure Turbine Area with a New Digital Fiber-Optic paint should be removed by wire brushing, etc. Vision
Borescope. (Photo Courtesy of US Air Force; Photo taken by Margo Wright) testing of an inspector often requires eye examinations

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A D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S , M A N U FA C T U R I N G AND TESTING
A MMTIAC

with standard vision acuity cards such as Jaeger, Snellen, and necessary) would benefit bridge inspection. Additional details
color charts. Vision testing of inspectors has been in use for are fully documented in the two-volume final report [6].
about 40 years. Although many changes in NDT methods have In the second comprehensive study of visual inspection,
taken place over the years and new technologies have been experiments were performed at the Federal Aviation Adminis-
developed, vision testing has changed little over time. Also little tration’s (FAA’s) Aging Aircraft Nondestructive Inspection
has been done to standardize vision tests used in the industrial Validation Center (AANC) to provide a benchmark measure of
sector. For those seeking certification in the area of visual the capability for visual inspection performed under conditions
testing, the ASNT Level III Study Guide and Supplement on that are realistically similar to those usually found in major
Visual and Optical Testing provides a useful reference [5]. airline maintenance facilities [3]. More than
80 percent of inspections on large transport
SELECTED EXAMPLES category aircraft are visual inspections.
Two major studies of visual inspection that Small transport and general aviation aircraft
have been carried out in recent years provide rely on visual inspection techniques even
a great deal of insight into the reliability more heavily than do large transport aircraft.
of visual inspection. Since visual inspection is Visual inspection, then, is the first line of
the predominant NDT technique used for defense for safety-related failures on aircraft
bridge inspection, the Federal Highway and provides the least expensive and quickest
Administration (FHWA) Nondestructive method for assessing the condition of an
Evaluation Validation Center (NDEVC) aircraft and its parts [3]. Therefore, accurate
conducted a comprehensive study to examine and proficient visual inspection is crucial
Figure 3. Part of a Routine
the reliability of the visual inspection method Bridge Visual Inspection [6].
to the continued safe operation of the
for highway bridges [6]. Performance trials air fleet and it is important that its reliability
were conducted using 49 state bridge inspec- should be high and well-characterized. The
tors to provide overall measures of the accura- experiments at the AANC were conducted on
cy and reliability of routine and in-depth a Boeing 737 aircraft test bed, as well as on
inspections. One of the objectives was to a sample library of well-characterized flaws
study the influence of several key factors in in aircraft components or simulated compo-
order to provide a qualitative measure of their nents. Figure 5 shows visual inspection inside
influence on the reliability of routine and an aircraft.
in-depth inspections. Figures 3 and 4 show Figure 4. Part of an In-Depth Results showed substantial inspector-to-
routine and in-depth inspections at a Safety Bridge Visual Inspection Using inspector variation. For example, on a
Testing and Research (STAR) facility. a Man-Lift [6]. specific task of looking for cracks from
Among the findings is that vision testing beneath rivet heads, the 90 percent pro-
of inspectors is almost nonexistent, with only bability of detection (percentage of cracks
two state respondents indicating that their expected to be detected) crack length for
inspectors had their vision tested. From the 11 inspectors ranged from 0.16 to 0.36 inch,
routine inspections it was found that the with the 90 percent probability of detection
inspections were completed with significant crack length for a twelfth inspector being
variability in the results. This variability 0.91 inch. Also noted was a high variability
was most prominent in the assignment of from one inspection task to another as
Figure 5. Visual Inspection
condition ratings, but was also present in Experiment inside a Boeing 737.
performed by the same inspector. Results of
examination documentation. From the (Photo Courtesy of the Federal these experiments have paved the way for
in-depth inspection tasks it was observed Aviation Administration) other organizations to better understand the
that in-depth inspections were unlikely to intricacies of visual inspection in developing
correctly identify many types of specific discontinuities for laboratory and field visual inspection protocol.
which this inspection is frequently prescribed. As an example,
only 3.9 percent of weld inspections correctly identified the CONCLUSIONS
presence of crack indications. Despite advances in other NDT technologies, visual
As a result of this study, it was recommended that the inspection will likely remain the first inspection method used
accuracy and reliability of both routine and in-depth in many field applications. As new mechanical and optical
inspections could be improved through increased training aids become available, the reliability of visual inspection will
of inspectors in the types of discontinuities that should be increase to more acceptable levels. It is expected that additional
identified and the methods that would frequently allow visual inspection standards will be developed to provide
identification to be possible. Also, additional research is needed guidance in applying visual inspection for nondestructive
to determine whether ensuring minimum vision standards testing. Visual inspection will continue to be an important
through vision testing programs (with corrective lenses, if NDE inspection approach that will often identify areas

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Visual Discontinuity types • Cracks

Inspection (e.g., what types can the method detect) • Holes
Summary • Corrosion
• Blisters
• Impact damage
• I.e., most discontinuities that are surface breaking or result in a
deformation at the surface
Size of discontinuities • Approximately 0.25 inches and larger
Size of system that can be inspected • Any, i.e., Large (e.g., aircraft skin), Medium (e.g., structural
support), Small (e.g., electrical circuitry)
Field portable method? • Yes
Inspection restrictions • Surface areas only
• Some internal and inaccessible areas can’t be inspected visually.
Inspector training (level and/or • Recommended
availability – e.g., who provides training) • Commercial training schools available
Equipment • None
• Optical aids optional except where internal surfaces require
borescopes or small television cameras, etc.
Certification required • Depends on application
• Certification available through the American Society
for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
Relative cost of inspection • Low
(i.e., compared to other methods) • Equipment cost can range from nothing to a modest price,
but this method can be labor intensive

of structures or components where more advanced NDE NOTE & GENERAL REFERENCES
methods need to be applied. * In general, as described in the literature of the American Society
for Nondestructive Testing, inspectors determine the presence or
REFERENCES absence of indications of “discontinuities”. Whether or not a
[1] Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 8: Visual and Optical discontinuity is a defect is based upon the design criteria, and is
Testing, Technical Editors M.W. Allgaier and S. Ness, American generally not up to the inspector.
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, 1993. [1] S. Endoh, H. Tomita, H. Asada, and T. Sotozaki, “Practical
[2] F.A. Iddings, Visual Inspection, Materials Evaluation, Vol. 62, Evaluation of Crack Detection Capability for Visual Inspection in
No. 5, May 2004, pp. 500-501. Japan,” Durability and Structural Integrity of Airframes: Proceedings of
[3] F.W. Spencer, Visual Inspection Research Project Report on the 17th Symposium of the International Committee on Aeronautical
Benchmark Inspections, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Fatigue, June 9-11, 1993.
Aviation Administration, Washington, DC, 1996. [2] J.W. Shoonard, J.D. Gould, and LA. Miller, “Studies of Visual
[4] S. Kleven and L. Hyvarinen, Vision Testing Requirements for Indus- Inspection,” Ergonomics, Volume 16, No. 4, 1993, pp. 365-379.
try, Materials Evaluation, Vol. 57, No. 8, August 1999, pp. 797-803. [3] E.D. Megaw, “Factors Affecting Visual Inspection Accuracy,”
[5] ASNT Level III Study Guide and Supplement on Visual and Applied Ergonomics, March 1979, pp. 27-32.
Optical Testing, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, [4] J.N. Riley, E.P. Papadakis, and S.J. Gorton, “Availability of
Columbus, OH, 2005. Training in Visual Inspection for the Air Transport Industry,”
[6] Reliability of Visual Inspection for Highway Bridges, Publication Materials Evaluation, 1996, pp.1368-1375.
Nos. FHWA-RD-01-020 and FHWA-RD-01-021, June 2001.

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