CEB 711_Structural Design II

Semester 2, 2020
Lecture 1
Surface Structures, and Different Types of Shallow
Foundations and Deep Foundations
SURFACE STRUCTURES
including ETABS/ SAP2000
Foundation:
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure which provides a 
base for the super‐structure and transmit the loads (live load, 
wind load) on the structure including the dead weight of the 
structure itself  to the soil below.  

Types of Foundation:

Foundation can be broadly classified into two types–
1. Shallow Foundations
2. Deep Foundations
Shallow foundations:
Foundation is placed immediately lowest part of the 
super structure, is termed as Shallow foundation.

Why we use shallow foundation?

‐ To distribute the structural loads over a wide 
horizontal area at a shallow depth below the ground 
level.
The various types of shallow foundations are : 

(a) Spread footing
(b) Combined footing
(c) Mat or Raft foundation.
(d) Grillage footing
(e) Eccentrically loaded footing
Spread footings 
Spread footings  are 
structural members used 
to support columns and 
walls and to transmit and 
distribute their loads to 
the soil.
Types of spread footing
 Wall footings
 Reinforced concrete
footings
 Inverted arch footing
 Column footings
Wall Footing
Why Wall Footing?

 Support  walls that
may be either bearing
or nonbearing walls.

 Commonly  required
to support direct
concentric loads.
Why Wall Footing?
Footings carry
relatively light loads on 
well drained cohesive 
soil.

A wall footing under
concentric load behaves 
similarly  to a cantilever  
beam.

Used in low rise
buildings.
Reinforced
concrete
footing
Why Reinforced concrete
footing?
Relatively heavy loading
than wall footing.

Bearing capacity of the
soil is low. 
 Why Reinforced concrete footing?

 In a reinforced concrete
wall footing, the
behavior is identical to
that of wall footing.

 Reinforcing steel is
placed in the bottom of
the footing in a direction
perpendicular to the wall
like a reinforced concrete
beam or slab.
Inverted arch
footing
Inverted arch footing

When a wall is
composed of
isolated piers, it
is well to
combine all their
footings into
one, and to step
the piers down .
 COLUMN
FOOTINGS
WHY COLUMN 
FOOTINGS? 

 This is one of the most
economical types of
footings.
 Used when columns are
spaced at relatively long
distances.
WHY COLUMN 
FOOTINGS? 
 Low bending
strength.
 When bearing
capacity of soil is 
good. 
 Carry heavy loads.
 Used to support
single columns.
To distribute the load
uniformly.
CHARACTERISTICS 
OF COLUMN 
FOOTINGS
 Constructed with brick,
stone or plane
concrete.
 Circular, rectangular or
square in plan.
POSITION OF RODS

PLAN

Upper rod
Inner rod
6” interval
 CLEAR COVERS
&
BLOCKS
3”Clear cover

6”Block
 CENTERING  THE COLUMN

Centering with plumb bob

Ring

Centre point of column

PREPARED COLUMN
REINFORCEMENT

6” Interval ring
LENGTH & WIDTH OF RING

Length 17”

Width 9”
PUTTING THE COLUMN INTO THE FOOTING
CAVING TENDENCY

Load bearing support

SUPPORTING THE COLUMN

LEVELLING THE COLUMN
PORING CEMENT CONCRETE 

Vibrating 
 A 
COMPLETE 
COLUMN 
FOOTING
Combined
footings
Combined  footings
usually support two 
columns, or three columns 
not in a row. 
Combined footings are 
used when tow columns 
are so close that single 
footings cannot be used or 
when one column is 
located at or near a 
property line.
WHY COMBINED
FOOTINGS?

When two columns
are close together, 
causing overlap of 
adjacent isolated 
footings.
When soil bearing
capacity is low, causing 
overlap of adjacent 
isolated footings.
PROCEDURE OF COMBINED FOOTINGS
 A COMPLETE
COMBINED FOOTING
Raft Foundation
Foundation which consists of 
thick reinforced concrete slab 
covering the entire area of the 
bottom of the structure like a floor.

This foundation was invented by 
John Root at Chicago in 19th
century. 
 Why Raft Foundation?

Base soil has low bearing
capacity or the column loads are 
so large that more than 50% of 
the area is covered by 
conventional spread footings.

Resist unequal settlement due to
earthquake.

 Quickness of the construction
work.
Figures of the Different Types of Raft
PROCEDURE OF MAT FOUNDATION

Plan
Shoring
Excavation of soil
Brick flat soling
or C.C. casting
Formwork & 
Placing of 
reinforcement 
Casting
Curing
Before earth can be excavated to make the foundation
certain precaution has to be taken to stop the outside soil
from caving in the excavated area. These precautions are
called shoring , the purpose of which is to anyhow retain
the surrounding soil.

Shoring 
process
 Excavate earth
according to design
specification

Excavation
Reinforced chair

POSITION OF 
REBARS
Bottom rebar

Top rebar
 PREPARED COLUMN 
REINFORCEMENT

SUPPORTING THE COLUMN

Extra top
rebar
 Position of column on foundation

Column

Support
Formwork for casting

Wooden frame

Support
Pouring cement 
concrete & 
compacting 
Limitations of shallow foundation

Spread footings are being installed

at shallow depths which does not
eliminate the effects of expansive soils.

Foundation repair will last longer

than a week as the excavations are
made and the concrete will have to
be cured before the holes can be
refilled.
Limitations of shallow foundation
A huge amount of earthwork is to be
done in Mat foundation.

If the shoring system can not resist

the pressure of outside land, then the
structure surrounding the area may be
damaged by deflection of soil.

Ground water may come out when

the earthwork is done.

Limited to dealing with point loads.

Advantages of shallow foundation

It is a quick process compared to others in

the construction work.

This type of foundation is also

economically cheaper than any other
foundations.

Though there are some limitations in mat

foundation still it is economical in some
cases.
Advantages of shallow foundation
It can resist ground water absorption.

The damage due to earthquake is

lesser than any other type of
foundation.

It consists of a reinforced concrete slab 
which is more thicker than footing 
foundation.

It prevents unequal settlements.

 Deep Foundations
Definition of Deep Foundations
 In which the depth of the foundation is very large in comparison to its width.
 Which are not constructed by ordinary methods of open pit excavations.
 Forms of Construction

 Most common forms of construction pertaining

to deep foundations are:
 Pile Foundation (more commonly used in building construction)
 Cofferdams
 Caisson or Well Foundation
 Pile Foundations
 The term ‘Pile Foundation’ denotes a construction for
the foundation of a wall or pier which is supported on
piles.
 Where Used :
 stratum of required bearing capacity is at greater depth
 Advantages:
 Provides a common solution to all difficult foundation site
problems
 Can be used for any type of structure and in any type of soil
Pile Foundations
 Types of Piles Based on
Function
Classification based on Function or Use
 Bearing Piles or End Bearing Piles
 Friction Piles or Skin Friction Piles
 Sheet Piles
 Tension Piles or Uplift Piles
 Anchor Piles
 Batter Piles
 Fender Piles
 Compaction Piles
 Types of Piles Based on Function

Bearing Piles
 Driven into the ground until a hard
stratum is reached.

 Acts as pillars supporting the super-

structure and transmitting the load to
the ground.
Friction Piles (Floating Piles)
 Piles are driven at a site where soil is
weak or soft to a considerable depth
and it is not economical or rather
possible to rest the bottom end of the
pile on the hard stratum.
Types of Piles Based on Function
 Types of Piles Based on
Function
Sheet Piles
 Sheet piles are used for the following purposes:
 To construct retaining walls in docks, and other marine works.
 To protect erosion of river banks.
 To retain the sides of foundation trenches.
Types of Piles Based on Function
 Types of Piles Based on Function
Anchor Piles
 Piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling
wall or other pulling forces.
Batter piles:
 Piles are driven at an inclination to resist large horizontal and inclined forces.
Fender piles:
 Piles are used to protect concrete deck or other water front structures from
the abrasion or impact caused from the ships or barges.
Compaction piles:
 When piles are driven in granular soil with the aim of increasing the bearing
capacity of the soil, the piles are termed as compaction piles.
Types of Piles Based on Function
 Types of Piles Based on
Materials
Classification based on Materials
1. Timber Piles

2. Concrete Piles

3. Composite Piles

4. Steel Piles
 Types of Piles Based on Materials

Timber Piles:
 Transmission of load takes place by the frictional resistance
of ground and the pile surface.
Advantages of Timber Piles:
 Economical where timber is easily available.
 Can be driven rapidly & as such saves time.
Disadvantages of Timber Piles:
 Liable to decay or deteriorate by salt water/insects.
 Low bearing capacity.
Types of Piles Based on Materials
 Types of Concrete Piles
Concrete Piles are of 3 types:
 Pre-cast Piles
 Cast in situ Piles
 Prestressed Concrete Piles
Types of Concrete Piles
 Concrete Piles
Advantages of Pre-cast Piles:
 Very effective
 Simple quality control
 Improves the entire area

Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles:

 Limited in length
 Difficult to transport
 Not suitable for densely built up area
Concrete Piles
 C ONCRETE P ILES
Advantages of Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles:
 Not limited in length
 Can be cast at any place
 Requires less equipment
Disadvantages of Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles:
 Quality control is difficult
 Load carrying is mostly done through end bearing
only
 Skin frictional resistance is very low.
Concrete Piles
 Composite Piles
 Piles of two different
materials are driven
one over the other,
so as to enable them
to act together to
perform the function
of a single pile.
 This type of
composite pile is
used with the object
of achieving
economy in the cost
of piling work.
 Steel piles
Types of Steel Piles:
The types of steel piles commonly used are:
H-Piles
Pipe-piles
Screw piles
Disc piles
Steel piles
 PILE FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

 At first, with the help of boring

ring machine drill the hole of
diameter 1 m upto the depth
mentioned in the drawing.
 Provide casing at upper surface of
the soil Layer during the drilling.
 The depth of the excavated bore
hole is measured with the help of
a chain.
 After that, the length of the chain
is then measured with a tape and
compared with the required
depth of the borehole
• If the depth of the bore hole
confirms to the design
depth(31m) then water
mixed with geo polymer is
pumped into the bore hole
so as to prevent the caving
in of the sides of the bore caging
hole.
• After that, install the
reinforcement in four parts
as the depth of the bore
hole is more than 30 m.
• The bottom part of the
second reinforcement is
welded to overlap with first
reinforcement .
 After that the mouth of hopper
connected to the tremie pipe is
blocked with a plate and the
entire hopper filled with concrete
which are taken from transit
mixer.
 The plate is then removed and the
concrete is allowed to flow
through it continuously.
 This is done to prevent joint in the
concrete all through the pile
length.
 After one batch has been poured
the tremie pipe is uplifted up and
down to allow the flow of
concrete in the pipe.
 The bottom position of the tremie
pipe should always remain
embedded in the concrete in order
to maintain a continuous concrete
surface.
 After every batch of concrete is
placed the length of the tremie pipe
is shortened by removing one part.
 This is how the concreting is
completed for the cast in situ bored
piles.
 The pile is always cast some length
above the desired level and cut at a
later stage by chipping to bring the
pile to the desired level of the pile
cap.
 This is done because the
concreting in the top
portion of the pile may
get disturbed which
otherwise will reduce its
load carrying capacity.
 Over the group of piles
the pile cap is then cast.
 Causes of failure of piles

Unequal settlement of the sub-soil.

Unequal settlement of masonry.
Horizontal movement of the soil adjoining the
structure.
Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from the soil
below the foundation.
Lateral pressure tending to over-turn the structure.
Action of atmosphere.
Lateral escape of the soil below the foundation.