SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

A project submitted for the partial fulfilment of the requirement

for the

Degree of
B.A.LL.B.(Hons.)

By

Simran Khurana
B.A.LLB(H) Section A Semester 8
Enrollment No. A3211116061

Amity Law School

Block I-2, Sector-125, Amity Campus
Amity University, Noida

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No TOPIC PAGE NO.

.
1. Acknowledgment Page 3

2. Introduction Page 4

3. International Conventions Page 4 - 5

4. Universal conventions for the Protection Page 5 - 7

of Human Rights
5. Regional Conventions for the Protection of Page 7 – 8
Human Rights

6. International Custom Page 8 -9

7. General Principles of Law Page 9

8. Subsidiary Means for the Determination Page 9 – 10

of Rules of Law

9. Other Contributions to Standard Setting  Page 10

10. Decisions of Political Organs Page 10 - 11

11. Decisions of Supervisory Organs Page 11

12. General Recommendations Page 11 - 12

13. Conclusion Page 12 - 13

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This project is the outcome of the study by the Author. Any material written
by another person that has been used in the paper has been thoroughly
acknowledged. As my research has concluded, there are a number of people
I would like to thank for the successful attempt.

I thank the esteemed director of this institution, Dr. Shefali Raizada Ma’am
for inculcating the concept of preparing a project and allowing the
researcher to present his/ her point of views in liberal manner and
encouraging the researcher by providing all the much needed support.

I would also like to express my exceptional gratitude and acknowledgment to

Ms. Ritika Behl Ma’am who undertook the role of a supervisor and guide for
the successful preparation of his project and for supporting throughout the
time of research and writing.

I would also like to extend my thanks and gratitude for the contribution of
all those who helped me in this work as individuals or otherwise. On a
personal level I would like to extend my appreciation to my family and
friends who supported me to conclude this research paper.

Simran Khurana
A3211116061
B.A. LLB (H) Section A
Semester 8

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 INTRODUCTION:

Since time immemorial, states and peoples have entered into formal
relationships with each other. Over the ages, traditions have developed on
how such relationships are conducted. These are the traditions that make
up modern ‘international law’. Like domestic law, international law covers a
wide range of subjects such as security, diplomatic relations, trade, culture
and human rights, but it differs from domestic legal systems in a number of
important ways. In international law there is no single legislature, nor is
there a single enforcing institution. Consequently, international law can only
be established with the consent of states and is primarily dependent on self-
enforcement by those same states. In cases of non-compliance there is no
supra-national institution; enforcement can only take place by means of
individual or collective actions of other states.

This consent, from which the rules of international law are derived, may be
expressed in various ways. The obvious mode is an explicit treaty, imposing
obligations on the state parties. Such ‘treaty law’ constitutes a dominant
part of modern international law. Besides treaties, other documents and
agreements serve as guidelines for the behaviour of states, although they
may not be legally binding. Consent may also be inferred from established
and consistent practice of states in conducting their relationships with each
other. The sources of international law are many and states commit to them
to different degrees. The internationally accepted classification of sources of
international law is formulated in Article 38 of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice. These are:

a) International conventions, whether general or particular;

b) International custom, as evidence of general practice accepted as law;

c) The general principles of law recognised by civilised nations;

d) Subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law such as judicial

decisions and teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.

A. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS:
International treaties are contracts signed between states. They are legally
binding and impose mutual obligations on the states that are party to any
particular treaty (states parties). The main particularity of human rights
treaties is that they impose obligations on states about the manner in which
they treat all individuals within their jurisdiction.  Even though the sources

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 of international law are not hierarchical, treaties have some degree of
primacy. More than forty major international conventions for the protection
of human rights have been adopted. International human rights treaties
bear various titles, including ‘covenant’, ‘convention’ and ‘protocol’; but what
they share are the explicit indication of states parties to be bound by their
terms. 

Human rights treaties have been adopted at the universal level (within the
framework of the United Nations and its specialised agencies, for instance,
the ILO and UNESCO) as well as under the auspices of regional
organisations, such as the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organisation of
American States (OAS) and the African Union (AU) (formerly the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU)). These organisations have greatly
contributed to the codification of a comprehensive and consistent body of
human rights law.               

         UNIVERSAL CONVENTIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights had already found expression in the Covenant of the League
of Nations, which led, inter alia, to the creation of the International Labour
Organisation. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945, held to draft the
Charter of the United Nations, a proposal to adopt a ‘Declaration on the
Essential Rights of Man’ was put forward but was not examined because it
required more detailed consideration than was possible at the time.
Nonetheless, the UN Charter clearly speaks of ‘promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without
distinction as to race, sex, language or religion’ (Article 1, para. 3). The idea
of promulgating an ‘international bill of rights’ was developed immediately
afterwards and led to the adoption in 1948 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR).
The UDHR, adopted by a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly
(UNGA), although not a treaty, is the earliest comprehensive human rights
instrument adopted by the international community. On the same day that
it adopted the Universal Declaration, the UNGA requested the UN
Commission on Human Rights to prepare, as a matter of priority, a legally
binding human rights convention. Wide differences in economic and social
philosophies hampered efforts to achieve agreement on a single instrument,
but in 1954 two draft conventions were completed and submitted to the
UNGA for consideration. Twelve years later, in 1966, the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) were adopted,
as well as the First Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, which established an

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individual complaints procedure. Both Covenants and the Optional Protocol
entered into force in 1976. A Second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, on the
abolition of the death penalty, was adopted in 1989 and entered into force in
1991.  The ‘International Bill of Human Rights’ consists of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, the ICESCR and the ICCPR and its two
Optional Protocols. The International Bill of Rights is the basis for numerous
conventions and national constitutions. 

The ICESCR and the ICCPR are key international human rights
instruments. They have a common Preamble and Article 1, in which the
right to self-determination is defined. The ICCPR primarily contains civil and
political rights. The supervisory body is the Human Rights Committee. The
Committee provides supervision in the form of review of reports of states
parties to the Covenant, as well as decisions on inter-state complaints.
Individuals alleging violations of their rights under the Covenant can also
bring claims against states to the Committee provided the state concerned is
party to the First Optional Protocol. By March 2010, a total of 165 states
were parties to the Covenant, 113 to the First Optional Protocol and 72 to
the Second Optional Protocol (see II§1.C). The ICESCR consists of a
catalogue of economic, social and cultural rights in the same vein as the
‘social’ part of the UDHR. Supervision is provided for in the form of reporting
by states parties to the Covenant and review of state reports has been
entrusted by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to the
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. An Optional Protocol
establishing a system of individual and collective complaints was adopted on
10 December 2008. It will be opened for signature and ratification in March
2009.In March 2010, a total of 160 states were parties to the Covenant (see
II§1.C). Besides the International Bill of Human Rights, a number of other
instruments have been adopted under the auspices of the UN and other
international agencies. They may be divided into three groups: 

a) Conventions elaborating on certain rights, inter alia:

 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide (1948)
 ILO 98 concerning the Right to Organise and to Bargain
Collectively (1949)
 The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984)
 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from
Enforced Disappearance (2006) 

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 b) Conventions dealing with certain categories of persons which may need
special protection, inter alia:

 The Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), and the

1967 Protocol thereto
 The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the involvement of children in armed conflicts (2000)
 ILO 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent
Countries (1989)
 The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) 

c) Conventions seeking to eliminate discrimination:

 ILO 111 concerning Discrimination in respect of Employment and

Occupation (1958)
 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960)
 The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (1965)
 The International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment
of the Crime of Apartheid (1973)
 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women (1979) and its Optional Protocol (2000) 

         REGIONAL CONVENTIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The UN Charter encourages the adoption of regional instruments for the

establishment of human rights obligations, many of which have been of
crucial importance for the development of international human rights law.
The Council of Europe adopted the European Convention for the Protection
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in 1950 (see II§2.C),
supplemented by the European Social Charter in 1961(see II§2.C), the
European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman Treatment
or Punishment in 1987 (see II§2.C), and the Framework Convention on
National Minorities in 1994 (see II§2.C). The American Convention on
Human Rights was adopted in 1969, under the auspices of the Organisation
of American States (see II§3.B). This Convention has been complemented by
two protocols, the 1988 Protocol of San Salvador on economic, social and
cultural rights and the 1990 Protocol to abolish the death penalty. Other
Inter-American Conventions include the Convention to Prevent and Punish
Torture (1985), the Convention on the Forced Disappearances of Persons
(1994), the Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of

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 Violence against Women (1995) and the Inter-American Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities
(see II§3.B). 

In 1981, the Organisation of African Unity, now the African Union, adopted
the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (see II§4.B). Three
protocols to the Charter have been adopted: the Additional Protocol on the
Establishment of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1998),
the Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003) and the Protocol on the
Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (2008) (see
II§4.B). Other African instruments include the Convention Governing the
Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969) (see II§4.B) and the
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) (see II§4.B).

B. INTERNATIONAL CUSTOM:

Customary international law plays a crucial role in international human

rights law. The Statute of the International Court of Justice refers to ‘general
practice accepted as law’. In order to become international customary law,
the ‘general practice’ needs to represent a broad consensus in terms of
content and applicability, deriving from a sense that the practice is
obligatory (opinio juris et necessitatis). Customary law is binding on all
states (except those that may have objected to it during its formation),
whether or not they have ratified any relevant treaty.   One of the important
features of customary international law is that customary law may, under
certain circumstances, lead to universal jurisdiction or application, so that
any national court may hear extra-territorial claims brought under
international law. In addition, there also exists a class of customary
international law, jus cogens, or peremptory norms of general international
law, which are norms accepted and recognised by the international
community of states as a whole as norms from which no derogation is
permitted. Under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) any
treaty which conflicts with a peremptory norm is void.  Many scholars argue
that some standards laid down in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (which in formal terms is only a resolution of the UNGA and as such
not legally binding) have become part of customary international law as a
result of subsequent practice; therefore, they would be binding upon all
states. Within the realm of human rights law, the distinction between
concepts of customary law, treaty law and general principles of law are often
unclear.  The Human Rights Committee in its General Comment 24 (1994)
has summed up the rights which can be assumed to belong to this part of
international law which is binding on all states, irrespective of whether they

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 have ratified relevant conventions, and to which no reservations are
allowed: 

[A] State may not reserve the right to engage in slavery, to torture, to subject
persons to cruel,    inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, to
arbitrarily deprive persons of their lives, to     arbitrarily arrest and detain
persons, to deny freedom of thought, conscience and religion,
to       presume a person guilty unless he proves his innocence, to execute
pregnant women and    children,          to permit the advocacy of national,
racial or religious hatred, to deny to persons of   marriageable age the right
to marry, or to deny to minorities the right to enjoy their own       culture,
profess their own religion, or use their own language. And [...] the right to a
fair trial [...]. 

Although this list is subject to debate and could possibly be extended with
other rights not in the field of civil and political rights (for instance, genocide
and large parts of the Four Geneva Conventions on International
Humanitarian Law), the Committee underlines that there is a set of human
rights which de jure are beyond the (politically oriented) debate on the
universality of human rights. 

C. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LAW:

In the application of both national and international law, general or guiding

principles are used. In international law they have been defined as ‘logical
propositions resulting from judicial reasoning on the basis of existing pieces
of international law’.

At the international level, general principles of law occupy an important

place in case-law regarding human rights. A clear example is the principle of
proportionality, which is important for human rights supervisory
mechanisms in assessing whether interference with a human right may be
justified. Why are general principles used? No legislation is able to provide
answers to every question and to every possible situation that arises.
Therefore, rules of law or principles that enable decision-makers and
members of the executive and judicial branches to decide on the issues
before them are needed. General principles of law play two important roles:
on the one hand, they provide guidelines for judges, in particular, in
deciding in individual cases; on the other hand, they limit the discretionary
power of judges and of members of the executive in their decisions in
individual cases.

SUBSIDIARY MEANS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RULES OF LAW

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According to Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of
Justice, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most qualified
publicists are ‘subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law’.
Therefore, they are not, strictly speaking, formal sources, but they are
regarded as evidence of the state of the law. 
As for the judicial decisions, Article 38 of the Statute of the International
Court of Justice is not confined to international decisions (such as the
judgements of the International Court of Justice, the Inter-American Court,
the European Court and the future African Court on Justice and Human
Rights); decisions of national tribunals relating to human rights are also
subsidiary sources of law. The writings of scholars contribute to the
development and analysis of human rights law. Compared to the formal
standard setting of international organs the impact is indirect. Nevertheless,
influential contributions have been made by scholars and experts working in
human rights fora, for instance, in the UN Sub-Commission on the
Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, as well as by highly regarded
NGOs, such as Amnesty International and the International Commission of
Jurists.

OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO STANDARD SETTING 

Some instruments or decisions of political organs of international

organisations and human rights supervisory bodies, although they are not
binding on states parties per se, nonetheless carry considerable legal
weight.  Numerous international organs make decisions that concern
human rights and thereby strengthen the body of international human
rights standards. Such nonbinding human rights instruments are called
‘soft law’, and may shape the practice of states, as well as establish and
reflect agreement of states and experts on the interpretation of certain
standards.  Every year, the UNGA and the Human Rights Council adopt
dozens of resolutions and decisions dealing with human rights.
Organisations such as the ILO and the various political organs of the
Council of Europe also adopt such resolutions. Some of these resolutions,
sometimes called declarations, adopt specific standards on specific human
rights that complement existing treaty standards. Prominent examples
include the Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who Are Not
Nationals of the

Country in Which They Live, adopted by the UNGA in 1985 (Resolution

40/144, 13 December 1985), the Guiding Principles on Internal
Displacement, adopted by the UN Commission on Human Rights in 1999

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 (Doc E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2) and the United Nations Declaration on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the UNGA in 2007 (Resolution
61/295, 13 September 2007). Numerous declarations adopted by the UNGA
have later given rise to negotiations leading to treaty standards. Not all
resolutions and decisions aim at standard setting; many deal with concrete
situations where diverging political interests come more into play. 

D. DECISIONS OF POLITICAL ORGANS:

Decisions of political organs involving political obligations play a special role

and can have an impact on human rights standard setting, e.g., certain
documents of the Organisation on Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE) (Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe until 1995).
Since 1975, the OSCE has devoted much attention to the so-called Human
Dimension of European cooperation. OSCE documents are often drafted in a
relatively short period of time and do not pretend to be legally binding. Thus,
they offer the advantage of flexibility and relevance to current events
exercising influence upon states. For instance, the Document of the
Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference of the Human Dimension of the
CSCE of 1990 made optimal use of the changes that had taken place in
Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. This document included
paragraphs on national minorities, which have been used as standards to
protect minorities and as guidelines for later bilateral treaties. Although this
kind of document reflects the dynamism of international human rights law,
some experts worry that the political nature of these documents may lead to
confusion, as newer texts might contradict existing instruments or broaden
the scope of attention for human rights excessively by including too many
related issues. 

DECISIONS OF SUPERVISORY ORGANS

Numerous human rights supervisory mechanisms have been established to

monitor the compliance by states with international human rights
standards. Within the UN context, these supervisory bodies are often called
‘treaty bodies’. They interpret international treaties, make recommendations
and, in some cases, make decisions on cases brought before them. These
decisions, opinions and recommendations may not be legally binding per se,
but their impact on international human rights law (standards) is

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significant.  In this context, treaty bodies often prepare so-called General
Comments or Recommendations, elaborating on the various articles and
provisions of their respective human rights instruments. The purpose of
these general comments or recommendations is to assist the states parties
in fulfilling their obligations. The Human Rights Committee and the
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are highly regarded for
their practice in this respect. These general
comments/recommendations reflect the developments within each
Committee as to the interpretation of specific provisions and they aim to
provide authoritative guidance to states parties. As such, they have a
significant influence on the behaviour of states parties.

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS:

UN treaty monitoring bodies have begun the practice of preparing General

Comments or Recommendations on the provisions of their respective
treaties.  As indicated by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights ‘the Committee endeavours, through its general comments, to make
the experience gained so far through the examination of States’ reports
available for the benefit of all States Parties in order to assist and promote
their further implementation of the Covenant; to draw the attention of the
States Parties to insufficiencies disclosed by a large number of reports; to
suggest improvements in the reporting procedures; and to stimulate the
activities of the States Parties, international organisations and the
specialised agencies concerned in achieving progressively and effectively the
full realisation of the rights recognised in the Covenant.’ 
The General Comments or Recommendations are useful tools to clarify the
normative content of the Covenants because they are general in nature and
provide an abstract picture of the scope of the obligations. General
Comments and Recommendations enable the Committees to announce their
interpretations of the different provisions of the treaties, and the
interpretations of the normative scope of the treaties set out in the General
Comments/ Recommendations have achieved a significant degree of
acceptance by states parties. 
As of March 2010, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
had adopted 21 General Comments; the Human Rights Committee had
adopted 33 General Comments; the Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination had adopted 33 General Recommendations; the Committee
on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women had adopted 26
General Recommendations; the Committee against Torture had adopted two
General Comments; and the Committee on the Rights of the Child had

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adopted 12 General Comments. The Committees established under the
CRPD and CMW have yet to adopt General Comments.

CONCLUSION:

Most states are bound by numerous international instruments guaranteeing

a broad range of human rights. What happens when a state is bound by two
international instruments setting out diverging levels of protection of a
particular human right? The general rule is that when a state is bound by
numerous instruments, it is to implement the most far-reaching obligation
or highest standard. Most human rights conventions contain special
provisions to this effect. For instance, Article 5(2) ICCPR and Article 5(2)
ICESCR state that ‘There shall be no restriction upon or derogation from any
of the fundamental human rights recognised or existing in any state party to
the present Covenant pursuant to law, conventions, regulations or custom
on the pretext that the present Covenant does not recognise such rights or
that it recognises them to a lesser extent.’  In the same vein, Article 55
ECHR sets out that ‘Nothing in this Convention shall be construed as
limiting or derogating from any of the human rights and fundamental
freedoms which may be ensured under the laws of any High Contracting
Party or under any other agreement to which it is a Party.’ Similarly, Article
41 CRC provides that nothing in the Convention shall affect any provisions
which are more conducive to the realisation of the rights of the child –either
in the law of a state party or in international law in force in that state. 

Within the realm of standard setting, the number of ratifications and

accessions to conventions merits special attention. Widely ratified human
rights conventions have greater value and impact, and reinforce the
universal character of human rights law, as well as the equality of all
human beings under that law. Wide accession or ratification (with the least
possible number of reservations) contributes greatly to ensuring equal
application of human rights standards. Many scholars contend that much of
the standard-setting work has been completed. In addition, it has been
argued that in recent decades there has been an excessive proliferation of
standards, and what is needed is a means for better implementation of the
existing norms. However, although the basic human rights have been
roughly defined, it may, for instance, emanate from consistent decisions of
supervisory mechanisms that further elaboration is needed. Better legal
protection may be necessary for, inter alia, human rights defenders, lesbian,
gay, bisexual and transgender people and persons belonging to indigenous
peoples, or in relation to particular issues such as transitional justice or
scientific advances in biomedicine. 

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