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CHAPTER –16
FUNDAMENTALS OF INSTRUMENTATION, BOILER CONTROLS &
PROTECTION INTERLOCKS

Role of Control and Instrumentation:

Boilers are Pressure Vessels meant for generation of Steam, in controlled quantity
(tonnes/hour) and at required pressure and temperature. Like any machinery or
device, boilers too passed through a period of technological evolution and
development. Early boilers were equipped with least facilities or devices for
proper controls of their working. Gradually, as more and more experience was
gained on boilers devices were developed for this purpose depending upon
necessity. Simultaneously, as scientific and technological developments took
place, their application to boilers was just a natural consequence.
Even in the very primitive boilers it was impossible to determine the ‘Level’ of
Water in the boiler. Necessity demanded invention of ‘Water Level Gauge’.
Similarly, ‘Pressure Gauge’ for determination of ‘Pressure’ of Steam and Feed
Water and ‘Temperature Gauge’ for determination of ‘Temperature’ of Steam and
Feed Water were the very minimum of Instruments required for just being able to
operate the boiler. These items are so essential that they have been classified as
‘BOILER MOUNTINGS’ although basically these are instruments. Another device,
that falls under the category of ‘BOILER MOUNTINGS’ is the ‘Safety Valve’,
although it is an instrument. There are several other devices such as ‘Control
Valves’ and ‘Dampers’ that fall under the category of instrumentation & control
devices.
In modern times, it is possible due to technological advancements to design and
build boilers that can be operated totally automatically and unmanned. However,
the cost of such degree or level of automation does not justify the investment
required for achieving this. Therefore, in modern times the Role of Control and
Instrumentation (“C&I”) is considered to be the following:

Maintaining an adequate margin from the safety and operational constraints,

Monitor these margins and the plant conditions, and provide immediate
indications and permanent records,

Draw the attention of the operator by an alarm system to any unacceptable
reduction in the safety margins and

Shut down the Plant, if the operating constraints are violated.

Measurements and Controls:

From the above it can be appreciated that there are two important functions that are
serves by C&I. These are (i) Measurement and (ii) Controls.
Measurements involve devices for sensing various parameters and either indicating
them directly to the operator (for example direct indication of ‘Level’ by a ‘Level
Gauge’) or generating signals corresponding to the measured parameters and
transmitting these signals to a central location, called Control Room, for information of
the operator. Few other examples of measuring devices are:

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Direct Measuring and Indicating Devices: ‘Pressure Gauge’, ‘Thermometer’,

‘Manometer’, ‘position indicating devices equipped with lever mechanisms’ etc.,
come under this classification;

Remote Sensing and Indicating Devices: ‘Thermo couple’ and corresponding

voltage based Temperature Indicator and Recorder, ‘Pressure transducer’ and
corresponding transmitter and Electrical/Electronic/Pneumatic Pressure Indicator
and Recorder, ‘Differential Pressure transducer’ and corresponding transmitter
and Electrical/Electronic/Pneumatic Flow and/or Level Indicator and Recorder
etc., fall under this classification.
Controls involve (i) devices called ‘Controller’ for analysing the sensed operating
parameters and comparing them with the required value and generating control signals
for regulating or modulating corresponding control element (such devices valve or
damper or feeder etc.), (ii) devices called ‘Positioner’ for accepting the control signals
and actually regulating or modulating corresponding control element (such devices
valve or damper or feeder etc.)

Instrumentation &Control Sub-systems:

In case of Power Plants information plant-mounted Sensors and their associated
Transmitter systems provide regarding the complete Power Plant Operating Conditions.
There are about 5000 of these in a typical 660 MW coal-fired power generating unit.
Electrical quantities, mechanical displacements, flow of various fluids and materials,
positions and openings of various valves and dampers, levels of various vessels, pressure
and temperatures of various fluids involved in the process, metal temperatures, flame
in furnace of the boiler, rpm and vibrations of rotating machinery are some of the
important parameters that are monitored and controlled through C&I Sub-systems.

Definition of Terms related with C&I:

In the following are given definitions of some of the important terms related with
C&I, based on BS 1523:
Process: A physical or chemical change of matter or conversion of energy in the
widest sense.
Controlled condition: The condition of the process (or characteristic parameter)
which it is the direct purpose of the system to control.
Detecting element: The element which responds directly to the value of the
controlled condition (for example, a thermocouple).
Measuring element: the element which responds to the signal from the detecting
element and gives the measured value of the controlled condition (for example, a
thermocouple amplifier).
Measuring unit: A unit comprising the detecting and measuring elements (for
example, a pressure transmitter).
Comparing element: That part of a controller (or control system) which generates
a signal proportional to the deviation.
Desired value: The specified value of a controlled condition or an agreed or
agreeable value.

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Set value (or Set point): The value of the controlled condition to which the
automatic control mechanism (or automatic control system) is set. If integral
control action is absent, the set value has to be offset from the desired value to all
the measured value to take up the desired value in the steady state.
Deviation: The difference between the set value of the controlled condition and
the measured value.
Controlling element: The element which provides the control signal, which is
dependent on the deviation, to the correcting unit.
Correcting condition: The condition of the process the value of which is adjusted
in order to reduce the deviation.
Correcting element: that part of a correcting unit which directly affects the value
of the correcting condition (for example, a valve).
Correcting unit: A unit comprising both the motor (or actuator element) and
correcting element.
Actuator element: That part of the correcting unit which adjusts the correcting
element in response to the signal from a Correcting element (Not necessarily a
rotating device - can be a linear actuator).
Offset: A sustained deviation due to an inherent characteristic of proportional
control action.
Algorithm: A detailed logical procedure representing a solution of a particular
problem.
Validation: Model validation is the process in which modal responses are compared
with reference responses to establish model validity.
Principle of superposition: If the response of a linear system is y1 when the input
is x1 and the response is y2 when the input is x2, then response is y1 + y2 when the
input is x1 + x2. This is the principle of superposition.
Linear: A system is linear if the principle of superposition holds.
Non-linear: A system is non-linear if the principle of superposition fails.
Special modelling environment: These are the software packages provided for the
purpose of setting up and solving plant mathematical models.
Plant design database: The full set of plant design information available from the
plant design authority.
Signal processing: The complete set of operations completed by a control system
in performing its function.
Steady state: A state of a given system at which it will remain if undisturbed.
Linearising: The mathematical process by which a non-linear system is made linear
for the purpose of analysis.
Model reduction techniques: These are applied to reduce the size of plant model
whilst retaining its dominant transfer properties.
Computational robustness: Model are robust, if over a wide range of model states
they can be resolved in a stable state and in real time.
Introduction to Control Theory:
‘Open loop’ and ‘Closed loop’ control:
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If an operator is monitoring the performance of plant, by observing the variations

in the indicated value of a characteristic parameter, and is acting on his
observations by regulating the plant to correct deviations of the measured value
from the desired value, he is effectively performing a ‘closed loop’ control.
The elements of the ‘loop’ are shown in the figure 1 below.

Figure 1

The element of the ‘loop’ comprise:

The connecting cable from the desk controls to the actuator and regulating
element,

The plant process being regulated,

The measured value signal transmitted from plant and

The operator.
The operator thus ‘closes the loop’, by observing the transmitted signal and
operating the controls in response to it. If the operator is replaced by automatic
control equipment, the equipment performs closed loop control.
However, if the operator adjusts the regulating element to some prejudged
position, taking no account of any measurement which is directly indicative of the
state of the plant process being regulated, he is performing ‘open loop’ control,
i.e., the measured value signal is either not present or is being disregarded. For
example, the speed of a feed pump is often regulated in a ‘closed loop’ manner to
maintain a desired value of pressure drop across feed regulating valves; however,
if the feed pump speed were to be regulated to comply with some approximate
relationship with the steam flow from the boiler, ignoring feed valve pressure
drop, this would be ‘open loop’ control in relation to the feed water system. (In
this example, if the operator is performing this control by monitoring pump speed,
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he is performing ‘closed loop’ control of pump speed but ‘open loop’ control of the
feed valve pressure drop.)

Feedback and gain:

In the example given above, close loop control is made possible because the
measured variable signal has been ‘fed back’ from plant process to the operator
(or automatic control equipment). The appropriate corrective action is then
judged by comparing the measured value with a desired value, i.e., the measured
value is subtracted from the desired value to produce a ‘deviation’, from which
the corrective action is judged.
Because of this subtraction, the feedback signal may be regarded mathematically
as being applied in the negative sense when it forms part of a closed loop. Thus, as
an aid to understanding closed loop control, consideration may first be given to the
analogous behaviour of the ‘negative feedback amplifier’ shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Negative Feedback Amplifier

In the figure, the amplifier has a gain A and the signal fed back from the output is
attenuated by a factor B. The output voltage from the amplifier is eo, and the feedback
voltage is subtracted from the incoming signal voltage ei to produce the input voltage to
the amplifier eg.
Thus,
eo = A.eg
eg = ei - B.eo
= ei - A.B.eg
eg = ei / (1 + A.B)
So the overall gain, allowing for feedback, is
eo/ei = A/(1 + A.B)
The effect of feedback is to reduce the gain by a factor ‘1/(1+A.B)’. The product
AB, which is the overall gain that operates on the input to the amplifier to give the
feedback signal, is called ‘loop gain’. The function ‘1/(1+A.B)’ is called the
‘feedback ratio’.

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The overall gain, allowing for feedback, is expressed above in terms of voltage
ratio. However, the primary interest is in the power transferred from input to
output and it is often more convenient to express the power ratio in logarithmic
form. A unit called ‘Bel’ has been created, which is defined as log10 (power ratio);
however, a more conveniently sized unit is called ‘decibel’ and, since power is
proportional to voltage squared, the ‘decibel’ is defined as 20.log10 (voltage
ratio), and is normally abbreviated to ‘dB’.
Control Action and Modes of Control:
Control Action can be made to occur in the following three modes:
Proportional Action:
At the simplest level, the obvious form of control action would seem at first sight
to be that depicted in figure 3, below:

Figure 3: Close Loop control system containing two sample tags.

In the above the Output control signal V is directly proportional to the input
deviation signal θ, but have the opposite sign.
Thus, the equation V = -G.θ is the basis of proportional action. The constant of
proportionality G is the Gain of the controlling element.
However, traditionally, the output control signal has been assumed to have a range
which corresponds to the full range of movement of the correcting element, and
the Gain of the correcting element is often expressed as the change in input, as a
proportion of the output which will produce a 100% change in the output. It is
referred to as the ‘proportional band’ (PB); for example, a proportional band of
20% corresponds to a gain of 5.
But it can be seen from the equation, V = -G.θ, that if V is to have a value which is
not zero, θ cannot be zero; in general terms, if the control action is solely
proportional, the set value must differ from the measured value and the measured
value can only be controlled to a desired value by offsetting the set value.
Another aspect of proportional action, which can be seen by considering the
concept of proportional band, is that the deviation cannot be permitted to exceed
the proportional band; otherwise the output will exceed the range of correcting
element. So to ensure that the offset is small, the controller element must have a
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large gain from consideration of stability, this is only possible in particular

situations.

Integral Action:
If one considers the implications of the equation, V = -G.θ more widely, it will be
apparent that some additional control action is needed which has the effect of
removing the offset made necessary by the proportional action. To be effective,
this additional action has to change the output at a rate that diminishes to zero,
i.e., for zero deviation there is not zero output but zero change to output:
dV/dt = - K2.θ
or V = - K2.θ.dt + VO
This resetting action is thus equivalent to the time integral of the deviation θ and
is referred to as ‘integral action’. The constant VO is the value of the output at
some time t0, when the automatic control action was first engaged, for example as
a result of a transfer of control from manual to automatic.
It can be seen from the equation, V = -G.θ, if K2 is put equal to G/T1, the change in
output as a result of integral action over a period of time T1 will be equal to
change in output resulting from the proportional action, represented by the
equation V = -G.θ.
The combined effect of proportional action and integral action may therefore be
written as:
V = -G.θ - (G/T1) θ dt + V0
Where, T1 is known as the ‘integral action time’.
G may be alternatively written as 100/PB.
It can be seen from the above equation giving the value of V that the effect of
integral component is to remove any standing error. It may also be seen that this
can be achieved if the integral action is applied alone, but for most applications
this produces a response which is too sluggish.
Derivative Action:
If one considers the response of the equation, V = -G.θ - (G/T1) θ dt + V0 to an
input θ which is varying sinusoidally, the effect of integral action is seen to add a
component to the output which is lagging the input by 900. Thus, taken in
combination with the other lags in the loop, the addition of integral action could
increase the probability of the feedback signal being in phase with the demand,
i.e., increase the probability of instability.
This effect can be countered by adding a third action which adds a component to
the output which is advanced in phase by 900 relative to the input i.e., it is
proportional to the first derivative of the deviation θ:
V = - K3 (dθ/dt)
As with integral action, the constant K3 may be expressed in terms of gain G in
Equation V = -G.θ; if K3 is set equal to GTD, it can be seen from the equation, V = -
K3 (dθ/dt) that, if the deviation changes by an amount θ in a period of time TD, the
change in output as a result of the derivative will be equal to the change in output
as a result of proportional action represented by the equation V = -G.θ.

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TD defined in this way is, is known as the ‘derivative action time’

A disadvantage of derivative action is that it responds only to the rate of change of

θ. Thus, if there were rapid fluctuations in θ, but of small amplitude, i.e., ‘noise’
derivative action would generate an output in response to the noise. It is
customary, therefore, to avoid using derivative action wherever possible.

Practical realisation of theoretical control algorithms:

Control systems installed today can benefit from the advantages of modern
technology and modern computer techniques. These can generate output
commands which faithfully conform to the algorithms developed for specific
control purposes. Moreover, such systems are robust, reliable, have minimal drift
and have low power consumption.
However, when electronic technology was based on thermionic valve it clearly did
not have the above attributes, and early transistors had limitations. So the medium
which was developed for the automatic control of process plant was compressed
air. In fact pneumatic measurement and control systems have proved to be
reliable, convenient and cheap, where the control requirements are simple. They
are still widely used for the control of auxiliary plant, where the equipments can
be mounted locally to the plant and there is no requirement for manual
intervention from a central control room.
Pneumatic control equipment:
Compressed air provided is both clean and dry, is a very convenient medium for
the control and measurement of plant control processes. It can be used as a source
of power for actuating plant regulating devices. It can also be used as a means of
communicating an analog value from one location to the other, for example
communicating the value of a plant measurement to a controller, or
communicating a demanded actuator position to an actuator. For this purpose, the
numerical value being transmitted in converted to an analog value of air pressure,
the standard pressure range, generally adopted being 0.2 - 1.0 bar.

Basic proportional pneumatic control relay:

A fundamental requirement for the realisation of the above principle is a device
which will generate the pneumatic signal. The device most widely used is the
‘flapper and nozzle’, the principle of which is illustrated in the figure 4.
A chamber having a small volume is supplied with air through a restriction or
orifice; the source of air will be at a pressure in access of the upper limit of the
required pneumatic signal range, e.g., 1.2 bar for 0.2-1.0 range. Thus the pressure
in the chamber will be determined by the rate of escape of air from it; the greater
the rate of escape, the greater the flow through the orifice and, hence the lower
the pressure in the chamber.

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Figure 4: Proportional control relay based on flapper/nozzle

The air in the chamber is permitted to escape through a small nozzle, but a
flexible vane or ‘flapper’ in close proximity with the nozzle impedes the escape.
(The outlet pressure connection to the chamber communicates with a sealed
system, so there is no escape of air along that path.) Thus, a small change in air
gap between the flapper and the nozzle is able to cause a corresponding change in
air pressure in the chamber. If the tip of the flapper is moved to the right, the air
pressure will fall.
The flapper is attached to a bellows, which is spring opposed and is connected to
the chamber. So, as the tip of the flapper is moved to the right, the fall in the air
pressure in the chamber will cause the bellows to contract, thereby limiting the
size of the air gap to maintain equilibrium between the chamber air pressure, the
compression of the spring and the escape of air. The effect of the bellows and the
spring is to provide negative feedback action; this reduces the gain and makes the
chamber air pressure vary almost linearly with small movement of the tip of the
flapper.
It will be apparent, therefore, that the above device can be the basis of a means
of transmitting a pneumatic signal, which is proportional to a small linear
displacement. For example, the pressure of a fluid can be converted into small
displacement.

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Pneumatic controllers:
In the following Figure 5, the principle of proportional pneumatic relay is being
utilized to provide a simple proportional control action.

Figure 5: Principle of Proportional Pneumatic controller

Assuming that the controlled action is ‘steam pressure’, which is converted into a
measured value in the range 0.2 - 1.0 bar by a bellows, the set point is provided by
a spring and acts in opposition to the measured value through a beam. As a
deviation between the measured value and the set point varies, the air pressure in
the chamber varies by the action of the flapper; the outlet air pressure will be
proportional to the deviation, i.e., a proportional controller action.
By addition of further mechanical artifices, integral and derivative actions can be
added, but the control actions are not independent of one another, and are not
faithful representations of the equations given in chapter 5.

Electronic Control Systems:

Electronic controllers accept an electrical signal transmitted from the plant,
representative of measured value, usually 4 - 20 mA DC; compare it with a set
value (generated within the controller or transmitted as an electrical signal from a
separate device) and produce an output control signal which conforms to the
equations derived in chapter 5. The control coefficients - proportional band,
integral action time and derivative action time - may be adjusted using trimming
controls mounted on the case of the controller.
Electronic control is available in two distinct packages:
Single module controllers often referred to as single loop controllers, in which all
necessary functions (including Auto/Manual transfer and input signal conditioning)
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are performed within a single electronic module, which can be mounted on a desk
or panel.
Modular Control System, where a range of different modules is available, each
providing a function (or group of functions) needed for control. Selecting the
necessary modules and connecting them together in the appropriate manner then
construct a control system. The modules are mounted in a standard rack, which is
usually remote from the operator’s controls and indicators.

A true electronic controller generates the appropriate control algorithm with

integrated circuits (ICs), in particular with operational amplifiers. However,
controllers are now available that are similarly packaged but which generate the
control algorithms with microprocessors.
Latest development in Electronic Controls is the Field Bus System, wherein the
signals are no longer analog (i.e., 4 - 20 mA DC). Rather, digital signals
corresponding to measured values and control signals are transmitted over high
speed fibre-optic ‘Field Bus’ and the Transmitters, Controllers and Positioners are
all distributed in the field, housed in weather proof and sealed enclosures. This
type of system reduces the cable work for the control system and saves time and
money and offers the advantages of ruggedness and reliability.

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BOILER CONTROLS
Instrumentation and controls, which server to assure safe, economic, and reliable
operation, and essential part of all boiler installations and range from simple
manual devices to the complete automatic control of boiler and all associated
equipment. Fire tube and water tube boilers require different aspects to be
monitored for safe and efficient operation and require different instrumentation
and control schemes and sub systems due to the size of the plant and costs
involved.
They can be classified under four categories (a) Safety and Interlock System, (b)
Online Operation and Control Systems (e.g., fuel flow, combustion air flow, feed
water flow, furnace draft, steam temperature, regulation of aux. Firing, gas re-
circulation and air heater protection), (c) Monitoring and Alarm Systems, and (d)
Controls Required for Efficient Management of Plant (e.g., Data Acquisition
Systems (DAS), Efficiency and Condition Trend Monitoring Systems).

Boiler Controls
The Boiler Control System is the algorithm and logic through which the Mass and
Energy Balances are managed. In boiler system, basically input feed is fuel, air and
water, whereas, the resultant output is Steam, Hot Flue Gas and Blow-down
Water. The balance between Input and Output is maintained by Boiler Control
System, each Input being controlled for getting desired Output. The ratio of Heat
Output to Input is called Efficiency of Boiler. The major losses of boilers which
reduces the efficiency of boilers are:
(1) Heat loss is dry flue gas,
(2) Heat loss due to formation of H2O in flue gas on account of Hydrogen in fuel
and free moisture in fuel gas and air,
(3) Loss of fuel due to unburnt carbon, or unburnt combustible gas in flue and
(4) Heat loss from radiation due to exposure of hot surface to atmosphere.
The control system for efficient and safe operation of Boiler consists of following:
i Firing Rate Demand Control,
ii Steam Temperature Control,
iii Feed water Deaeration, Supply Feed Water Control and Drum Level Control,
iv Control of Furnace Draft,
v Combustion Control and Oxygen Control,
vi Burner Management System,
vii Analysis of Steam, Feed water and Blow Down water and
viii Boiler Safety Interlocks.

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Master demand signal control for maintaining the state of the system under
fluctuating supply and demand situation for continuous operation as well as
loading/ unloading of boilers:

Available control Methods are:

(i) Steam Pressure,
(ii) Steam Flow,
(iii) Steam pressure plus steam flow,
(iv) Load Sharing of multiple boilers and
(v) Boiler loading through energy management control based on Digital
computer

Steam Flow Or Steam Pressure Based Loading:

Use of Steam Pressure
Steam Pressure is used as ‘Demand Signal’, which indicates the loading/unloading
index. When the demand of steam increases, the steam pressure inside
drum/header outlet will drop, as net available volume of steam is lesser than the
demand of steam. If the Steam Demand decreases the steam pressure increases
since the available volume of steam is more than the demand. Hence sensing of
Steam Pressure can be considered as Demand Steam Signal. The variation of steam
pressure signal can be manipulated for varying the fuel rate and subsequently
airflow rate. When steam flow requirement is constant at constant pressure, there
is balance between energy supply and demand. Thus steam demand signal is used
for controlling fuel, air, drum level, steam temperature and oxygen.

The following diagram depicts such control system:

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Use of steam flow signal for loading

In some applications, where maintaining the Steam Flow is required for one or
more boilers, the ‘Steam Flow’ can also be taken as the basis for generation of
‘Boiler Loading’ signal, as depicted in the following diagram:

Combination of Steam ‘Pressure’ and ‘Flow’ in controls

Both the methods, described above, can also be incorporated together by way of
provision of Selector Switch, since a particular boiler can be switched between
‘Steam Pressure’ and ‘Steam Flow’. The transfer will be through a manual selector
for ensuring bumpless transfer from ‘Steam Flow’ to ‘Steam Pressure’ and vice
versa.
In case of ‘Steam Pressure’ being selected as the ‘Demand Signal’, it is possible to
obtain improved steam pressure control at cost of boiler operating efficiency by
optimum tuning of the controller on the basis of the operator’s experience and
judgment.

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Steam Flow and Steam Pressure Control Based Master Demand Signal:
In this scheme ‘Steam Flow’ is ‘feed forwarded’, where as, ‘Steam Pressure’ acts
as adjustment of demand signal flow over or under injection of fuel. The basic
scheme is as described below. It is assumed that C.V. of fuel remains constant over
period of operation and if the C.V. of fuel changes, the bias value can be manually
corrected to get less/more signal as required. Introducing digital computer based
controls bias on Calorific Value of Fuel can also change automatically.

Boiler Load Sharing based on Energy Management Control:

This type of control is based on controlling the Fuel Input to various boilers as their
‘Steam Flow’ changes. The Scheme adopted is as shown below:

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STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL:

Basically boilers have control system such that for all loads, the steam
temperature remains constant. The following methods can be employed in control
system.
(a) Normally the superheated steam outlet temperature depends on the
exposure of superheater with hot gases. If the hot gas temperature were high then
the steam temperature would also be high. Altering the position of the imaginary
Fire Ball inside the furnace can change the hot gas temperature by changing the
direction of jet of flame or type of fuel injected. For this purpose, tilting type of
burners are provided in the boiler and their tilt is to be varied for changing the
direction of flame for shifting the position of Fire Ball, either close to the
Superheater Coils or far from them. In boilers with industrial fixed type of burner,
the burner location is fixed but the burners are distributed between different
elevated positions. Upon more firing on top burners, to bring the hot gases nearer
to the Superheater can result in increase of the temperature of steam.
(b) Steam temperature can also be controlled by proper balancing of heat
energy and increasing/decreasing the airflow at cost of boiler efficiency. But
airflow signal could be incorporated in spray water injection control.
(c) Normally when Boiler is to be loaded/unloaded, the airflow along with fuel
flow also gets changed. In mixed fuel firing, we have to consider quantitative firing
of all fuels such as oil, fuel gas, LDO and coal and their feed rate is to be varied
together for deriving fuel signal. This is likely to make the control system too
complicated. Therefore, instead of taking total fuel flow, it is considered better to
consider airflow signal as Load Sensing Signal, for correction of Steam Temperature
V/s Boiler Load.
Here the disadvantage is that the air flow signal is delayed signal if boiler is
downloaded and forward signal if boiler is to be uploaded but by incorporating
lead-lag network control strategy, we can manipulate the air flow signal as load
sensing signal. The typical control loop is as depicted below:

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If boiler manufacture has given data of Boiler Load V/s Airflow then the ‘Set Point’
of controller can be hooked up with proper control logic to that Automatic
Temperature Control for various loads can be achieved.

Feed Water Flow/Drum Level Control:

In Single Element Drum Level control technique Level Transmitters on both ends of
the boiler drum (LHS/RHS) are used. This control is used for small boiler where
load variation is not much. No feed back signal of steam flow or feed water flow is
incorporated. To avoid this unsatisfactory condition, feed forward plus feedback is
to be incorporated by integrating the steam flow signal. This 2nd technique is
called Two Element drum level control. There is no feedback signal of feed water
flow, hence during loading unloading condition of boiler where shrink and swelling
effect persists frequently, Three Element Feed Water Flow is incorporated and this
technique is called three element drum level control. This is now being used in
most of the boilers. Since feed water control valve is functionally important in this
type of scheme, proper selection of the same is important.
Criteria for selection of feed water flow control valve.
1. Pressure drop across the valve should be less than 3.5 Kg/cm2 to assure
responsive control.
2. Valve capacity should be designed keeping all loses, overloading and
attemperator water requirement.
3. Valve should be designed as per ASME boiler code.
4. Fast response.
The control scheme adopted is as shown below:

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Combustion Control (With Oxygen Trimming)

Based on master demand signal for loading and unloading of the boiler, the signal
is the set point of each controller of fuel, the signal ratio distribution among all
fuel controllers is decided by the boiler operator, as per the availability of
different fuels. Each controller of fuel changes the rate of fuel flow. The same
master signal becomes set point of airflow controller. The trimming of excess
oxygen in flue gas is brought down through Oxygen controller. The amount of
Excess Air V/s Boiler Load pattern is different for each boiler manufacture. This
graph is fed into excess oxygen controller. Hence based on various load conditions
the excess oxygen is controlled by oxygen control by generating its output to make
set point of airflow controller.

Hence during change over of boiler load the master signal give command to (1)
Fuel Controller and (2) Airflow Controller. During ‘increasing’ trend of Boiler
Load, Air Flow is increased first and after actual increase of Air Flow the Fuel Flow
is increased. This is done for assuring that sufficient air in furnace is available
before injection of extra quantity of fuel. Similarly when the boiler load is
decreasing the fuel is decreased first and Air Flow reduced later. This control
system has been designed by introducing feed back/feed forward or lead-lag net
after master signal.
FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL:
The furnace pressure is being controlled by way of changing rate of flow of air to
furnace and is achieved through FD/ID Fans Damper Control or Speed Control or a
combination of both. Basically, O2 and CO2 in the flue gas are measured by means
of respective Gas Analysers and Furnace Pressure is measured by means of Pressure
Transmitter. As fuel input to furnace changes the Air Flow is varied by means of
controls explained above and their finer control is achieved by means of Gas
Analyser Signals. Taking these signals as the base signals, the furnace pressure is
maintained by changing the flow of air through FD fans and that of Flue Gases
through the ID Fans.
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Boiler Safety Interlock

The tripping of boiler means no fuel inside furnace i.e. Fuel injection to be ceased.
All final tipping of boiler signal goes to fuel trip valves.

Total Tripping of Boiler

The operation of boiler is being suspended if following parameters are beyond the
designed for safe operation of boilers.
(1) Drum level very low
(2) Drum level very high
(3) Furnace pressure very high
(4) Airflow very low.
(5) Burner management system failures.
Partial Tripping of Boiler
(1) Fuel oil Firing can be ceased if
(a) Fuel oil temperature is very low and beyond alarm set points
(b) Fuel oil pr. very high and low
(c) Fuel oil pumping failure.
(d) Fuel oil main flame off.
(2) Fuel gas firing can be suspended if
(a) Fuel gas main flame off
(b) Fuel gas pressure very low and high
(3) LDO and Coal Firing will stop if.
(a) LDO main flame off.
(b) LDO pressure very low and high
(c) Coal stoker unit problem.
Burner Management System:
The basic role of this system is
(1) To protect the boiler against abnormal rise of parameter
(2) To assure the flame Ignition, flame monitoring in side the furnace
(3) Fair safe tripping of boiler
(4) Equipment change over and protection
(5) To generate Alarm list & annunciation
(6) Management & distribution of different fuel, based on availability of fuel
(7) To diagnosed the falls or actual tripping of system.
The burner management system is very much critical for boiler operation point of
view. Hence 100% redundancy & reliability shall be assured. The logics can be
developed through relay or PLC. New trend is mixed type PLC + relay. Relay system
shall be such that if PLC fails relay system is available in standby for tripping of
boiler.
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Boiler Protection and Interlocks

Safety Controls on a Boiler.
Safety controls generally are those that limit energy input and thus shut down the
equipment when unsafe conditions develop.
They are:
(1) Pressure-limit or Temperature-limit Switches,
(2) Low-water Fuel Cutoffs,
(3) Flame-failure Safety Supervisory Systems (FSSS),
(4) Automatic Ignition Controls,
(5) Oil and Gas Fuel Shutoff Valve Controls,
(6) Air and Fuel Pressure Interlock Controls,
(7) Feed Water Regulating Controls and
(8) Safety Valves (or Relief Valves) are the most important safety device. While
not considered a control in the usual sense, it is the last measure against a
serious explosion.
The Safety Controls guard against the following:
(a) Overpressure leading to explosions from the waterside or steam side,
(b) Overheating of metal parts, possibly also leading to explosion in a fired
boiler (mainly due to low water or poor circulation) and
(c) Fireside explosions (furnace explosions) due to uncontrolled combustible
mixtures on the firing side.
These types of accidents are considered major and may lead to loss of life and
serious property damage. Other potential sources of accidents are cracking,
bulging from local overheating because of scale deforming such as tubes bowing,
thinning of vital pressure parts, which can lead to cracking or localized rupture,
and expansion and contraction failures causing cracking or rupturing of metal
parts.
Manufactures and state laws are trying to prevent, with safety control equipment,
the three major types of accidents of overpressures, dry firing, and furnace
explosions. While the other types of failures are controlled somewhat by automatic
controls, prevention is mostly by legal inspection requirements and by proper
operation and maintenance practices expected from the owner-user of a boiler.
Include are good feed-water treatment and testing of controls at periodic
intervals, including safety relief valves.
Distinctive differences between Operating Controls and Safety Controls:
See Figure 1. Operating controls regulate the boiler so it operates under certain
set conditions involving load, feedwater, and combustion. The aim is to obtain the
most efficient output from the boiler for each pound of fuel burned. Operating
controls can be viewed as governing controls that make adjustments of feedwater,
fuel, air, flue gas, and steam flow as demanded by the load. The controls are often
interlocked with such auxiliaries to the boiler as feedwater pump, draft fans
(depending on the size of the boiler), and the programming controls set up for the
unit.
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Boiler

Operating Controls Interlocks Safety Controls

Pressure Limits
Heat input – Working medium – Heat output -
Combustion Feedwater control Load
Controls
Temperature
Limits
Flow Flow
Fuel – air flow
Hi – Low
Pressure Pressure Water
Fuel – air Pressure

Temperature Temperature Ignition

Proving
Fuel – air temperature
Purity

Flue gas flow Combustion

Proving

Flue gas pressure Interlocks

and temperature
Fuel
Air
Ignition
Water

Steam
Burning
Flue gas

Fig. 1

Safety controls provide the upper or lower limits set for the safe operation of the
boiler. If the variable conditions involving the boiler go beyond a certain safe limit,
an alarm warns that corrective actions must be taken or the boiler is shut down.
The larger and more complex the boiler, the more safety controls may be needed.
Importance of Instruments for Properly Operating a Boiler:
Use of instruments and knowledge of such factors as normal operating pressures,
temperatures, flows, draft, CO2 content, Btu/ kCal/ kJ heat input, and permissible
variations in the readings observed are the most important responsibilities of any

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operator or owner of a boiler. Instruments indicate conditions in the boiler. Thus

any variations from design or stipulated conditions serve as warnings of impending
danger or inefficient operation.

The Two General Types of Instrumentation Found on Boilers:

Boilers have two types of Instruments namely, (i) Recording and (ii) indicating.
Recording Instruments provide a permanent record or readings of process
parameters. Indicating Instruments though provide only for the visual observation
of Process Parameter readings, they act as the eyes of the Operator through which
he able is keep keen watch on all-important parameters of the boiler and is able to
ensure safety and efficiency. Boiler Recording Instruments generally cover Steam
Pressure, Steam Flow, Airflow, Flue-gas Temperature, Feed Water Temperatures,
etc. Any installation will be improved by the use of instruments when trained
operating personnel are in attendance and make intelligent use of the data
provided. Instrumentation of larger packaged boilers should include an Orsat
apparatus for obtaining flue-gas analysis and determining combustion efficiency.
Modern large sized boilers are, however, equipped with Electronic Gas Analysers.
Some basic instruments needed for large power boilers, as a minimum, per
recommendations of the ASME Boiler Code are the following:
(1) Steam Pressure gage,
(2) Feed Water Pressure Gage,
(3) Furnace Draft Gage,
(4) An outlet pressure gage on the F.D. Fan and an inlet pressure gage on the I.D.
Fan,
(5) Steam Flow Recorder for checking boiler output,
(6) CO2 recorded to check on combustion,
(7) Superheater Inlet and Outlet Temperature Recorder,
(8) Inlet and Outlet Temperature Recorders for Air Heaters,
(9) Thermometers indicating Inlet and Outlet Steam Temperatures for Boiler
Reheaters,
(10) Feed Water Temperature Recorders for checking degree of deaeration and
economizer operation,
(11) Pressure Gauges on Pulverizers to check differential pressure for fuel-air
mixtures to burners,
(12) Pressure Gauges for oil-fired boilers on Oil Lines to Burners and temperature
gages before and after any Oil Preheaters,
(13) Pressure Gauges for gas-fired boilers on the main gas line to burners and on
individual burners.
Pressure Gages and principle of their function:
Description of Pressure Gauge:
The two main types of pressure gages are the Bourdon tube and the Diaphragm
type. In single-tube Bourdon gauge the pressure is applied to inside of a bent tube
of oval cross section which is closed at one end and connected at the other to
boiler pressure. The closed end is attached, by links and pins, to a toothed

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quadrant, which is turn meshes with a small pinion on the central spindle. As
pressure builds up inside the over tube, it attempts to assume a circular cross
section, thus tending to straighten out lengthwise. This action turns the spindle by
the links and gearing, causing the needle to move and register the pressure on a
graduated dial.
Siphon required in steam pressure-gage lines:
The siphon is simply a pigtail or drop leg in the tubing to the gage for condensing
steam, thus protecting the spring and other delicate parts from high temperatures.
Three forms of Siphons are used. If there is danger of freezing during long periods
of shutdown, the siphon should be removed or drained.

Methods of testing of Steam Gauges:

Pressure Gauges are tested in the following three ways:
1. By comparison on the boiler with a good factory-tested gage.
Here the test gage is attached to the boiler and the two gages are compared as
boiler pressure rises or falls.
2. With a screw plunger pump (fig. 2 a).
The test gage and gage to be tested are attached to a screw plunger tester. To
operate, unscrew the top cover, fill the cylinder with water or light oil, screw on
the top cover and force the plunger downward by turning the handle on the
threaded rod. This puts equal pressure on both gages.
3. With a deadweight plunger pump (fig. 2 b).
The plunger, working in a cylinder, floats on oil and is loaded by weights.

Fig. 2

The Code requirements for pressure gages on a steam boiler:

The boiler must have at least one pressure gage so located and of such size that it
is easily readable and which at all times indicates the boiler pressure. A valve or
cock must be placed in the gage connection adjacent to the gage so it can be
removed for repairs. The gage must be connected to the steam space or to the
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water column or its steam connection. For a steam boiler the gage or its
connection must have siphon for maintaining a water seal to prevent steam from
entering the gage tube. The connection of a pressure gage must be a minimum of
¼ in. ID.
For temperatures over 4060F, no brass or copper tubing should be used. The
pressure gage dial should be graduated to twice the SV setting, but in no case less
than 11/2 times this setting. A valve connection of at least ¼-in. pipe size must be
installed on the boiler for exclusive purpose of attaching a test gage, when the
boiler is operating, for checking the accuracy of the boiler pressure gage. This
connection is known as the inspector’s connection.
The pressure gage must be illuminated, free from objectionable glare or reflection
that can in any way obstruct an operator’s view while nothing the setting on the
gage. The pointer on the gage must be in a near-vertical position when indicating
the normal operating pressure. This is also true of other pressure gages in the
boiler room that are used on auxiliaries. Pressure gages must not be tilted forward
more than 300 from vertical, and then only when it is necessary for proper viewing
of the dial graduations.
The common or primary measurements used in controlling boilers:
Although manufacturers differ in approach, the following factors must be
considered in any control used on a boiler: (1) steam pressure and flow, (2)
furnace pressure and draft, (30 air pressure and flow, (4) feedwater pressure and
flow (including low water), (5) flue-gas flow and composition, and (6) proper
ignition and burner0flame control.
Common components in an automatic control loop used on boilers:
A control loop, whether pneumatic or electric or electronic, is usually made up of
the following basic components:
1. Primary Measurement Elements as enumerated in an earlier question.
2. An Error Detector or Comparator that compares the measurement with
prefixed set points and makes adjustment signals to get the measured value
to the preset points (or efficiency point in comparator application). This is
actually the controller.
3. An Actuator that responds to the controller signals showing deviation from set
points.
4. The Final Control Element such as a valve, damper, or variable-speed motor
that makes adjustments as signaled from the controlled and actuator so as to
bring the variable within preset limits.

Control Theory
Modes of control:
Mode of control means the manner in which the automatic controller acts and
reacts to store a variable quantity on a boiler, such as pressure, flow, or
temperature, to a designed control or desired value.
Types of Controller Systems used to control a boiler:
There are three types of Controller Systems used in boilers. These are the
following:
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(1) Pneumatic,
(2) Electric, and
(3) Electronic.
Some common modes of control:
Assume that a human operator has to regulate the turbine stop value as load
demand increase. He can instantly open the valve wide, open it slowly at constant
speed as demand increase, open it more when demand rises, rapidly, or open it a
constant amount for each unit of demand change. Similarly, a pneumatic or
electric controller can follow any of the following five principal modes, either
singly or in combination:
1. Two-position, or On-Off.
2. Fixed-position floating. This drives the final control element at a fixed
speed between its limit-switch contacts.
3. Proportional position. Here the controller changes the final control
element’s position in proportion to the measured variable’s deviation, shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 3. But since proportional control must sense a change in
deviation (in this case, pressure drop) so as to produce a new valve position, it
provides exact correction for only one load condition; at all other loads some
deviation must remain. This error is called ‘offset’ or ‘droop’. Thus in Fig. 3, a 10
percent pressure error remains even after the valve has some to rest in its new
position. The only correction is to manually reset the controller’s set point, thus
compensating for its inherent offset characteristic.

Fig. 3

4. Variable-speed floating mode. Here the position of the final control element
is changed at a rate, which is proportional to the measured variable’s deviation.
The greater the deviation, the faster the valve moves. But as long as deviation
continues, so does the correction to valve position. Thus the controller continues
to operate until an exact correction has been made for any load change. And since
valve position varies as an integral of deviation and time, variable-speed floating is
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often referred to as integral mode. It is usually applied in combination with

proportional control to produce the proportional-plus-integral mode shown in Fig.
4.

Fig. 4
5. Derivation, or rate control (Fig. 5). This positions the valve in proportion to
the rate of change of deviation. It is sensitive to direction. Thus if pressure is
rising, the controller tends to close the valve and has a great stabilizing effect. But
since it cannot sense a datum, it must be combined with some other control mode,
as shown in Fig. 6.

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Fig. 5

Fig. 6
Application of On-Off Combustion Controls and principle of their operation:
On-off controls are limited to fire tube and small water tube boilers. As the name
implies, a drop is pressure actuates a ‘pressurestat’ or mercury switch to start the
stoker or burner and open the air damper, or to reverse the process when pressure
rises again. Since control is limited to varying the lengths of on-and off-periods,
combustions efficiency is low. Shown in the Figure 7 is a typical on-off combustion-
control and pressure control switches hooked up in electric series. Thus if either
control opens, the current to the burner motor is interrupted. The primary control
consists of an electromagnetic relay that is energized by the thermostat.
On demand for heat in a steam system, the thermostat will actuate (by means of
low voltage) the clapper in the relay. As the clapper is pulled in, it transfers
current from the No. 1 to the No. 3 terminal on the primary control (see the sketch
in Fig. 7). The burner motor and ignition will then come on, operating the unit.
Either one of two controls determines the sequence of normal operation of the
system. These are the thermostat is satisfied by a rise in room temperature, it will
break its contact and de-energize the relay, thus interrupting the flow of current
from the No. 1 terminal to the No. 3, and thereby stopping the burner. But if a
longer period of time is required to bring up enough heat to satisfy the thermostat,
the pressure (limit) control setting may be reached. This control will then shut off
the current to the No. 1 terminal on the primary control. This will de-energize the

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primary of the step-down transformer. Then the thermostat will no longer be able
to hold the clapper in, even though it is making contact. Thus the primary control
is deprived of all current, and the burner will stop.

Fig. 7
When the steam pressure drops, the circuit will be restored, and if the thermostat
is still calling for heat (making contact), the unit will resume operation. In case of
abnormal operation (no fire or insufficient fire appearing), the safety function of
the primary control takes over and the unit shuts down, going into safety.
Combustion Control generally used on packaged boilers:
A positioning control system is generally used, because it is more flexible. Steam
pressure is the measured variable, and a master pressure controller responds to
changes in header pressure and (by means of power units or actuators) positions
the forced-draft damper to control airflow and the fuel valve to regulate fuel
supply. An independent controller, positioning the uptake damper, maintains
furnace draft within the desired limits.
Although positioning-type control systems are an improvement over the on-off
type, airflow and fuel supply are at their theoretically correct ration at only one
setting. This is usually the point at which they were calibrated on installation.
Positioning control also assumes that a given output signal from the master
controller always produces the same change in the flow of combustion air, in
stoker speed, or fuel valve setting. But stoker speed might be affected by line
voltage variations, and airflow by boiler slagging or barometric conditions. Thus
manual adjustment is still necessary, not only on load changes but to counteract
these longer-term effects.
A combustion control that is considered superior to a Positioning Control:
A metering control is considered superior to Positioning Control. It measures the
fuel flow and airflow and then modifies the valve and damper positions to maintain

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these measured flows rather than implied ones. Thus it holds an optimum air/fuel
ratio over a wide load range without manual intervention. Especially valuable is its
inherent compensation for such variables as boiler cleanliness, voltage swings in
electric actuators, lost motion in mechanical or pneumatic devices, and changes in
fuel quality.
For simplicity, let us consider one system having a pressure-responsive primary
element controlling fuel feed and airflow, plus an independent furnace-pressure
controller. The output signal from this primary element, or master pressure
controller, is frequently modified by elements sensitive to steam flow, airflow,
fuel-feed rate, flue-gas analysis, or other variables. And these elements may be
combined in feed-forward control in various ways.
Reasons for Combustion Controls being geared to Pressure Variation in a boiler:
To begin, pressure variation is caused by:
1. Load on the boiler. An increase in load without additional fuel input causes a
pressure drop. A decrease in load without an accompanying decrease in fuel
input causes a pressure rise.
2. Fuel input to the boiler. Too high an input will cause a pressure rise, while
too low an input will cause a pressure drop.
Thus pressure regulation and fuel regulation, or combustion controls, are
directly related. And for this reason combustion controls are geared for modulation
by pressure variations within close limits. While airflow and exhaust flow usually
follow fuel flow, the latter is determined by the pressure-set limits within which a
boiler is to operate.
Method of Measurement and Control of Furnace Draft:
Draft-measuring elements may be combined with a controller (fig. 8b). The spiral
Bourdon tube (Fig. 8a) handles draft measurements with greater sensitivity than
the fairly rigid element used for high-pressure applications. The diaphragm
mechanism (Fig. 8b) converts, through a pilot valve, furnace-draft variations into
proportional changes in the output signal.

Fig. 8

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Method of Measurement and Control of Steam Flow:

The principle underlying flow measurement is shown in Fig. 9a. A pressure drop
across an orifice, in this case in the steam line, can be measured by tapping the
pipe at each side of the restriction. The resulting pressure differential is
proportional to the square of the fluid velocity. But correct location of the tapping
points is important. By using nozzle restriction (Fig. 9b), the best result (largest
pressure differential for a given flow) is obtained when connections are located
about one pipe diameter upstream and one-half diameter downstream from the
nozzle’s inlet face.

Fig. 9 a
Converting differential pressure to a usable output signal may be done in various
ways. Two widely used secondary elements are a mercury-float manometer (Fig.
9c) or a Ledoux bell mechanism (Fig. 9d). In Fig. 9c the two pressure-tapings from
the primary element are connected to two mercury chambers, joined by a U tube.
Pressure variations raise and lower the float. A pressure-tight shaft conveys this
movement to mechanical linkage within the controller. Check valves in the two
legs of the U tube prevent damage to the mechanism resulting from sudden
changes or reversals in pressure differential.

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Fig. 9 b & c

Fig. 9 d
A Pneumatic Differential Pressure Transmitter:
Fig. 10 illustrates a pneumatic system used for differential pressure transmission,
which is converted to steam flow in an indicating, recording, or control device.
Diaphragm motion moves the force beam and vane. Movement of the force beam
changes the vane-nozzle relationship, thus changing nozzle relationship, thus
changing nozzle backpressure (NBP) in chamber B of the reset booster relay. This
opens either the inlet valve (increase in NBP) or the exhaust valve (decrease in
NBP) producing a change in booster output repositions the restoring beam. The
restoring beam, in contact with the force beam through range adjustment, moves
the measuring diaphragm back to the normal centered position and restores vane-
nozzle at balance distance. The booster output pressure, which is proportional to
the measured level, is also transmitted to indicating, recording, and /or
controlling equipment.

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Fig. 10

Electric Pressure Transmitter:

Fig. 11
A true force-balance mechanism characterizes the dc transmitted shown in Fig. 11.
Deflection of the Bourdon tube exerts a force on the beam balance system; as the
beam starts to move, the air gap, and thus the inductance of the position
detector, changes proportionally and in turn varies the oscillator-amplifier output
signal. The null-balance force motor, a wire coil maintained in an air gap between
permanent-magnet poles, develops a feedback force balanced against the input
force from the Bourdon tube, thus restoring null balance.
No matter how the output signal is generated, nor what measured variable it
represents, whether it be alternating or direct current, it forms the input to an
electric or electronic controller whose circuits perform the same functions as the
bellows, baffles, and nozzles of the pneumatic controller. The unit illustrated
handles pressures up to 10,000 psig. As the Bourdon-tube deflection reacts on the
balance beam, its movement is sensed by the position detector and converted into
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a proportional change in the 10- 15 mA output current. The force motor, in series
across this output, acts as feedback in opposing beam movement.
Method of electrically transmitting a pressure measurement to indicating,
recording, and control equipment at a remote point and then show measured
pressure at that point:
In one device a Bourdon tube positions a movable core in a transformer. The core
is adjusted to travel the same distance for all pressure ranges, thus making it
possible to transmit to standard electronic receivers. The core position (fig. 12)
determines the magnetic flux linkage between the primary and the secondary
windings.
The voltage induced in each secondary winding is proportional to the displacement
of the core form its center position. Thus, the core position determines the signal
voltage output. At 100 percent travel, voltage E2 is larger than E1 since the core is
near the top of the transformer. Downward motion of the core causes E2 to
decrease linearly and E1 to increase linearly until at 0 percent travel, the voltage
magnitudes have reversed. At 50 percent travel, voltage E2 and E1 are equal since
the core is centered between the two secondary windings. Within the operating
range, a definite linear relationship exists between each of the two secondary
voltages and the core position.

Fig. 12
Utilizing a movable core transformer with a duplicate set of secondary windings,
changing the external connections, or doing both, permits a wide range of

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applications using the same basic transmitter. The output voltage on the secondary
windings can be calibrated for proportional pressure reading on the receiving end.
Trends in feed water control in modern boilers:
Most boilers today use two-element (drum level and steam flow) or three-element
controls in which steam flow and water flow form the primary measured variables,
with water level acting as a third input. But the single-element (drum level)
regulator (fig. 13) is still popular. This is a thermo-hydraulic device based on the
principle that the volume of a given weight of low-pressure steam is far greater
than that of the water from which it is generated.
The regulator forms a closed hydraulic system, including the annular space
between inner and outer tubes of the steam generator, the connecting tubing, and
the metal bellows of the regulating valve. Heat from steam in the upper portion of
the inner tube causes the surrounding water (in the space between the two tubes)
to flash into steam. The remaining water is thus forced out of this space until the
water levels in the two tubes are equal. The displaced water passes into the
actuator bellows, thus partially opening the regulating valve.

Fig. 13
As steam demand increases, the water level in the drum and generator will fall;
more water in the annular space between the tubes flashes into steam, and the
regulating valve opens still farther. Thus if the drum level rises, the water in the
generator rises also; cooled by the radiating fins, this water condenses part of the
steam in the annular space and in turn permits the regulating valve to partially
close. Since this is a proportional device, it is suitable only for small boilers with
relatively stable steaming rates.

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Fig. 14

In larger units, drum level measurement forms a trimming signal, with steam and
water flow as the primary variables. Displacer-type units are also replacing the
self-acting, thermo-hydraulic device. In these, a cylindrical float or displacer is
lightened by the weight of the liquid it displaces. This change in weight is detected
by either a torque-tube or a force-balance system (Fig. 14) and converted into a
pneumatic or electric output signal to a controller.
How does the three-element feedwater control system work?
In this system (fig. 15) steam flow, feedwater flow, and water level are measured
and recorded by mechanically operated meters. Measurements of steam flow and
water flow are balanced against each other with differential linkage. A pilot
control is connected to the linkage so that any difference between the amounts of
steam flow and of water flow causes a change in the pneumatic output signal. This
signal is transmitted to an air relay where it is combined with the pneumatic signal
from the water level recorder.

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Fig. 15
A change in boiler load unbalances the differential linkage, thus producing a
change in the output of the pilot control. That in turn changes the output of the
air relay. This new signal repositions the feed-water control valve, admitting
required water into the boiler equal to the steam flow out of the boiler. The
resulting change in feedwater flow rebalances the differential linkage and brings
the pilot-control signal back to its neutral point. As a final check, and to ensure
having the proper drum level, the signal from the pilot control in the water level
recorder readjusts the feedwater control valve, if required. The selector valve in
the system provides automatic or remote manual control. Under normal operating
conditions the control pressure gage on the selector valves is an indication of valve
position.
Usual method of control of water level in boilers of small commercial, and
industrial types:
On a closed-loop heating boiler, it is common to find no automatic water feeding
to the boiler. Instead, the attendant checks the gage glass periodically and
maintains the water level manually. The owner relies on the automatic low-water
cutoff to save the boiler in case of a low-water condition.
Water level is usually controlled by:
1. Manual feed (Fig. 16a)
2. Automatic feeder, either a mechanical or an electrical solenoid-operated
valve, actuated by a float or electrode in the water space of the boiler (Fig.
16b)
3. Combination low-water fuel cutoff and feeder, based on the water level in
the boiler (Fig. 16c).
4. Combination low-water cutoff and pump control (Fig. 16d).

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Fig. 16 a & b
Fig. 16 (a) Manual makeup feed system. (b) Solenoid-operated makeup water
feeder; solenoid, actuated from switch, contacts a float-operated low-water
cutoff. (c) Combination water feeder and low-water cutoff. (d) Combination low-
water cutoff and pump-control feed. (e) Combination law-water cutoff and feeder
and pump controller with makeup feeder on condensate tank.

Fig. 16 c & d

This system is installed at the normal boiler waterline. The water level is
maintained by connecting the pump control directly to the condensate pump. For
the additional makeup water required, a receiver tank makeup feeder is installed
on the condensate receiver tank. In addition to functioning as a pump controller
acts as a low-water cutoff. This stops the burner if a low-water condition occurs.
This type of water feed is used also on packaged boilers of up to about 10,000 lb
per hr and 200 psi pressure.
NOTE: Feed is actuated electrically by a float-switch combination turning on
and off the pump. If the valve from the receiver tank to the boiler is closed, this
circuits will not sense the need for more water, because the pump could still
operate but obviously deliver no water. Then the boiler would have to be shut
down by the low-water cutoff to protect it from damage.
5. Combination low-water cutoff and feeder actuated by the direct contact wit
the boiler water level and pump controller (Fig. 16e). This is an improvement upon
the system described in No. 4 above.

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Fig. 16e
A state code for low-pressure steam boilers requires adding a mechanical
water feeder to an electrical pump system in these words:
“Where water of condensation of all of the steam generated by the boiler cannot
be returned by gravity to the boiler, and pumps, traps, or other devices o\are
used for this purpose, or steam is used for processes where there would be no
water of condensation to return to the boiler, an automatic water feeding device
should be installed.”
Description of three types of low-water cutoffs used in packaged boilers for the
prevention of low water:
The low-water cutoff (Fig.17), Separate from the programming sequence control,
immediately shuts down the boiler if the water drops to a dangerously low level.
The three types are as follows:

Fig. 17
1. The float-magnet type (Fig. 17a) has a ferrous plunger on one end of a float
rod. The plunger slides within a nonferrous sleeve. A permanent magnet, with a
mercury switch affixed, is supported by a pivot adjacent to the nonferrous sleeve.
Under normal water conditions, the ferrous plunger is above and out of reach of
the magnetic field. In this position the mercury switch is in a horizontal plane,
keeping the burner circuit closed. But if the boiler-water level drops, the float also
drops, bringing the ferrous plunger within the magnetic field. Then the magnet
swings through a small arc toward the plunger; the mercury switch tilts, opening
the burner circuit.
2. The float-linked type (Fig. 17b) has a float connected through linkage to a
plate supporting a mercury switch. Because the plate is horizontal in the normal
water-level position, the switch hold the burner circuit closed. If the water level
drops, the float drops, tilting the plate so the switch opens circuit.
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3. The submerged-electrode type (Fig. 17c) uses boiler water to complete the
burner circuit. If the water level drops below the electrode tip, current flow is
interrupted, shutting down the burner. On ft boilers, the low-water cutoff
generally includes an intermediate switch that controls the feed pump.
The correct way to hook up two-water cutoffs, one of the electrode type, the
other of the float type:
For maximum protection, the second additional low-water cutoff should be
mounted on the opposite drumhead with individual connections and blowdown
piping and valves. And both units should be wired and properly interlocked.
REMEMBER: Dual low-water cutoffs provide dual protection only when individual
drum connections are provided.
Reasons why are manual reset controls useful on pressure or temperature high-
limit controls:
The manual reset mechanism on the high-limit control calls attention if the
operating control (not high-limit) has malfunctioned, thus prohibiting further boiler
operation until corrected. At times, this malfunction may be due to fused
contacts, a leaking gas valve, a shorted wire, etc. Thus the boiler should not be
operated until this is corrected.
Method of control of the fuel/air ratio in small industrial and commercial
automatic packaged-type boilers:
Valve control of the fuel/air ratio is achieved by use of constant pressure variable
areas. A simple mechanism can be used to cause the opening area or two valves to
vary in proportion to one another. If the valve characteristics are not the same,
the fuel and airflows will match at only two points throughout the range. If the
movement is not directly proportional, the mixture will be lean at some firing
rates and rich at others.

Fig. 18
Figure 18a shows two rotary-type valves on a common shaft. Figure 18b shows two
rotary-type valves driven by a parallel-arm linkage. One or preferably both of the
valves should embody manual adjustment of the valve opening (in addition to the
handle adjustment) so as to permit adjustment of the fuel/air ratio. The valve
control system requires an air blower with a constant-pressure characteristic and
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oil or gas pressure regulators ahead of the control valve. Thus the upstream
pressures for both air and fuel must be constant at the valve because variations in
the oil viscosity would affect the flow rate.
Description of a typical control system for pulverized-coal-fired boilers:
The basic principle is to control the fuel and combustion air simultaneously with
changes in steam pressure and readjusting airflow as needed to maintain the
optimum air/fuel ratio. Instead of directly connected controllers, actuated by the
process variable being measured, transmitters sense the variables directly and
then transmit appropriate pneumatic or electric signals to the controllers. It is
equipped with pressurized, ball-type pulverizers. The FD fan supplies preheated
combustion air. In passing through the pulverizer, this air picks up the coal and
carries it to the burners. Thus regulating the flow of primary air controls fuel
supply.
Combustion air from the FD and primary-air fans is controlled from steam header
pressure, positioning a damper at the inlet to each pulverizer. Sensing this airflow
is a feeder control sub-loop (self-contained control system), which regulates the
supply of raw coal leaving the feeder, relative to airflow, in order to ensure a
constant coal level in the pulverizer. The air/fuel ratio is maintained by means of
an air/steam-flow ratio controller, sensing steam header flow and, in, turn,
positioning the FD fan outlet damper. Thus varying airflow through the pulverizers
meets load changes.
A second sub-loop (coal-air temperature control) senses the pulverizer outlet
temperature and regulates the proportion of tempering air combined with that
from the air heater before it enters the primary air fan. As with the other control
circuits, a hand auto-selector enables the operator to assume manual control when
required. When two or more pulverizers are operated in parallel, either manual or
automatic compensation is made for the number in service, so that each shares the
total load equally.
Method of Control of Superheat and Reheat Steam Temperatures:
Today steam temperature of 10000F is common and units are being installed for
1050 and 10000F. Because these high temperatures are limited only by metallurgy,
steam temperatures must be held to close limits for safety as well as for economy.
Six basic methods are used for controlling the temperatures of steam leaving the
boiler:
1. Bypass damper control with a single bypass damper or series-and-shunt
damper arrangement for bypassing flue gas around the superheater as
required.
2. Spray-type desuperheater control where water is sprayed directly into the
steam with a spray-water control valve for temperature regulation.
3. Attemperator control where a controlled portion of the steam passes through
a submerged tubular desuperheater and a control valve in the steam line to
the desuperheater or attemperator is used.
4. Condenser control with desuperheating condenser-tube bundles located in the
superheater inlet header and water-control valve or valves to regulate a
portion of the feedwater flow through the condenser as required.
5. Tilting-burner control where the tilt angle of the burners is adjusted to
change the furnace heat absorption and resultant steam temperature.
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6. Flue-gas-recirculation control where a portion of the flue gas is recirculated

into the furnace by means of an auxiliary fan with a damper control to change
the mass flow through the superheater and the heat absorption in the
furnace, as required for maintaining steam temperature.
Basic controls used on once-through boilers:
Unlike the natural-circulation boiler, where varying the ratio of heat absorption
between steam-generating surface and superheating surface best attains steam-
temperature control, the once-through unit can maintain the desired steam
temperature over a much wider load range. If the ratio of heat input of fluid flow
is correct, heat absorption is self-adjusting. Spray attemperation then provides
rapid temporary control of temperature on load swings.
The firing rate of a simplified integrated control system for normal operation is
closely tied to feedwater flow control. And these are also being controlled to
maintain both desired load and desired steam temperature. The turbine governor
controls are also tied into the system to give quick response and stability. A small
amount of spray desuperheating is used in the up and down deviation of load for
better steam-temperature control during transient conditions.
Steps that are being taken to help a power plant operator understand better
the functions of the computer in aiding him to operate a plant:
The complexity of a modern power plant has led control engineers to search for
better communication between the computer and the human operator. One result
is the use of lighted, color-coded push buttons grouped adjacent to their
respective edgewise indicators. Actuation of “increase” and “decrease” buttons
replaces the operation of conventional control handles. Flashing alarm lamps,
similarly located in the push buttons, draw instant attention to the pieces of
equipment concerned, saving the time otherwise wasted in relating an alarm signal
to its source.
Another solution to the same problem is to link the process computer with an
audible alarm Annunciator. One such power plant installation has an audible
Annunciator coupled with a continuous loop 16-track tape-recording unit. When
the computer recognizes an out-of-limit input signal, it simultaneously addresses
both an alarm printer and the tape unit. While the printer types a statement of the
alarm occurrence, the tape unit selects, from several hundred prerecorded vocal
messages, the one message stating what alarm signal has been received and
broadcasts it over the Annunciator.
Should out-of-limit inputs occur faster than they can be announced; the computer
is programmed to store the signals and announce them either in the order in which
they occur or in order of their priority. Both alarm warnings and remedial
instructions can be prerecorded on the tape. A microphone data-input facility lets
the programmer or operator change this taped information at will.

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