1. Flexible Pavement................................................(2.

5 Weeks)
2.1. Analysis of: Stress, Strain and Deflection in Flexible
Pavement
2.1.1. One Layer System
2.1.1.1. Point loading
2.1.1.2. Circular Loading
2.1.1.3. Methods of solutions.
2.1.2. Layard Systems
2.1.2.1. Two Layers System
2.1.2.2. Three Layers System.
2.2. Equivalent Thickness Method (OdeMark’s Concept)
2. Flexible Pavement
2.1. Analysis of: Stress, Strain and Deflection in Flexible Pavement
A pavement structure is not so easily to accurate structural analysis because the materials
forming the flexible pavement layers and soils supporting the pavement are not same, so
their exhibiting are not similar and their response under loads are different.

2.1.1. One Layer System

Boussinesq (1885) analysed the stresses in flexible pavement as a single layer due to an
applied load based on the assumptions that: the pavement and supporting soils subgrade
below form a homogeneous, isotropic, single elastic layer with the same value of elastic
modulus (E). The first analysis approach represented the load as a point load and then the
load was represented as a circular load which is more realistic than the point load.

2.1.1.1. Point loading

The closed-form solution for a point load on an elastic half-space was originally
developed by Boussinesq (Fig. 2.1.) as shown in the following forms:
Figure 2.1. Stresses due to point loading
2.1.1.2. Circular Loading

For pavement analysis, the equivalent circular contact area of a tire on pavement surface is
taken. For this purposes a uniformly loaded circular area is considered for calculating the
stresses in the soil mass. The equation of vertical stress under point load may be integrated
over the circular area as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2.stresses under uniformly circular loading

 The response due to a circular load with (a) radius a and uniform pressure (q) on an elastic
homogeneous half-space is obtained by integrating the Boussinesq’s components due to a
concentrated load.
 When the load is applied over a single circular loaded area, the most critical stress,
strain, and deflection occur under the center of circular area on the axis of symmetry,
where: τzr = 0 and σr = σt, so σz and σr are the principal stresses. For points on the
centerline of the load (i.e., r = 0), these stress components are given by:

Figure 2.3. Stresses due to circular loading

Flexible and Rigid Plates Loading

Flexible Plate:
The load applied from tire to pavement is similar to a flexible
plate with a radius (a) and a uniform pressure (q). The deflection
beneath the center of the plate can be determined from:
Rigid Plate:
All the above analyses are based on the assumption that the load is applied on a
flexible plate, such as a rubber tire . If the load is applied on a rigid plate, such as
that used in a plate loading test, the deflection is the same at all points on the plate,
but the pressure distribution under the plate is not uniform. The differences between
a flexible and a rigid plate are shown in Figure 2.4.

(a) Flexible plate (b) Rigid plate

Figure 2.4. Differences between flexible and rigid plates.
 A comparison of these two equations indicates that the surface deflection
under a rigid plate is only 79% of that under the center of a uniformly distributed
load (flexible plate). This is reasonable because the pressure under the rigid plate is
smaller near the center of the loaded area but greater near the edge . The pressure
near the center has a greater effect on the surface deflection at the center . The same
factor, 0 .79, can be applied if the plates are placed on a layer system, as indicated
by Yoder and Witczak (1975), as shown in Figure 2.5..

Figure 2.5. Deflection induced by rigid and flexible plate loading.

2.1.1.3. Methods of Solution
In addition to using the theoretical formulas suggested by Bossinseq’s method (circular
loading method) , there another two methods as explained in the following articles:
2.1.1.3.1. Foster and Ahlvin Charts (Poisson’s ratio is constant = 0.5)
Foster and Ahlvin (1954) presented charts for determining vertical stress σz, tangential stress
σt, radial stress σr, shear stress τzr, and vertical deflection w, as shown in Figures 2.6 through
2.10. The load is applied over a circular area with radius (a) and an load intensity (q).
Because Poisson ratio has relatively small effect on stresses and deflections, Foster and
Ahlvin assumed the Poisson’s ratio value 0.5.
Depth (radii) z/a

r/a

Figures 2.6. Tangential Stresses

 z/a
z/a

r/a r/a

Figures 2.7. Vertical Stresses Figures 2.8. Radial Stresses

z/a

z/a

r/a
r/a

Figures 2.9. Shear Stresses Figures 2.10. Vertical Deflection (w)

Example 1: Figure (2.11) shows a homogeneous half-space subjected to two circular
loads, each 10 in.(254 mm) in diameter and spaced at 20 in.(508 mm) on centers. The
pressure on the circular area is 50 psi (345 kPa (1 psi=6.9 kPa). The half-space has
elastic modulus 10,000 psi (69 MPa) and Poisson’s ratio 0.5. Determine the vertical
stress, strain, and deflection at point A, which is located 10 in.(254 mm) below the
center of one circle.
Solution : From Figures 2.7, 2.8, and 2.10, the stresses at point A:
Due to the left load with r/a = 0 and z/a = 10/5 = 2 are:
σz = 0.28 × 50 = 14.0 psi (96 .6 kPa), and
σr = σt = 0.016 × 50 = 0.8 psi (5 .5 kPa) ;
Due to the right load with r/a = 20/5 = 4 and z/a = 2 are:
σz = 0.0076 × 50 = 0.38 psi (2 .6 kPa),
σr=0.026 × 50 =1.3 psi (9.0 kPa), and Figures 2.11. Example 1.
σt = 0. (Out of the right load’s range).
By superposition: Strain:
σz = 14.0 + 0 .38 =14 .38 psi (99.2 kPa), εz= [14 .38 - 0 .5(2.10+ 0.8)/10,000 = 0.00129.
σr= 0.8+1.3 = 2 .10 psi (14 .5 kPa) , and From Figure 2.10, the deflection factor at point A
σt = 0.8 psi (5.5 kPa). due to the left load is 0 .68 and, due to the right
load is 0.21 .
The total deflection w = (0 .68 + 0 .21) × 50 ×
5/10,000 = 0 .022 in . (0.56 mm) .
The final answer is σz = 14.38 psi (99 .2 kPa), εz
= 0.00129, and w = 0.022 in . (0.56 mm) τzr,w,
2.1.1.3.2. Ahlvin and Ulery Tables ( Any value of Poisson’s ratio )
Tables for One-layer Solutions are suggested by Ahlvin and Ulery (1962), to find
stresses, strains, and deflection in one layer system for any value of Poisson’s ratio,
as shown in Figure 2.12 and Tables 2.1. and 2.2.
Figure 2.12.
Table 2.1. Function A.
Table 2.2. Function B.
Example 2: Figure (2.13) shows a homogeneous
half-space subjected to two circular loads, each
12 in. in diameter and spaced at 21 in. on centers.
The pressure on the circular area is 100 psi. The
half-space has elastic modulus 9600 psi and
Poisson’s ratio 0.35. Determine the vertical stress,
strain, and deflection at point A, which is located
as shown in figure.
Solution: Figure 2.13. Example 2.
For load (L): a= 6, z= 12, r= 9 → z/a = 2, r/a = 1.5 .
From table A = 0.06275, B =0.06371, C = -0.00782, D =0.05589,
Equivalent Single Wheel load (ESWL)
From Figure ( 2.14), the total load of the dual tire assembly is 2Pd, with Sd being the
center to center spacing and d being the clear distance between tire edges
(d=Sd – 2ac). It is assumed that for the pavement thickness (t) less than or equal to
d/2 (t ≤ d/2), no stress overlap occurs. Thus, the stress depths is due to that of only
one wheel of the dual (Pd). Likewise, at depth of approximately 2Sd, the effect of
stress overlap is such that it is equivalent to the stress caused by the total load of
the dual tire assembly (2Pd). For intermediate depth between d/2 and 2Sd, the
wheel load acting is linear when plotted on a log load versus log thickness diagram
as shown in Figure (2.15). This relationship can be used to find the ESWL for the
diagram.

Figure 2.14. Influence of multiple Figure 2.15. Method of determine

wheels on stresses ESWL for any dual wheel loads.
Example 3: Find ESWL at depths of 5 cm, 20 cm and 40cm for a dual wheel carrying 2044 kN each.
The center to center tire spacing is 20 cm and distance between the walls of the two tyres is 10 cm.
Solution
At depth z = 40cm, which is twice the tire spacing (2Sd), ESWL = 2Pd= 2 × 2044 = 4088 kN.
For depth, z = 5cm, which is half the distance between walls of the tire (d / 2),
ESWL = P = 2044 kN.
For z=20 cm, use the linear relationship: log (ESWL) = 3.511.
Therefore, ESWL = antilog(3.511)= 3244.49 kN

2.1.2. Layard Systems

Flexible pavements are layered systems with better materials on top and cannot be
represented by a homogeneous mass. These layers are subjected to applied stress which
is uniformly distributed over a circular area (radius a) as shown in Figure (2.16). For
this system, the following basic assumptions to be satisfied are :
1. Each layer is: homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic , and with an elastic modulus Ei
and a Poisson ratio µi (where i for each layer).
2. The material is weightless and infinite in the horizontal direction.
3. Each layer has a finite thickness h, except that for the lowest layer (subgrade) which
has an infinite in thickness .
4. A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface over a circular area of radius a .
5. Continuity conditions are satisfied at the layer interfaces, as indicated by the same
vertical stress, shear stress, vertical displacement, and radial displacement .
 Figure 2.16. An n-layer system. Figure 2.17. A two layers system

2.1.2.1.Two-Layer Systems
The two-layer system is a composed of: hot mix asphalt (HMA) layer which is consisted of
surface, binder, and stabilized layers which are treated as a first layer with E1 and the
second layer consists of untreated layer (granular material such as base, sub-base, and
subgrade) with E2, as shown in Figure (2.17). (Note: E1>E2)
Vertical Stress
• The vertical stress on the top of subgrade is an important factor in pavement design.
The function of a pavement is to reduce the vertical stress on the subgrade so that
detrimental pavement deformations will not occur. The allowable vertical stress on a
given subgrade depends on the strength or modulus of the subgrade.
• The stresses in a two-layer system depend on the modulus ratio El /E2 and the
thickness–radius ratio h/a . Figure 2.18 shows the effect of a pavement layer on the
distribution of vertical stresses under the center of a circular loaded area . The chart
is applicable to the case when the thickness h1 of the top layer is equal to the
radius of contact area, or h1 /a = 1 and µ is assumed to be 0.5 for both layers. It can
be seen that the vertical stresses decrease significantly with the increase in modulus
ratio. For example: at the pavement–subgrade interface (i.e. contact surface between
layer 1 and 2), the vertical stress is about 68% of the applied pressure if El/E2=1,
and when El/E2=100 the vertical stress distribution reduces to about 8% of the
applied pressure.

Figure 2.17. Vertical stress distribution in a two layers system.

Figure 2.18 shows the effect of pavement thickness and modulus ratio on the vertical stress
σc at the pavement–subgrade interface under the center of a circular loaded area. For a given
applied pressure q, the vertical stress increases with the increase in contact radius and
decreases with the increase in thickness.

Example 4 : A circular load having radius 6

in. (and uniform pressure 80 psi (552 kPa) is
applied on a two-layer system, as shown in
Figure 2.19 .The subgrade has an elastic
modulus 5000 psi (35 MPa ) and can support
a maximum vertical stress (σc) of 8 psi. If the
HMA has an elastic modulus 500,000 psi,
what is the required thickness of a full-depth
pavement? If a thin surface treatment is
applied( instead of HMA) on a granular base
with an elastic modulus 25,000 psi what is
the thickness of base course required ? Figure 2.18. Vertical interface
stresses for two-layer system

Figure 2.19. Example 4

Solution: a) Given El/E2 = 500,000/5000 = 100 , and σc/q = 8/80 = 0 .1, from Figure 2 .18 , find
a/h1 = 1 .15, so the value of hl = 6/1.15 = 5.2 in ., which represents the minimum thickness for
full depth . b) Given El /E2= 25,000/5000 = 5 , and 𝝈c /q = 0.1, from Figure 2 .18, for a/hl = 0
.4, so the value of h1 = 6/0.4 = 15 in., which is the minimum thickness of granular base required.
Note: compare between the two values of h1
• The allowable vertical stress should depend on the number of load repetitions ,using the
Shell design criterion and the AASHTO equation, Huang et al. (1984b) developed the
relationship: 𝑵𝒅 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝝈𝒄 −𝟑.𝟕𝟑𝟒 𝑬𝟐 𝟑.𝟓𝟖𝟑
in which Nd is the allowable number of stress repetitions to limit permanent deformation,𝝈c
is the vertical compressive stress on the surface of the subgrade in psi, and E2is the elastic
modulus of the subgrade in psi.
Example 5: Use the data in example 4 to find the allowable number of repetitions?
Solution: For a stress of 8 psi (5 kPa) and an elastic modulus of 5000 psi (35 MPa), the allowable
number of repetitions is 𝑵𝒅 = 3 .7 x 105 .
Vertical Surface Deflection: Vertical surface deflections have been used as a criterion of
pavement design. Figure 2.17 can be used to determine the surface deflections for two-layer
systems. The deflection is expressed in terms of the deflection factor F2 by :

The deflection factor is a function of E1/E2 and h1/a. For a homogeneous half-space with h1/a = 0,
F2 = 1, so Eq. 2.1 is identical to Equation for flexible plate when µ = 0 .5 . If the load is applied by
a rigid plate, then, from Eq. 2.2. of rigid plate.
Example.5: A total load of 20,000 lb (89 kN) was
applied on the surface of a two-layer system through
a rigid plate 12 in. in diameter, as shown in
Figure 2 .21. Layer 1 has a thickness of 8 in. and
layer 2 has an elastic modulus of 6400 psi (44.2
MPa). Both layers are incompressible with a
Poisson ratio of 0.5. If the deflection of the plate is
0.1 in . (2.54 mm), determine the elastic modulus
of layer 1.

Figure 2.20. Vertical surface deflections for

two-layer systems

Figure 2.21. Example 5.

Solution:
The average pressure on the plate is q = 20,000/(36𝜋) = 176.8 psi (1.22 MPa). From Eq. 2 .2,
find the value of F2= 0.1 × 6400 / (1 .18 × 176.8 × 6) = 0.511. Given h1/a= 8/6 = 1.333,
from Figure 2.20, EI/E2 = 5, or El = 5 × 6400 = 32,000 psi (221 MPa) .
 Critical Tensile Strain
The tensile strains at the bottom of asphalt layer have been used as a design criterion to prevent
fatigue cracking. Two types of principal strains could be considered.
1. One is the overall principal strain based on all six components of normal and shear stresses.
2. The other, which is more popular and was used in KENLAYER, is the horizontal principal
strain based on the horizontal normal and shear stresses only.
Note: The overall principal strain is slightly greater than the horizontal principal strain, so the use of
overall principal strain is on the safe side . The critical tensile strain is the overall strain and can
be determined from Eq. 2.3.
where: e is the critical tensile strain and
Fe is the strain factor, which can be determined from the charts .
Example 6: Figure 2.23 shows a full-depth asphalt
pavement 8 in. thick subjected to a single-wheel load of
9000 lb (40 kN) having contact pressure 67.7 psi. If the
elastic modulus of the asphalt layer is 150,000 psi and
that of the subgrade is 15,000 psi, determine the critical
tensile strain in the asphalt layer .

Figure 2 .22.Single Wheel chart for the strain factor

of a two-layer system under a circular loaded area . Figure 2 .23. Example 6.
 The figure 2.22 is used for single wheel, in dual wheels,
• The strain factor for dual wheels depends on the parameters: contact radius a, dual spacing Sd ,
Sd / a , E1/E2 ,and h1/a.
• There are two charts one for dual wheels with Sd = 24 in. (610 mm) and a = 3 in. and the
other for Sd = 24 in. (610 mm) and a = 8 in. to determine conversion factors: C1 and C2 as shown
in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.24. Conversion factors.

For any other different Sd and a values the following procedure can be used:
1. From the given Sd, h1 , and a, determine the modified radius a' and the modified thickness h1' :

and
2. Using h1' as the pavement thickness, find conversion factors C1 and C2 from Figure 2.24.
3. Determine the conversion factor for a' by a straight-line interpolation between 3 and 8 in.
or the formula.
Example 7:
For the same pavement as in Example 6, if the 9000-lb (40-kN) load is applied over a set of dual
tires with a center-to-center spacing of 11.5 in. and a contact pressure of 67.7 psi ,as shown in
Figure 2 .25, determine the critical tensile strain in the asphalt layer.

Figure 2 .25. Example 7.

Solution:
Compute a = 4.6 in., h1 = 8 in. from and

a' = 24 x 4.6/11 .5 = 9 .6 in. and h'1 = 24 x 8/11 .5 = 16 .7 in., El/E2 = 10 and an asphalt
layer thickness of 16 .7 in. from Figure 2.24, C1 = 1.42 and C2 = 1.46. From interpolation
equation, C = 1 .42 + 0 .2 (9 .6 – 3) (1 .46 – 1 .42) = 1.473 (C is a modified factor to Fe
which is found from Figure 2.22). From Figure 2 .22, the strain factor for a single wheel = 0
.47 and that for dual wheels = 1.473 x 0 .47 = 0 .692, so the critical tensile strain is:
e = 67 .7 X 0.692/150,000 = 3 .12 x 10-4 .
2.1.2.2. Three Layers System.
Figure 2 .25 shows a three-layer system and the stresses at the interfaces on the axis of symmetry.
These stresses include vertical stress at interface 1, σz1 , vertical stress at interface 2, σz2 , radial
stress at bottom of layer 1, σr1 , radial stress at top of layer 2, σ'r1 , radial stress at bottom of layer
2, σr2, and radial stress at top of layer 3, σ'r2 . Note that, on the axis of symmetry, σr = σt and the
sheer stress is equal to 0. When the Poisson ratio is 0.5, we have:

…………….. 2.4 Important note:

µ1 = µ2 =µ3 = 0.5
…………….. 2.5

……………….….. 2.6

Note:
 The horizontal strain is equal to one-half of the vertical strain
 To understand these Eqs. 2.4 to 2.6 go back to slides No. 3 and 5. Figure 2 .25. Three layers system
Solution Method for Three Layers System Using Jones' Tables
The stresses in a three-layer system depend on the ratios k1, k2, A, and H, defined as
 Jones developed a Tables to determine the stress factors for three-layer systems.

 Where q is the contact pressure (tire inflation in psi), ZZ1,ZZ2,---- etc. are factors found from
Jones` tables.

 The sign convention is positive in

compression and negative in tension .
Four sets of stress factors,ZZ1, ZZ2,
(ZZ1 – RR1), and (ZZ2 – RR2) are
shown in tables. The product of the
contact pressure and the stress factors
gives the stresses. The tables
presented by Jones consist of four
values of k1 and k2 (0.2, 2, 20, and
200), so solutions for intermediate
values of k1 and k2 can be obtained
by interpolation.

Figure 2 .26. Detailed stresses in three layers system.

From Figure 2.26. it can be observed, that the presence of friction has a significant influence
on the radial (horizontal) stress at the bottom of the top layer especially at low values for the
ratio E1/E2. We also note that the influence on the vertical stress is much smaller.
If there is full friction or full bond at the interface, the following conditions are satisfied:
 The vertical stress just below and above the interface are equal because of
equilibrium, so:
σz1 at the bottom of the top layer (1) = σz1 at the top of the bottom layer (2) (interface 1)
σz2 at the bottom of the top layer (2) = σz2 at the top of the bottom layer (3) (interface 2)

 The horizontal displacements just above and below the interface are the same
because of full friction, so:
εr1 at the bottom of the top layer (1) = ε`r1 at the top of the bottom layer (2) (interface 1)
(σr1 = σ`r1 at interface 1)
εr2 at the bottom of the top layer (2) = ε`r2 at the top of the bottom layer (3) (interface 2)
(σr2 = σ`r2 at interface 2)

 The vertical displacements just above and below the interface are the same because
of continuity, so:
εz1 at the bottom of the top layer (1) = εz1at the top of the bottom layer (2) (interface 1)
εz2 at the bottom of the top layer (2)= εz2at the top of the bottom layer (3) (interface 2)
Example 8:
Given the three-layer system shown in Figure 2 .27
with a = 122 mm, q = 828 kPa, h1 = 152 mm), h2
= 6 in. (203 mm), E1 = 400,000 psi (2.8 GPa), E2
= 20,000 psi (138 MPa), and E3 = 10,000 psi (69
MPa), determine all the stresses and strains at the
two interfaces on the axis of symmetry .

Figure 2 .27. Example 8.

Solution:
Given kl = 400,000/20,000 = 20, k 2= 20,000/10,000 = 2, A = 4 .8/6 = 0 .8, and H = 6/6 = 1,
from Table ( ) Find the factors: , ZZ1 = 0 .12173, ZZ2 = 0 .05938, ZZ1 - RR1 = 1 .97428,
and ZZ2 - RR2 = 0.09268 .
From Eq. 2 .11, σz1 = q × ZZ1 = 120 × 0.12173 = 14.61 psi (101 kPa)
From Eq. 2 .12 σz2 = q × ZZ1 = 120 × 0 .05938 = 7.12 psi (49.1 kPa)
From Eq. 2 .13 σz1 - σr1 = q × ( ZZ1 – RR1) = 120 × 1 .97428 = 236.91 psi (1 .63 MPa), and
σr1 = 14.61-236.91 = -222.31 psi.
From Eq. 2 . 14 σz2 - σr2 = q × ( ZZ2 – RR2) = 120 × 0.09268 = 11.12 psi,
σr2 = 7.12 – 11.12 = -4.0 psi
From Equations 2.9 and 2.10.
σ`r1 = 2.76 psi, σ`r2 = 1.56 psi
Solution:
At bottom of layer 1:
To calculate the strains at the bottom of layer 1 use Equations 2.4 and 2.5.
εz1 = (σz1 - σr1 ) / E1 = 236.91 / 400000 = 5 .92 x 10-4
εr1 = (σr1 - σz1 ) /2 E1 = -236.91 / 2 × 400000 = -2 .96 x 10-4 (or diractlly, using equation
2.6 for find εr)

At top of layer 2:
To calculate the strains at the top of layer 2 use Equations 2.4 and 2.5
εz1 = (σz1 - σ`r1 ) / E2 = (14.61-2.76)/ 20000 = 5 .92 x 10-4 = εz at bottom of layer 1
ε`r1 = (σ`r1 - σz1 ) /2 E2 = (2.76-14.61)/ 2 × 20000 = -2 .96 x 10-4 = εr1 at bottom of layer 1

At bottom of layer 2 :
To calculate the strains at the bottom of layer 2 use Equations 2.4 and 2.5.
εz2 = (σz2 - σr2 ) / E2 = 11.12 / 20000 = 5.56x 10-4
εr2 = (σr2 - σz2 ) /2 E2 = -11.12 / 2 × 20000 = -2 .78 x 10-4
At top of layer 3:
To calculate the strains at the top of layer 3 use Equations 2.4 and 2.5
εz3 = (σz2 - σ`r2 ) / E3 = 5.56 / 10000 = 5.56x 10-4 = εz2 At bottom of layer 2
εr3 = (σ`r2 - σz2 ) /2 E3 = -5.56 / 2 × 10000 = -2 .78 x 10-4 At bottom of layer 2
2.2. Equivalent Thickness Method (OdeMark’s Concept)
Odemark's equivalent-layer-thickness (ELT) concept is often used as a simple method of
approximation in pavement structural analysis, since it permits the conversion of a multilayered
system into a single layer with equivalent thickness. It is based on the principle that the equivalent
layer has the same stiffness as the original layer, so as to give the same pressure distribution
beneath the layer as shown in Figures 2.29 and 2.30.

Stiffness of layer 1 =

Stiffness of layer 2 =

Figure 2 .28. Moment of inertia of

simply supported beam.
, for b1 = b2= 1 m

According to Odemark`s theory:

Stiffness of layer 1 = Stiffness of layer 2

If µ1 = µ2 = 0.5
 Figure 2 .29. Multilayer system.

For f value:
 In a 2-layer pavement system, use f = 0.9 to
convert the upper layer.
 In a multi-layer pavement system, use f = 0.8 to
convert the rest of the layers.

Figure 2 .30. Odemark`s concept.

Example 9:
The structure as shown in Figure 2.31 represents a
multilayer pavement system?. By using Odemark`s
concept, find the equivalent thickness of the structure?.
Figure 2 .31.
Solution: Example 9.
As detailed in the Figures