Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering I

Lecture 3
 Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
Objective:
• Simplify part of a circuit
• Find the load will give maximum power

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 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
• 𝑣𝑇ℎ : open circuit across a-b and find 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑇ℎ
• 𝑖𝑠𝑐 : short circuit across a-b and find 𝑖𝑠𝑐

• 𝑅𝑇ℎ : circuit resistance with voltage sources

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Thevenin Equivalent Example

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Test
Find 𝑅𝑇ℎ

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Finding 𝑉𝑇ℎ Example

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Finding 𝑉𝑇ℎ Example

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 Maximum Power Transfer

𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑅𝐿 2 1
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑖 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿

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 Key Concepts
Thevenin Circuit

Uses:
• When one part of circuit is fixed and rest varies
• Max power: 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
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 Norton Equivalent and Source
Transformations
Objective:
• Introduce Norton Equivalent Circuit

• Show how to simplify circuits using source transformations

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 Builds Upon
• Thevenin equivalent circuit

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 Norton Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

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 Norton Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Norton Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin equivalent circuit Norton equivalent circuit

𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑖𝑠𝑐

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Source Transformation Example

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 Key concepts
• Transform between sources in order to
simplify the circuit by combining resistors in
parallel or series

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 Linearity

• Additivity: 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑦
• Homogeneity: 𝑓 𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑓(𝑥)

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 Linear Circuit Elements
Resistors

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Linearity in Circuits

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 Linearity in Circuits

Superposition property: 𝑉𝑜 = sum of corresponding output for each 𝑉𝑠

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 Test
A linear system is powered by two possible current sources, both
in parallel with each other. The current sources can be
independently turned on (supplying the rated current) or turned
off (supplying zero current). Suppose the following steps are
taken:
1) turn on the first source (leaving three one off) and measure
a voltage 𝑣1 , across a certain portion of the circuit.
2) turn off the first source, turn on the second, and take a
second voltage measurement, 𝑣2 across the same portion of
the circuit.
Which if the properties below is used to conclude that if both
sources were on simultaneously, the voltage measurement
would be 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 ?

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 Test
When trying to measure a voltage across
component in a linear circuit, you discover that
the voltage is too low to read accurately with
the measurement device available. You decide
to double the source voltage to that circuit and
conclude that this will double the corresponding
voltage across that component. What property
are you using in this analysis?

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 Superposition in Circuit
1. Zero all sources but one, and find the output to that
source.
2. Repeat this procedure for each source.
3. Sum the corresponding outputs.

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Superposition example

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 Key Concepts
• Resistors are linear elements
• Linearity in circuits
𝑉𝑜 = sum of
corresponding
output for each 𝑉𝑠
• Superposition

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 Resistors in Sensors
Objective:
• Examine variable resistors and their use in
sensors

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 Resistors in Sensors
• Voltage Divider Law

R2
V2 = Vs
R1 +R2

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 Resistors in Sensors
Sensors: device that converts a physical quantity
to an electrical signal

Variable Resistors
Force R ↓ as pressure ↑
Thermistor R ↓ as temperature ↑
Strain Gauge R ↑ as strain gauge elongates
Potentiometer R varies with position

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 Sensor Configuration

𝑅𝑣
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑣
Sensor Calibration
Physical quantity - 𝑉0 relationship
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Potentiometer

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 Test
Which of the sensors below converts pressure
into voltage?
• Thermistor
• Piezoelectric
• Potentiometer
• Strain Gauge

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 Test
Which of the sensors below converts linear or
angular position into voltage?
• Thermistor
• Piezoelectric
• Potentiometer
• Strain Gauge

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