COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTIVISM: DEVELOPING TOOLS FOR AN

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM

KATHERINE C . POWELL, E D . D .
CODY J. KALINA

Florida Atlantic University

An effective classroom, where teachers and students are com-

municating optimally, is dependent on using cónstructivist
strategies, tools and practices. There are two major types of con-
structivism in the classroom: (1) Cognitive or individual
constructivism depending on Piaget's theory, and (2) Social con-
structivism depending on Vygotsky's theory. Similarities
include inquiry teaching methods and students creating concepts
built on existing knowledge that are relevant and meaningful.
Differences include language development theory where think-
ing precedes language for cognitive constructivism and language
precedes thinking for the theory of social constructivism.
Understanding communicative tools and strategies helps teach-
ers to develop individual learning methods such as, discovery
learning, and social interactive activities to develop peer collab-
oration.

Introduction cognitive and social constructivism, if he

Constructivism is a vague concept, but or she is to run an effective cónstructivist
is currently discussed in many schools as classroom.
the best method for teaching and learning. In cognitive constructivism, ideas are
For many educators or teachers, it has a constructed in individuals through a per-
variety of meanings. In order for teachers sonal process, as opposed to social
to use it effectively, they have to know constructivism where ideas are construct-
where the student is at a given learning ed through interaction with the teacher and
point or the current stage in their knowl- other students. While they are fundamen-
edge of a subject so that students can create tally different both types will ultimately
personal meaning when new information form overall constructivism or construct-
is given to them. When in the classroom, ed learning elements for students to easily
teachers have the potential to teach con- grasp; the main concept being that ideas are
structively, if they understand constructed from experience to have a per-
constructivism. Cónstructivist teaching sonal meaning for the student. To be
strategies and practices are the next impor- effective, both theories of constructivism
tant step in educational reform. need to be explicit in communicating con-
Cónstructivist teaching strategies have a cepts so that students can connect to them.
great effect in the classroom both cogni- Teachers need to understand these theo-
tively and socially for the student. A teacher ries, as well as, know how to incorporate
must understand and use methods of both cónstructivist teaching methods, strategies.

241
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tools and practices to develop an effective children's schémas are constructed through
learning environment. the process of assimilation and accommo-
dation, when going through four different
Cognitive Constructivism stages of development (Wads worth, 2004).
Many educators in schools throughout Piaget's (1953) four stages of development
America are required to teach construc- are: Sensorimotor stage, which a child goes
tively in their classrooms. The term through from ages zero to two; preopera-
cognitive constructivism can connote tional stage (two to seven years old),
ambiguous or puzzled reactions from concrete operational stage (seven to eleven
teachers who are told that they should be years old), and the formal operational stage
using teaching strategies to promote this (eleven years old to adulthood).
form of learning approach for their stu- In Piaget's sensorimotor stage children
dents. Substantial individual thought needs begin to discover their environment around
to be acquired in content or subject areas them through their own senses and phys-
for students to actually understand the ical activity and then language, as they get
material instead of just being able to recite older within this stage. Children in his next
it. Providing classroom situations and stage of preoperational develop their own
activities that promote individual learning language skills but still cannot grasp the
is required. Jean Piaget, a well-known thoughts of others. As Piaget described
French Swiss developmental psychologist, within this stage there is "symbolic func-
who wrote many books and articles on tion" where children begin to distinguish
learning, construed this process. Piaget pictures or symbols for different objects
was originally a biologist and theorists in their immediate environment and anoth-
state that he thought in terms of students
er sub-stage of "intuitive thought" where
becoming "little scientists," who learn
children ask all sorts of questions about
voraciously as individuals who build con-
everything within their environment
ceptual structures in memory to store
(Wadsworth, 2004). Within Piaget's con-
information. Initially, he built his theories
crete operational stage, a pivotal growth
observing his own children as they learned
point in the brain in logical development,
and played together.
children begin to replace intuitive thought
Piaget's main focus of constructivism with their own logical reasoning. In
has to do with the individual and how the Piaget's (1953) formal operational stage
individual constructs knowledge. Cogni- children, up to adulthood, will start using
tive constructivism came directly from higher levels of thinking or abstract ideas
Piaget's work. Piaget's theory of cognitive to solve problems. Piaget's stages are well-
development proposes that humans can- known and are accepted as the basis for
not be given information, which they depicting the growth of logical thinking in
immediately understand and use; instead, children. Although there has been criti-
humans must construct their own knowl- cism ofhis specific stages, Piaget's theories
edge (Piaget, 1953). He stated that still hold true and are revered by many the-
 Cognitive and Social Constructivism... / 243

orists. each individual needs to get knowledge

Piaget's theory includes assimilation and leam at his or her own pace. Observ-
and accommodation, which are processes ing students and comprehending their level
children go through as a search for bal- of difficulty is paramount to this process.
ance or "equilibration" (Wadsworth, 2004). For example, when teaching complex con-
When describing Piaget's theory, "equili- cepts, some students in the classroom may
bration occurs when children shift from grasp them quickly while others can be
one stage to another and is manifested with struggling. Asking questions of students
a cognitive conflict, a state of mental unbal- to know where they may have difficulty is
ance or disequilibrium in trying to make part of the inquiry method to alleviate mis-
sense of the data or information they are interpretation. Understanding these stages
receiving. Disequilibrium is a state of being and teaching within the ability of students
uncomfortable when one has to adjust his to grasp concepts logically and intellectu-
or her thinking (schema) to resolve confiict ally is a main goal of all teachers. Effective
and become more comfortable" (Powell, leaming occurs when clarity begins.
2006, pp. 26, 27). According to Piaget
(1953), assimilation is when children bring Social Constructivism
in new knowledge to their own schémas Social constmctivism is a highly effec-
and accommodation is when children have tive method of teaching that all students can
to change their schémas to "accommodate" benefit from, since collaboration and social
the new information or knowledge. This interaction are incorporated. This type of
adjustment process occurs when learning, constructivism was formed after Piaget
as one is processing new information to fit had already described his theories involv-
into what is already in one's memory. ing individual or cognitive constructivism.
Teachers need to facilitate this process in Lev Vygotsky, the founding father of social
the classroom. constmctivism believed in social interac-
Piaget's stages of development are all tion and that it was an integral part of
about the ability to leam at different ages learning. Social constructivism is based
in childhood based on logical develop- on the social interactions a student in the
ment. His theory on equilibration, classroom along with a personal critical
assimilation and accommodation all have thinking process. All of Vygotsky's
to do with the children's ability to con- research and theories are collectively
struct cognitively or individually their new involved in social constructivism and lan-
knowledge within their stages and resolve guage development such as, cognitive
conflicts (Piaget, 1953). Recognizing that dialogue, the zone of proximal develop-
this process occurs within each individual ment, social interaction, culture and inner
student at a different rate helps the teacher speech (Vygotsky, 1962). Understanding
facilitate constructivist learning. Piaget's his theories or building a classroom where
cognitive constructivism theory incorpo- interaction is prominent helps develop
rates the importance of understanding what effective classrooms.
244 / Education Vol. 130 No. 2

Vygotsky's theory of development and ber; however, if a teacher holds their fin-
all of its language aspects are various con- ger and points directly to the object with
cepts that are part of social constructivism. them, counting out loud together, the child
One of Vygotsky's main theories is the can then do the counting correctly by them-
zone of proximal development, or ZPD. selves. In scaffolding a unique type of
This part of child development controls internalization or "getting it" will occur
how a child learns. ZPD is explained in for each student. This process occurs when
educational psychology books and Vygot- a student will be asked to perform a task
sky's theory focuses on the different that has some meaning to the student and
psychological functions that emerge as a with assistance, will complete it. While
child grows. ZPD has been described as this task may be difficult to perform, there
a zone where learning occurs when a child is a support system available from the
is helped in learning a concept in the class- teacher. This support system will ultimately
room (Vygotsky, 1962). By assisting allow the student to solve the problem.
children in learning, many theorists and According to Vygotsky cooperative
educators have proven that Vygotsky's the- learning is an integral part of creating a
ory works. Often children will leam easiest deeper understanding. Cooperative learn-
within this zone when others are involved. ing is a part of creating a social
An example would be an activity where a constructivist classroom. Students should
student works on the assignment with aid not only work with teachers one-on-one,
from the teacher. Once students achieve but they should also work with other stu-
the goal of the initial activity, their zone dents. Students have a lot to offer one
grows and the students can do more. This another. When students master completion
involves the social constructivist method of projects or activities in a group, the inter-
where students act first on what they can nalization of knowledge occurs for each
do on their own and then with assistance individual at a different rate according to
from the teacher, they leam the new con- their own experience. Vygotsky believed
cept based on what they were doing that internalization occurs more effective-
individually. ly when there is social interaction. "A
Along the same lines of cooperative common question about knowledge is
learning, Vygotsky (1962) also used scaf- whether it is constructed intemally, depend-
folding in his theory, to understand that ing on a situation in a point of time or
children leam more effectively when they generally and some theorists claim that
have others to support them. Scaffolding social constructivism and situated learn-
is an assisted learning process that sup- ing confirm Vygotsky's notion that learning
ports the ZPD, or getting to the next level is inherently social and embedded in a par-
of understanding, of each student from the ticular cultural setting" (Woolfolk, 2004,
assistance of teachers, peers or other adults. p. 326). Various perspectives on material
For example, when a child learns to count could open up completely new and excit-
objects alone he or she may miss a num- ing opportunities for a student. Teachers
 Cognitive and Social Constructivism... / 245

can create work experiences for students spondence between the teacher, peer or
to collaborate with each other to construct other adult and the student. To embrace
cognitive or individual intemalization of diversity, students must interact socially.
knowledge. The key is communication and for com-
Vygotsky is a firm believer that social munication to occur at its most effective
interaction and cultural influences have a point; all participants must be on the same
huge effect on a student and how learning common ground. Language usage in the
occurs. Teachers should recognize the classroom is the most important process
diversity of the class and embrace their in a social constructivist setting. Vygotsky
differences. Diversity can be defined as stated that language enhances learning and
different ethnic backgrounds, but in the that it precedes knowledge or thinking.
classroom is it a combination of ethnicity, Vygotsky believed "it is incorrect to con-
identity and biological differences that give sider language as a correlative of thought;
varied experiences and understanding to language is a correlative of consciousness.
each individual (Woolfolk, 2004). Stu- The mode of language correlative to con-
dents have to understand themselves and sciousness is meanings. The work of
others around them before they can start consciousness with meanings leads to the
learning the curriculum. A teacher that generation of sense, and in the process con-
embraces the various cultures can have sciousness acquires a sensible (meaningful)
students discuss their different back- structure" (Kozulin, 1990, p. 190). Social
grounds to one another. Just as students interaction is important to effective lan-
talk about their different cultures, they guage usage and the development of
should talk about the material being taught. efficient communication in the classroom.
Some teachers are under the impression Students should use language as much as
that talking during class is detrimental to they use oxygen.
learning. It is not that mindless chatter
should be tolerated, but teachers can use Comparing Cognitive and
the verbal energy that students have to their Social Constructivism
advantage. Teachers should promote dia- As students are learning in the class-
logue of the material so that students can room, the approaches of cognitive and
critically think about what they are learn- social constructivism have similarities and
ing. If they think critically, they will walk differences. Both value the inquiry or ques-
away with personal meaning that was con- tion and answer method, as introduced by
structed on their own. The idea of the Greek philosopher Socrates in the fifth
discussion is echoed throughout social con- century B.C. (documented by Plato) and
structivism and is enriched through made popular in America by John Dewey,
diversity. a twentieth century progressive educator.
There is a distinct connection in all of "Inquiry learning is an approach in which
these aspects of social constructivism. In the teacher presents a puzzling situation
ZPD and in scaffolding there is a corre- and students solve the problem by gather-
246 / Education Vol. 130 No. 2

ing data and testing the conclusion. John Piaget, social interaction does occur and
Dewey described the basic inquiry learn- may be part of the learning process; but it
ing format in 1910 and many theorists have is the individual who constructs knowl-
emphasized different forms" (Woolfolk, edge based on his or her personal
2004, p.329). Both theories claim that experience. Piaget also believed that inner
guided forms of teaching or facilitation are speech or reading to oneself is not a pre-
necessary, as students construct their own requisite to thinking and that one outgrows
concepts and understanding of what is this process; whereas, Vygotsky believed
being taught. Students need guidance that inner speech was part of the integral
when teachers explain complex topics and process of learning and thinking.
knowledge has to be brought out of them Vygotsky would say that social inter-
since they have their own experience to action and culturally organized activities
draw on. Piaget's theory has a heavy are necessary in the classroom for proper
emphasis on the reasoning ability of indi- psychological development. For these
viduals and how individuals interpret activities, people that have more knowl-
knowledge. Vygotsky believed that there edge than the individual must be involved
were variables such as, social interaction, in these activities, or in the zone of prox-
culture and language that affected how the imal development. Therefore, the social
individual learned knowledge. These dif- cónstructivist environment includes activ-
ferent theories admired today led to the ities where students experience their level
two major forms of constructivism that of understanding and seek assistance to
have a common ground and history. get to the next level. Bigge and Shermis
Piaget's theories celebrate the individ- (2004) stated that Vygotsky's theory of
ual and his or her own personal process to learning and teaching was based on the
gain knowledge building on experience. relationship of children's social experience
In cognitive constructivism, Piaget stated and that learning was a part of human
that thought precedes language and evolves development. Social constructivism will
from inner activity as information is engage students in activities creating rela-
processed based on what already exists, as tionships that will directly affect what they
well as, through inquiry. "Inquiry learn- learn. Students need activities that help
ing methods are similar to discovery them express their personalities such as, a
learning and share some of the same prob- group projects, where they pick the piece
lems, so inquiry must be carefully planned that represents their interests. As stated,
and organized, especially for the less pre- Vygotsky believed that language preced-
pared students who may lack the ed knowledge and the process of social
background knowledge and problem-solv- interaction using language helps individ-
ing skills need to benefit" (Woolfolk, 2004, uals learn.
p. 332). Cognitive constructivism will Vygotsky's theory includes the rela-
focus more on facts and constructing tionship of thought and language and how
knowledge within one's own schémas. For language usage through interaction was
 Cognitive and Social Constructivism... /247

required before thinking could even exist. sometimes in the classroom, or happen in
He described his zone of proximal devel- one or two of the student's classes, but in
opment (ZPD) as a discrepancy between all of the student's classes and in every
a child's actual mental age and the level a teaching activity so that true learning can
child could reach with assistance through occur.
a cognitive experience, where human
beings learn through a highly empirical Tools and Practices for
theory of intellectual development (Bigge the Constructivist Teacher
& Shermis, 2004). The key concepts in Teachers from every subject area need
Vygotsky's ZPD theory are 'assistance' to develop psychological or strategic tools
and 'experience' at the level a student can to create a constructivist environment for
handle so that he or she can learn. Social all students. In order to ensure an effec-
constructivism has more of an emphasis tive constructivist environment, teachers
on the relationship between the individual need to learn teaching strategies or activ-
and social requirements or interaction. ities that employ the theories of both Piaget
Both cognitive and social constructivist and Vygotsky when assigning tasks or
teaching methods must be used by teach- imparting information. Allowing students
ers interactively so that students can to discover knowledge individually helps
process individually what they learned in this process such as, including question
a group or from another adult or peer. and answer periods after every significant
While social and cognitive construc- topic, as well as having the teacher be able
tivist theories are different there is one to assess where students are formally
major similarity; the way constructivist through testing and informally through dis-
classrooms should be run. "Both Piaget cussion or dialoguing. Bigge and Shermis
and Vygotsky agreed that the teacher's role (2004) described Vygotsky's view of
was that of a facilitator and guide, and not psychology, where every word is a gener-
of a director or dictator. Piaget saw chil- alization or a concept, as an act of thought,
dren gaining knowledge from organizing and meaning is a result of thinking. The
and reorganizing data as they receive infor- more prepared and comfortable teachers
mation. Vygotsky saw social interaction are in using effective tools such as con-
or collaboration as the chief method for versation, discussion, and inquiry; the more
learning and placed more emphasis on lan- they will use them and students can become
guage development" (Powell, 2006, p.54). adept at thinking and communicating.
Both views of constructivism can be incor- There are different perspectives on
porated in to the classroom and should be learning and what constitutes an effective
incorporated for the best personal devel- constructivist classroom. However, acquir-
opment of the students. Teachers and ing knowledge, experience or
students must communicate to convey understanding is common to all of them.
information and for learning to take place. How to create an effective constructivist
Constructivism should not only happen classroom and measure the successful
248 / Education Vol. 130 No. 2

results of students' leaming, would include beget effective leamers.

altemate teaching practices. For example, The teacher and student dynamics
creating a constmctivist strategy involves include honesty and tmst so that teaching
establishing a common interaction in the and leaming becomes effortless. A com-
classroom, such as a debate on nature ver- mon ground must be secured in the
sus nurture, or Darwin's theory of classroom where teacher and student dis-
evolution. Leaming can occur when stu- cussions are free and where the students
dents are challenged, open, and feel comfortable to discuss their ideas or
comfortable, while giving their full atten- concepts without inhibitions or fear. "A
tion. It is important that teachers and concept is formed, not through an interac-
leamers develop tmst and openness in the tion of associations, but through an
classroom for all students to become intellectual operation within which all of
engaged and attentive. When students are the elementary functions participate in a
not engaged, an ineffective classroom can specific combination. For example, a child
be subject to dismptive students, and leam- cognitively unites diverse objects into
ing will not occur. groups under a common name", (Bigge &
Effective teaching methods include cre- Shermis, 2004, p. 127). This common
ating an environment where students feel ground, where the dynamic flows, allows
free to create unique concepts and stmc- learning or individual construction to
tures to place in their memory for further become liberated and this contagious
retrieval. The components of a constmc- atmosphere canfillthe classroom. The con-
tivist environment include providing means structivist classroom allows effective
for students to experience real world or learning where light can be shed so that
meaningful practices. Students learn imagination, knowledge and inspiration
through examples that they can relate to on can glow within each individual student.
an emotional, or on a cognitive basis. Stu-
dents can experience their world using Conclusion
meaningful practices that connect emo- It is possible to understand and apply
tional or affective, as well as thinking or constmctivist teaching strategies and prac-
cognitive parts of self. For example, stu- tices in the classroom. There are two major
dents who write essays could select their types of constmctivism: Piaget's individ-
own topics corresponding to their reading ual or cognitive constructivism and
assignments so that creative expression Vygotsky's social cognitive constmctivism.
can follow. Real or meaningful knowl- Many theorists discuss advantages and dis-
edge is based on one's ability to accept, advantages; but the actual process of
reason, or acquire information. The abili- leaming with meaning and students con-
ty to retrieve this new information when stmcting concepts to create knowledge is
needed implies that one constructed per- common to both types. We have explored
sonal meaning, which will remain in both the cognitive and social interactive
memory until required. Effective teachers leaming environment and various teaching
 Cognitive and Social Constructivism... / 249

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