Duty 1: Basics Of Data Processing And Information

What is Data?
What is Information?
What does data Processing Mean?
• 1.1. Data: the word data is the plural of datum (singular). Data is commonly
define as raw fact or descriptions of things, events, activities that are captured ,
recoded, stored and classified but not organized to convey specific meaning.
• 1.2. Information:- is a collection of facts (data) organized in some manner so that
they are meaningful to a recipient. Information adds value to data by providing
recipients with understanding, insights, conclusions, decisions, confirmations, or
recommendations.
 1.3. Data processing is any computer process that converts data into information
or knowledge. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on
a computer.
 Data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and
likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce
information as output.

• In order to be processed by a computer, the data needs first to be converted into a

machine readable format. Once data is in digital format, various procedures can
be applied on the data to get useful information. Data Processing includes all the
processes from Data Entry up to Data Mining:

• Processing of data to make it more usable and meaningful, thus transform it into
information is know as Data processing.
• Information is collection of facts (data) organized in some manner so that they are
meaningful to the receipt.
• The term data processing is then referred processing of data to information.
• Computer data processing is divided in to two types.
– File processing
– Database processing
• File processing consists of two type, namely, Sequential and Direct file
processing. Processing and storing data sequentially is called sequential file
processing. Direct file processing, example using credit card for online shopping
that requires the data stored on the card be processed directly.
• Database processing is a self-describing collection of integrated records. The Data
Base Management System (DBMS) stores and processes the data so that records
can be accessed via their relation ship one to another.
 Duty 2: Identifying Information Systems and Services
 Back-office information systems support internal business operations and interact
with suppliers (of materials, equipment, supplies, and services).
 Human resources
 Financial management
 Manufacturing
 Inventory control
Information systems are classified as Transaction processing systems, Management
information systems, Decision support systems, Expert systems & Office automation
systems
2.1. Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
 are information system applications that capture and process data about business
transactions.
What is transaction?
 A transaction is an exchange of property or service.
 Business transactions are events that serve the mission of the business.
 Transactions are the primary means by which the business interacts with
customers, suppliers, partners, employees, government, etc.
 Transactions capture and/or create data about and for the business.
o Registration
o Add and Drop
o Payment
o Transfer
o Purchase
o Employment
o Sales
o Reservations, etc.

 Transaction Processing Systems can either respond to business transactions

(orders, payments, etc) or initiate transactions or do both.
 TPS also includes data maintenance, which provides for custodial updates to
stored data like customers, products, and changing specific facts.
 Factors to be considered in designing TPS
o Response time
o Volume of transactions
o Accuracy
o Consistency
o Services, etc.

2.2. Management Information Systems (MIS)

 Is an information system application that provides management-oriented
reporting?
 These reports are usually generated on a predetermined schedule and appear in a
prearranged format.
  produce information based on accepted management or mathematical/statistical
models
Examples:
 Financial statements
 Materials Requirements Planning
 MIS is normally produced from a shared database that stores data from many data
sources including TPS.
 MIS can present
o Detailed information  for operations management and regulatory
requirements (government)
o Summary information  consolidates raw data to quickly indicate trends
and possible problems.
o Exception information  filters data to report exceptions to some rules or
criteria. Eg. Low inventory products.

2.3. Decision Support Systems (DSS)

 is an information system application that provides its users with decision-oriented
information whenever a decision-making situation arises.
 When applied to executive managers, these systems are sometimes called
executive information systems (EIS).
 Provide useful information to support decision making process.
 Usually designed to support unstructured decisionsthose decision making
situations that can not be predicted in advance.
 Provides one or more of the following
o Identification of problems or decision making opportunities (similar to
exception reporting)
o Identification of possible solutions
o Analysis of possible variables that will impact a decision. Sometimes this
is known as “what-if” analysis.
 DSS tools include
o Spreadsheet (Excel)
o PC Database management System (Access)
o Statistical Analysis Programs (SAS, SPSS)
o Simulation of possible solutions and their likely results.

2.4. Expert Systems

 An expert system is a programmed decision-making information system that
captures and reproduces the knowledge and expertise of an expert problem solver
or decision maker and then simulates the “thinking” or “actions” of that expert.
 Address the critical need to duplicate the knowledge and expertise of experienced
problem solver. Experts possess knowledge that can not be duplicated
 Imitate the logic and reasoning of the expert within their field.
 Expert systems are implemented with artificial intelligence technology that
captures, stores, and provides access to the reasoning of the experts.
  Like any other information systems, ES require data and information but ES are
unique in their requirement of rules that simulate the reasoning of the experts who
use the data and information.

2.5. Office automation (OA)

 Support the wide range of business office activities that provide for improved
work flow and communications between workers, regardless of whether or not
those workers are located in the same office.
 Includes
o Word processing
o electronic messages (email)
o workgroup computing
o Fax (Facsimile) processing etc.
 They are built using personal computer technology and software.
o Personal information systems are those designed to meet the needs of a
single user. They are designed to boost an individual’s productivity.
 These are usually designed by experienced end-user
o Work group information systems are those designed to meet the needs of a
work group. They are designed to boost the group’s productivity.
 Are developed by departmental computing specialists
 Eg. Microsoft exchange

Computer Based Information System (CBIS)

 CBIS is an information system that uses computer and communication
technology to perform its intended tasks.
 The basic components of information system are:
Hardware:-set of devices such as processor, monitor, keyboard, and printer that
accepts data, information processes and displays the output.
Software:-a set of computer programs that enable the hardware to process data.
Database:- an organized collection or related files and records that stores data.
Network:- connecting systems to share some resources among different
computers.
Procedure:- the strategies, policies, methods, and rules for using information
systems.
People:- person, most important elements that uses information system.
• Information system must have the capability of doing the following thing:
• Provide fast and accurate transaction processing:
- Every event occurs in a business is called transaction. Transaction includes the
sale of unit of goods, pay check issue, bank deposit so on.
- Each transaction generates data ,these must be captured accurately and quickly.
This process is called transaction processing.
• Provide large capacity , fast access storage:
- Information systems must provide both large storage and also fast access to those
data.
• Reduce information overload:
 - Information can be designed to reduce over load with the help of networking.
• Provide fast communication:
- Networks enable organizational employees and computer to communicate
almost instantly.
- High transmission capacity networks make fast communication possible.
Duty 3: Basics of Computers

Sometimes the way people talk about computers can be very confusing, even after you
have used them for many years.  Fortunately, like a car you do not need to know all the
"ins and outs" of computers to be able to use them.  Knowing a few basic terms will take
you a long way.  This section will introduce you what a computer is and will give you
some basic terminology for future lessons.
3.1. Definition
The most obvious question related to understanding computers is, what is a computer? A
computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions, stored in its
own memory unit, which can accept data (input), manipulate the data according to the
specified rules (Process), produce information (Output) from the processing, and store
the result for future use.
In general Computer is an electronic device capable of doing the following four
basic operations under the control of step-by-step instructions (called programs)
stored in its own memory unit:
o Getting (accepting) data  INPUT
o Analyzing, manipulating & calculating data  PROCESSING
o Storing data for future useSTORAGE
o Producing & delivering information to the userOUTPUT
N.B. The root word is Latin “computer”  which means to think, to compute,
Computers are used to perform wide variety of activities with greater reliability, speed,
versatility and accuracy.
3.2. Advantages of using computers.

o Speed:
 Computers work at a very high speed. The speed of computers is
measured in terms of milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds or
picoseconds, i.e., one thousandth, one millionth, one billionth, and one
trillionth of a second, respectively. They can process information at the
speed of a few million instructions per second, called MIPS. As a
result, calculations which could take years for a single person could be
performed in the order of minutes with computers.
o Accuracy/Precision/Reliability
 Computers are accurate. However, it must be remembered that they do
only what they are instructed to do. If faulty instructions or wrong
input are given to the computer, the result will also be wrong.
(GIGOGarbage-In-Garbage-Out)
o Storage Capacity
 Today’s computers can store huge amount of data. Once recorded, a
piece of information is never forgotten and any information can be
 retrieved almost instantaneously: the factor that makes computer
storage unique.
o Versatility (Flexibility or Programmability)
 A computer is a versatile machine. It is difficult to find an area where
computers are not being used. All other machines like television or a
typewriter do the one thing they are designed for. Unlike such
machines, a computer can be used to play music, watch films, type
letters, send faxes, diagnose illnesses, design buildings and bridges,
etc.
 Computers can do virtually anything, provided that it is given the right
set of instructions to do the job. Other machines may do a set of
predefined tasks, nothing more nothing less.
o Diligence (Consistency)
 Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They never get
tired and are suitable to carryout repetitive and voluminous work.
o Computers have also other characteristics such as automation, decision
making, etc.
 Uses of ComputersComputers can be used by any kind of organization or
individual for:
o Word processing: producing letters, memos, minutes, agendas of meetings,
invoices and other documents. E.g. MS-Word
o Spreadsheets: E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Visi Calc, Super Calc, Multi Plan, Qattro
Pro, etc
o Desktop Publishing (DTP): For the publication of books, magazines,
brochures, post cards, business cards, etc.
o Database Management Systems (DBMS): MS Access, Oracle, etc
o Presentation Programs: In the form of slide shows
o Personal and home use:
 Watching films

 Listening to songs
 Play games
 Personal finance management
 Education
 Mobile phones
 Car engine controllers
 Air conditioners
 Calculators
 Television sets
o Computers can also be used in different sector-specific applications:
 Education
 Both for learners and teachers
 Computer-Aided Learning (CAL)Distance education
(distance learning) exchanging written materials, videos,
audiotapes, CD-ROMs, exercises, assignments, etc using
websites and e-mails
  Keeping inventories of books, laboratory equipment &
chemicals, instructional materials, etc.
 Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) or Computer-Managed
Instruction (CMI)Delivering lectures
 Setting time tables for subjects
 Keeping students’ records
 Grade tracking
 Preparing notes
 Computer-Based Training (CBT)
 Health
 TelemedicineConsulting higher professionals using computer
systems.
 Diagnosis
 Forecasting
 Managing medicines/drugs, diseases, equipments, laboratory
results, prescriptions, patient appointments, etc.
 Public Administration
 Tax collection
 Vehicle registration
 Electronic voting
 Police (criminal records)
 Military targeting, keeping track of weapons, personnel, etc.
 Industry/Manufacturing
 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)design and drawing
 Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)
 Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
 Computer-Aided Testing (CAT)
 Transport and Communications
 Scheduling and controlling daily flights
 Regulating the flow of fuel
 Tourism
 Travel and tour organizations
 Agricultural Research
 Managing and controlling agricultural inputs
 Teleworking (Telecommuting)
 “Work is something you do, not something you travel to.”
 Has the following advantages:
 More time to spend with families
 Decreasing traffic jams Decreasing pollution
 Decreasing office space required Decreasing companies’ costs
3.4. Types of Computers
There are four types of computers based on their size:
o Microcomputers:
 Small-level computers (home, school, business, etc)
  Also called PCs, micros, or home computers
 The smallest and cheapest computers
 Use microprocessors (CPU)
 Costs less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers
 Can work on many problems at a time
 Can function in an ordinary environment
 Accessed by a single user at a time
 Categorized into three major types:
 Palmtops
 Also called handheld computers or Personal digital
Assistants (PDAs)
 The smallest microcomputers i.e. portable (pocket
calculator size)
 Do not have keyboards for user input (rely on touch
screens)
 Have limited functions (calendar, name & address)
 Laptops
 Also called lap held computers
 Larger than palmtops but portable (briefcase size)
 Single unit (except printer)
 Battery operated package
 Can have capacity, speed, software & hardware types as
desktops.
 Have touch pads for user input.
 Desktops
 Most widely used computers
 Have detachable parts
 Not easily portable
 Could be tower or desktop
o Minicomputers
 Also called minis, mid-range systems, workstations or servers
 Larger and more powerful than micros
 Can work on many problems at a time
 Are mid-level computers (for complex business & scientific
computations)
 Can function in an ordinary environment
 Costs less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers
 Have the following applications:
 Scientific laboratories
 research centers
 Universities and colleges
 Engineering firms
 Industries
 Can be accessed by more than one user at a time
 Most powerful micros are equivalent to low-end minis in terms of cost
and storage.
 o Mainframes
 Also called enterprise servers
 Are large and more powerful than minis (may fill a room or even a
floor)
 Are high-level computers (used for most intensive computations)
 Require special computer room
 Require highly qualified personnel
 Can work on many problems at a time
 Can accommodate a large number and variety of peripherals
 Some of their functions are replaced by minis and micros
o Supercomputers
 Are extremely powerful, the fastest, the largest and the most expensive
 Are used to solve extremely complex problems
 Can work on a single problem at a time
 Require highly trained professional
 Require specially conditioned environment
 Have the following applications:
 Research organizations
 Military defense systems
 National weather forecasting
 Air craft manufacturers
 Geological data processing
 Are not generally used for word processing
 Computers can also be classified into two depending on the type of data they
process:
o Analog Computers:
 Operates on continuous data which can take any value between any
two values on a scale. E.g. weight, time, height,
 Dedicated to a single task. E.g. automobile speedometer, thermometer,
o Digital Computers:
 Operates on discrete data which takes numbers or values that are
specific points on the scale. E.g No of students
 Any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be
converted to a discrete representation
 Much faster than analog computers
3.5. Computers and their Evaluations
The innovation of computers dated back to 3000BC when the first computing device
abacus was created. The French mathematician, physicist and religious philosopher called
Blais Pascal developed the first store mechanical adding machine in 1642 to help his
father, a civil servant in tax calculation. Blais’s adding machine uses gears and teeth to
represent numbers.
In the year 1842 an English mathematician, Charles Babbage was attempting to develop
an automatic computing device for calculation which is known as “difference engine”. It
was never finished.
The 1880 census had taken over seven years to compute by hand at this time a
government statistician provide a solution with punched card system of collecting and
tabulating data. His strong and tabulating equipment or machine as extremely assisted the
1890’s census to be completed in less than two years. He continued his punched card
method for rail road accounting and found the tabulating machine company which latter
changed to international business machine corporation (IBM)
In the 1945 two scientists of Pennsylvania called John Muchly and Presper Ekeret
designed the electronic numerical integrator and calculator (ENIAC).
The first general purpose electronic digital computer. It has over 18,000 vacuumed tubes,
500,000 soldered joints, it weight more than 30 tones (30,000kgs), it occupied a space of
15,000ft2 and consumed enormous amount of electric power.
One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was it has to be programmed by setting switches,
plugging and unplugging cables. ENIAC did not internally store any program. It stores on
wired boards just like telephone switch board

The two scientists subsequently developed another universal automatic computer

(UNIVAC). The first electronic computer offered as a commercial computer.
John von Newman, a mathematician is called the intellectual father of computers. He has
been with developing stored program theory and his 1946’s paper is authorized statement
on storage data and instruction in computer system, he also defined and promoted
flowchart and logic aids.

Generations of computers

Although all computer professionals do not agree on the exact date and or specification,
computers development are often categorized by generations. There are four generations
and the major characteristics of that distinguish these generations are the following.
1. Dominant types of electronic circuit used.
2. major storag3e ,secondary storage used
3. computer language used
4. memory access time
5. the operating system used
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement categorized by
dramatic improvement in hard ware, typically better increase in speed and reliability.

The Five Generations of Computers

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different

generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a
major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate,
resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and
reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current
devices that we use today.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate
and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was
often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language
to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based
on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing
devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client,
the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the
late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,
or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed
the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology
will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

3.6. Identifying physical components of computer

Computer System
3.6.1. Hardware
o The hard, physical or visible parts of the computer and its components
o Capturing, processing, storing and communicating data and information
o Hardware components inside desktop or tower case (Chassis):
 System board (Mother board)
 The main circuit board inside the PC
 Holds the processor, memory and
expansion slots.
 Connects directly or indirectly to
every part of the PC.
 Processor (Microprocessor or CPU)
 Responsible for every single thing
the PC does.
 Also called the brain of the
computer
 The faster the CPU the more
expensive the computer will be.
 The speed is measured in megahertz
or gigahertz.
 Has two main components:
 The control unit
 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 Memory
 Internal memory area of the
computer system
 Two basic categories:
 Random Access Memory (RAM) Main physical memory
used when the computer is turned on i.e. it is volatile. It
 holds all the programs you are running and the data you are
processing. It is possible to write to RAM.
 Read Only Memory (ROM)It will not lose its contents
when the computer is turned off i.e. it is non-volatile. It
holds instructions to start up the PC. It is not possible to
write to ROM.
 Power Supply Unit
 Provides the parts of the computer
hardware with an electrical power.
 Converts Alternate Current (AC) to
Direct Current (DC).
 Avoids power voltage surges and
spikes.
 Expansion Card
 Small circuit boards that you put into
the expansion slots on the mother board to do additional things
(video card, sound card, network card, MODEM. In newer
systems cards are integrated.
o Peripheral DevicesAny computer hardware that is plugged into the
computer (not the mother board, the CPU, main memory, power supply, or
expansion cards).
o Input devicesThrough which the computer gets data and instructions
from the outside world (keyboard, light pen, graphics tablet, bar code reader,
mouse, scanner, digital camera and microphone).
 Keyboard
 The most common input device
 Similar to a type writer
 Used to enter information and
instructions into the computer
 Alphanumeric keys (letters &
numbers);
 Punctuation keys (comma,
semicolon, period, question mark, etc)
 Special keys (function keys, arrow
keys, Num Lock key, Shift key, Tab key, etc)
 Mouse
 Could be ball mouse or optical
mouse.
 Has buttons, a ball and scroll wheel
 With cord or cordless
 Joystick
 Pointing device used mostly for
playing computer games.
 Trackball:
  Pointing input device which does not
require much space to use it. (stationary)
 Scanner
 Converts visual information (text or
images) into a form that the computer can manipulate (digital
data)
 Digital Cameras
 Does not use films
 Store the photographs in the memory
of the camera. (for images)
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)-
 To recognize characters printed
using magnetic ink
 Used in banking for processing
cheques.
 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
 Senses the presence or absence of a
mark such as a pencil mark.
 Used in aptitude tests (scoring
examinations)
 Bar Code Reader :
 Input device used mostly in
supermarkets and bookshops
 Speech (Voice) Input Device
 Convert a person’s speech into
digital form. E.g. Microphones
 Touch Screen
 Used in place of pointing devices
such as mouse & light pen.
 Light Pen
 Uses a light sensitive detector to
select objects on a display screen.
 Digitizing tables
 Enable to enter drawing and sketches
in to a computer.
 Web Cam
 Used to input image data to a
computer for further processing.
o Output DevicesReceive output from the computer and provide it to the
user(monitor, speaker, printer, etc)
 Monitor (Screen)
 The most commonly used output
device
  Similar to a television screen that
receives video signals from the computer and displays the
information for the user.
 Two main types: Cathode Ray Tubes
(CRTs) and Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs).
 Printer
 Produces a paper copy (hard copy) of
the data stored in a computer.
 LCD Projector
 Used for displaying the computer
output in large screen in conferences, classrooms, etc.
o Secondary Storage DevicesRetain data permanently even after turning
off the computer (floppy disks, hard disk, compact disk, DVD, magnet tape,
etc)
 Floppy Disks (Diskettes)
 The standard can hold 1.44 MB of
data and has 3.5 inch diameter.
 Inserted in a floppy drive to read and
write data
 Hard Disk
 Contains both the disk and the drive
(the slot).
 Data is stored on the surface in
sectors and tracks.
 Input and storage device
 Magnetic Tape
 Uses a tape drive
 Used for archiving or backing up of
data stored on hard disks.
 The earliest form of secondary
storage device
 Compact Disk (CD)
 Optical disk used to store digital data
 There are three types of CDs:
 CD-ROMCompact Disk-Read Only Memory-the user
can only read from the disks. New data cannot be stored
and the disk cannot be erased.
 CD-RCompact Disk-Recordable- can be recorded only
once but read many times. Additional material can be
recorded only on the remaining space on the disk.
 CD-RWCompact Disk-Rewritable, you can rewrite data
or audio many times.
 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)
 Used for storing data including
movies with high video and sound quality.
  The same physical dimension as
CDs.
 Encoded in a different format from
CDs.
 Store more data than that of CDs.
 There are three types of DVDs:
 DVD-ROM
 DVD-R
 DVD-RW
 Flash Disks
 Printer: Used to printout on paper a copy of the screen or the data that
is being processed by the computer.

3.6.2. Software:
is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing
a task using a computer. Software also includes documentations, rules and operational
procedures. Software makes the interface between the user and the electronic components
of the computer.

USER
Software
Hardware
o The set of instructions that tells the computer what to do, how to do it and
when to do it.
o Is a term for computer programs
o A program is a set of instructions that enables a computer to operate or
instructions that tell the computer how to perform a specific task.
o Programs are written using programming languages which are categorized
into three:
 Machine language
 Uses binary instructions using 0s and
1s.
e.g. 00001111 00000011
000001003+4
 Assembly Language
 Use symbolic codes (mnemonics)
E.g. MUL, ADD, …
 An assembler converts assembly
languages into machine codes. E.g. ADD 3,4
 High Level Programming Language
 Use English like statements E.g.
x=3+4
 A compiler converts high level
programming languages into machine code. E.g. BASIC,
FORTRAN, JAVA, …
  Source program (or source code) is a
program written in assembly language or high level high level
programming language.
 Object program (object code) is a
program that is converted to machine code by an assembler or a
compiler.
Computer Software

The computer hardware is an electronic device which has the potential of performing the
task of solving a problem. However one has to give precise instructions to the hardware
in order to solve problem.

The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job is
called a program.

Any program to be executed should first reside / loaded/ in the memory.

Computer software is classified into two

1. System software
2. Application software
System software

 Constitutes those programs which facilitates the work of the computer hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or are
unable to handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more user friendly.
 It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of
communication between user and a computer.

The important categories of system software are:

a). Operating system
b). Language software

a). Operating system

Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An
operating system has three major functions.

i. Controlling operations (control program)

 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.

 Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer memory.
 Handles communications among the computer components, applications software and
the user.
  Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk drive.
 It performs all its controlling tasks with out the involvement or awareness of the user.

ii. Input/output Management

 The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow
of data to the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key
board or other input devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task
of a file.

iii. Command Processing ( command Interpreter)

 It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or other input
devices.
 If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that command if it is
external command or other executable file it searches for the corresponding file in the
default (current disk) or the user specified disk, loads the file into memory and transfers
control to that program. Once this program is terminated, control returns to
command.com and the program for that command or file is discarded from memory.

Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be classified by:

 The number of programs they can handle at a time and

 The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations (i.e. terminals or
micro-computers connected to a central computer).

i. Single tasking operating systems

 With single tasking operating systems only one program can be run on a computer at
a time.
 In order to run another program, one must remove the first program loaded in the
computers main memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t handle two or more
programs at a time)
 These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only one user at a time.

ii. Multi user operating system

 It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.
 A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity computer by the help of
terminals.
iii. Real Time Operating System

 A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results
are available to influence the activity currently taking place.

Example: - Air plane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.

- Its primary characteristics is that it responds to an event within a well
defined time.

B). Language Software.

- Are software which are used by programmers to develop application

softwares and translate programs to machine code.
- Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs that
serve as editors & translators to develop programs in a number of
programming languages.
- Includes:- Translators, general purpose routines and utilities & high level
languages
 Translator:- is a program that converts one or more languages to another
language. Three types of translators are assemblers, Compilers &
interpreters.
 Assemblers:- is a program that translates assembly languages into
machine code.
 Compiler:- is a program that translates a high level language into
machine code. (Pascal, Fortran Cobol)
 Interpreter:- is a program that translates each instruction of high level
language & executes the instruction before translating the next
instruction.
 The general-purpose routine and utilities include programs which are
used to handle file processing, editing and debugging.
 High level language software are software which have their own
compilers to detect syntax errors of the users program code.
Example Cobol, Fortran, Pascal. Etc.

3.7. Describing computer data representation and numbering systems

We enter data into a computer or review (see) output data from a computer using the
letter of alphabet, various special symbols, and the numerals in the decimal number
system. But since computer is an electronic device which understands electrical flow
(signal) there is no letter, symbol or number inside the computer. Computer works with
binary numbers. As a semiconductor is conducting or isn’t conducting; a switch is closed
or opened.

So data are represented in the form of a code which can have a corresponding electrical
signal.

Number System

 A number system is a set of symbols used for counting

  There are various number systems
Ex. Decimal, Binary, octal-decimal, hexadecimal etc.
 For the purpose of understanding how data are represented, stored and
processed in computer, we will discuss only two of them, the Decimal and the
binary number system.

The Decimal Number System

 The Decimal number system is based on the ten different digits (or symbols)
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
 We say it is a base ten number system
 Though it is widely used, it is inconvenient for computer to represent data. So we
need another number system.

The Binary number system

 Binary number system is based on the two different digits; 0 and 1;

 It is important to note that every decimal number system has its equivalent binary
number;
 Conversion from binary to its equivalent decimal and from decimal to its equivalent
binary is possible;
 Operation on binary number system is also possible

Binary Decimal
0 0
1 1
10 2
11 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
1000 8
1001 9 etc.
 The most elementary form to organize data within a computer (an electronic device)
is in the form of a code which utilizes the “ON” and “OFF” states of electric switches
or there is “current” and “no current” condition of the electronic components;
 We see that the nature of the electronic devices has similarity with the binary number
system in that both represent only two elementary states;
 It is therefore convenient to use binary number system to represent data in a
computer;
 An “ON” corresponds to a 1;
 An “OFF” corresponds to a 0;
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of a current and “OFF” is
represented by non existence of current
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity of
magnetized particles on the disk’s surface.

CODING METHODS

 It is possible to represent any of the character in our language in a way as a series of

electrical switches in arranged manner;
 These switch arrangements can therefore be coded as a series of an equivalent
arrangements of bits

There are different coding systems, that convert one or more character sets into computer
codes. Some are: EBCDIC pronounced as “Eb-see-dick” and stands for Extendede Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code.

 It is an 8-bit coding scheme; (00000000 – 11111111)

 It accommodates to code 28 or 256 different characters
 It is a standard coding scheme for the large computers.

Coding Examples

EBCDIC
Character Zone Digit
a 1000 0001
b 1000 0010
A 1100 0001
B 1100 0010
0 1111 0000
9 1111 1001

BCD (6-bits)

 Stands for Binary Coded Decimal

 It uses 6-bits to code a Character

Coding Examples

BCD
Character Zone digits
A 11 0001
Q 10 1000
8 00 1000
9 00 1001
ASCII-7

 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange

 Used widely before the introduction of ASCII-8 (the Extended ASCII)
 Uses 7 bits to represent a character;
 With the seven bits, 27( or 128) different characters can be coded (0000000-1111111)
 It has a zone and digit bits positions

Coding examples:

ASCII-7
Character Zone digit
$ 010 0100
% 010 0101
A 100 0001
a 110 0001
b 110 0010

The ASCII System

 Also referred as ASCII-8 or Extended ASCII

 It is the most widely used type of coding scheme for Micro Computer system
 ASCII uses 8-bits to represent alphanumeric characters(letters, digits and special
symbols).
 With the 8-bits, ASCII can represent 28 or 256 different characters (00000000-
11111111).

Coding Examples

Character Binary representation in ASCII

a 01100001
b 01100010
A 01000001
B 01000010
? 00111111
+ 00101011
1 00110001
2 00110010
3 00110011

UNITS OF DATA REPRESENTATION

 When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system, it is

packed in units;
 Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte and word;
 These units are based on the binary number system;

BIT

 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 bit stands for binary digits;
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk that stands for either “ON”
indicating 1 or “OFF” indicating 0;
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is
represented by the non existence of current
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity or
magnetized particles on the disk’s surface;

BYTE

 Bits can be organized into large units to make them represent more and meaningful
information;
 This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation” in a
computer system;
 The commonly used byte contains 8 bits;
 Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of data
that can be represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations;
 Each byte can represent a character(a character is either a letter, a number or a special
symbol such as +,-,?,*, $, etc
 A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing
unit, external storage and during communication;
 If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this is expressed in short by saying 512KB,
where KB stands for kilobyte.
 1 Kilobyte(1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes
 1 Megabyte(MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes
 1 Gigabyte(GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes or 210 megabytes

WORD

 Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission
media transmits at a time
 Although bytes can store or transmit information, the process can even be faster if
more than one byte is processed at a once;
 A combination of bytes, then form a “word”
 A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of the
computer;
 Word length is usually given in bits
 We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate
that the amount of data it can process at a time;
 The large the word length a computer has the more powerful and faster it is.
1.2.8. Lesson 8: Computer hazards and security :
Despite the fact that computers are versatile , accurate and diligent electronic
machines , they are subject to failure due to different natural and man-made hazards.
One of the most prevalent computer hazards is Computer Virus.
Computer Viruses
 A computer virus is a program which may damage, corrupt or destroy data, or
affect performance.
 Virus writers try to attack the internet and computers connected to the internet.
 There are too many types of viruses and too many ways a virus can hide within
data.
 Computer viruses are malicious programs that invade your computer.
 Viruses can cause many different kinds of damage:
o Deleting data files
o Erasing programs
o Destroying everything they find on your hard disk.
 Not every virus cause damage; some simply flash annoying messages.
 Viruses usually attack four parts of your computer:
o Executable programs
o Data files
o File directory system
o Boot and system areas
 A computer virus spreads:
o When we run the infected program,
o By copying itself into other programs into the hard disk,
o When the infected program is given to another person(e.g. Floppy)
 Computer viruses vary from flashes to damaging viruses. The following are some
of the types of computer viruses:
o Boot sector virus
 Infect the boot sector of any floppy disk inserted.
 Puts its code in the boot sector
 Load itself into memory
 Run whenever the computer is on.
o E-mail viruses
 Move around e-mail messages.
 Replicates itself automatically by mail8ing itself to dozens of people in
the victim’s e-mail address book.
o Worms
 Copy itself from machine to machine on computer networks.
 A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a
specific security hole.
 Are very similar to viruses in that that are computer programs that
make copies of them and often try to interfere with the normal use of a
computer or a program. The difference is that unlike viruses, worms
do not attach themselves to other files or programs.
o Trojan horses
  A normal computer program which claims to do one thing (e.g. game)
but instead does damage when you run it.
 It is named after the wooden horse the Greeks used to infiltrate Troy.
 It is a program that pretends to be something they are not.
 They do not run on their own like a virus does, they rely on tricking
the user to run them.
 Virus prevention:
o Run a secure operating system.
o Buy virus protection software (anti-virus, firewall, spyware, etc) and
update it regularly.
o Avoid programs from unknown sources like the internet.
o Disable floppy disk booting.
o Never double click (run) executable files (.exe, .com, .vbs, etc)

Duty 4: Basics of Data Communication

 What is data communication?

o Data communication is the process of sharing ideas, information, and
messages with others in a particular time and place.
o Data communication has four major components: data (information),
transmitter(sender), receiver and medium(channel).

 Types of Computer Network:

o A network is two or more computers which are connected together.
o Computer networking arose as a response to the need to share data quickly.
o Based on the geographical area they cover, computer networks can be
roughly divided into two categories.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Built over a small area, such as one room or one building or a
compound.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Has no geographical limit.
 Made up of a number of interconnected LANs.
 The largest WAN is the Internet.
  Uses communication links such as telephone network and
satellite.
o There are also Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) which are used to
connect cities.
o Peer-to-Peer Networks
 Every computer is of equal importance on the network.
 Every computer is used for normal activities such as creating
documents.
 There is no centralized control over resources such as files, printer, etc.
 Good for a few users that are close to each other.
o Server-Based Networks (Client-Server Networks)
 Designed to support a large number of users and it uses servers to
accomplish this.
 The server performs specific tasks and therefore is not used for
activities like producing a document.
 The server(s) perform several key operations such as:
 Communication within a network;
 Sharing of hardware devices, data and different programs;
 Network security; etc
 Network TopologiesA network topology is the physical shape of the network.
o Bus Topology All the computers and other hardware (nodes) are
connected to a main highway (bus) for transporting information. Data goes
direct from the sending computer to the sender.
o Star Topology each node is connected to a component called a hub.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all
computers on the network.
o Ring Topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Messages
travel from node to node. If the message is not for that particular node the
message is regenerated and passed on.
o Mesh Topology Each device is connected to every other device on the
network.
o Tree Topology  Each device is connected to its own central node or host
in the same manner as in a star topology. However, hosts are connected
together in a hierarchical manner.
o Hybrid Topology It is the mix of the other topologies.
 The Internet
o Internet means international networks. It is the network of networks.
o The Internet was started out as a military project.
o In 1969 DARPA (The Defense Advanced Research Project Agency)
decided that it wanted to develop a computer network that could secure an
attack on the United States.
o ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was the first
network.
o In 1975 ARPANET left its experimental stage and become a full-blown
network.
 o In 1983 the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) use on ARPANET was approved
by military standards.
 ARPANET had split into two networks which were called the Internet:
 The small new ARPANET
 MELNET
o In 1990 ARPANET was shut down and MELNET has continued as part of
today’s Internet.
 We should have the following to use the Internet:
o The need for the services;
o Properly equipped computer (network card, video card, sound card, modem,
RAM, hard disk, etc);
o Software tools for connection, navigation, etc. (TCP/IP, Internet Explorer,
Netscape, Mozilla, Navigator, etc);
o Internet Service Provider (ISP). E.g. ETC;
o Basic computer and communication skills.
 The Internet provides the following services:
o Direct communications (e-mail, chat, …);
o Online conferencing (UseNet news, e-mail discussion lists, …);
o The World Wide Web (WWW) also called the Web or W3;
o Remote login;
o File transfer (Telnet, FTP); etc.
 Generally the Internet is characterized as :
o A network;
o A loose organization;
o A coffee house;
o A mail box;
o A business tool;
o A library;
o A software shop;
o A news paper; etc.
 The Internet is different from the Web in that the former is the global network of
computers but the later is the collection of documents, or websites, that we can
access using the Internet and web browsing software.

Duty 5: Working on operating systems

 Under this chapter we will see two operating systems; namely, MS-DOS and MS-
Windows to show the common operations that can be done using operating
systems. Operating systems are software that are designed to control and
coordinate the operation of the computer system. They can act as an interface
between our applications and the computer hardware. They perform many
operations including controlling input/output, managing memory and the CPU.
They also load programs into memory and manage files and folders.
 Based on the type of user interface they provide, operating systems are put into
two groups:
o Command Line Interface (CLI) based operating systems such as MS-
DOS provide command prompts that can be used to type text into the
computer system.
o Graphical User Interface (GUI) based operating systems such as MS-
Windows provide graphical objects such as icons, windows, buttons, tabs,
etc and make use of the mouse.

5. 1: Introducing DOS and basic types of commands

 Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) is a command line based operating
system i.e. the user types the command.
 The portion of the screen where instructions are entered is called the command
line. All tasks are done by typing commands at a command prompt.
 MS-DOS is a single user and single tasking operating system. It is used on
standalone personal computers.
 Most of the operations you can do using MS-Windows can also be done using
MS-DOS. The difference is in the way the user interacts with the system.
 Use Alt+Enter to toggle between window mode and full screen mode.
 You must always press the Enter key after any DOS command to tell the
computer that you have finished typing the command and the requested command
can now start.
 Use Backspace key to delete the last character typed or Esc key to cancel the
command. Hitting F3 key will recall the last MS-DOS command which can be
edited.
 The point where you type your command is shown by a blinking horizontal line,
called the cursor.
 Commands in GUI based operating systems are easier to recall than those of CLI
based operating systems.
 Pressing F1 redisplays the last command used one character at a time.
 To get help about a command: Attrib /? OR Help Attrib E.g. color /?
 MS-DOS commands are not case sensitive. E.g. color & COLOR are the same.
 To enter MS-DOS from MS-Windows you must load the command prompt as
follows:
o Click on the Start button;
o Point to All Programs;
o Point to Accessories; and
o Select Command Prompt.
OR
o Click on the Start button;
o Click on Run…;
o Type “command” or simply “cmd” in the Open box of the Run dialog
box; and
o Click on the OK button.

 A: or B: in DOS is normally the floppy drive and C: is normally the hard drive.
 File names in DOS contain two parts: name and extension.

 File and directory naming in DOS are similar to Windows with the following
exceptions:
o A file name can be a maximum of 8 characters.
o Extensions can be a maximum of 3 characters. (.txt, .frm, .rpt)
o The following special characters are allowed in file names: _ ^ $ ~ ! # %
&-{}()@
o The following special characters are not allowed in file names: * + = | \
[]:;“<,>?/

MS-DOS Commands
 To display the current date type date and press Enter.
 To display the current time type time and press Enter.
 The exit command lets you exit from DOS and return to Windows.
 To exit DOS, type exit and press the Enter key OR click the Close button on the
DOS window.

 To see the contents of the directory you are in, use DIR command.
 The DIR command (dir [path][/p][/w])is used to view the contents of any
directory.
 [/p] displays a page at a time. (pauses after each screen)
 [/w] displays the directory in wide format.
 The md or mkdir (make directory) command (md [path] directoryname) is used to
create directories. E.g. md Comp-Sys or md Comp-Sys\Hardware.
 The cd or chdir command (cd [path][\][..]) is used to change directory. The \
symbol is to move to the top level of the drive (e.g. C:\). The .. symbol is to move
up one directory. (E.g. cd..)
  The rd (remove directory) command (rd [path] directoryname) is used to delete
only empty directories. You cannot delete a directory if you are in it.
 Use deltree command to remove the directory along with its subdirectories and
files.
 The xcopy command (copy [source] [target]) is used to copy a directory and its
contents.
o The following are reserved file names and hence are not allowed in file
naming: CLOCKS, CON, AUX, COMn, LPTn, NUL, PRN
 The edit command (edit [path][filename]) is used to create text files.
 To create a text file in a directory:
o Type edit and press Enter;
o Type text and make editing;
o Press Alt + F + S to save;
o Type path and file name in the File Name box (E.g. c:\Comp-
Sys\Hardware\DVD\dvd.txt;
o Press Enter.
 To stop text editing: Press Alt + F +X.
 To open and add a text to an already existing file:
o Type edit and press Enter;
o Press Alt + F + O;
o Type the file name in the File Name box;
o Press Enter;
o Move the cursor to the end using either arrow keys or End key.
o Add the new text; and
o Press Alt + F + S.
 The copy command (copy source [destination]) is used to copy files from one
area to another.
o E.g. C:\Comp-Sys\Hardware\DVD\dvd.txt C:\Comp-
Sys\Hardware\Mouse\Mouse.txt
 The ren (rename) command (ren [path] oldname newname OR rename oldname
newname) is used to change the name of a file.
o E.g. rename c:\animal\mammal\cow\first.txt second.txt
 We can use ren oldname newname if we are in the same directory.
 The del (delete) command (del [path] filename) is used to delete files.
o E.g. del C:\Comp-Sys\Hardware\Mouse\Mouse.txt
 We can use del filename if we are in the same directory.
 Use the undelete command (undelete [filename])to recover the deleted files
 The question mark (?) represents any single letter.
 The asterisk mark (*) represents one or more letters.
SELF TEST EXERCISES ON MSDOS

1) Start MS-DOS. What steps did you follow?

2) Toggle to full screen mode.
3) Change the background color to light green and the foreground color to black.
4) Go to the root directory C:\ and create a directory named Comp-Sys directory.
5) Create Hardware & Software directories in Comp-Sys directory.
6) Create Input, Output & Storage directories in Hardware directory.
7) Create Keyboard & Mouse directories in Input directory.
8) Create Monitor, Printer & Speaker directories in Output directory.
9) Create CD, DVD & HardDisk directories in directory Storage directory.
10) Create System and Application directories in Software directory.
11) Create OS & Driver directories in System directory.
12) Clear the screen.
13) Create a text file named Oper.txt in directory OS with the following contents
and exit the editor saving the file:

“Operating systems are software that are designed to control and

coordinate the operation of the computer system.”

14) What rules did you follow while giving file names in MSDOS?
15) Create Word, Excel & Access directories in Application directory.
16) Add the following text to the file Oper.txt and exit the editor saving the
changes.

“They can act as an interface between our applications and the

computer hardware.”

17) Create a text file named dvd.txt in DVD directory with the following content
and exit the editor saving the file:
“A mouse is a small device with buttons at the top and a ball on
the bottom.”
18) Copy the file dvd.txt to Mouse directory by changing the file name as
mouse.txt.
19) Display the contents of the file Oper.txt.
20) Go to directory Comp-Sys and view its contents.
21) Go to Hardware directory and view its contents.
22) Remove directory Storage together with its subdirectories.
23) Rename the file Oper as Oper-Sys.txt.
24) Exit MSDOS.
25) View the directories (folders) and the files you have created using Ms-
Windows.

Working On Windows Environment Basics

 Microsoft Windows is a Graphical User Interface (GUI) operating system.

 Windows operating system allows users to run more than one program at the
same time.
 When you run Windows, the first screen that you encounter is the Desktop. You
can drag programs, files, and system objects onto it in order to organize them.
 An icon is a small picture used to represent a system component, command or an
application on the screen. E.g. My Documents, Recycle Bin, etc.
 A button is an area on the screen with which we select actions or commands.
Buttons provide quick ways to do tasks. E.g. Start button on the Task bar.
 A menu is a list of commands. A menu can have as many submenus as you like
which may also have their own submenus.
 Dialog boxes are invoked by an option from a menu, provide a convenient way to
interact with the user. They contain rectangular fields for text input, buttons and
boxes that can be clicked upon, list from which items can be selected and scroll
bars. They are mainly used for obtaining input from the use.
 Message boxes are used to display brief messages to the user.
 A window is a rectangular area or work space on the screen. We can move
windows around on the screen, change their sizes, and switch between the
windows. A window is opened when we double click an icon on the desktop, run
a program, or open a file or folder. The appearance and parts of some windows
may vary. The following are the common components to all windows:
o Control Menu box: it is located in the upper left corner of a window. It is
a drop down menu containing options to restore, move, re-size, minimize,
maximize, and close a window.
o Title Bar: is the top line of the window. It is used to present the name of
the window that can be an application, folder, icon, etc. The size button,
located in upper right corner of the window of the title bar has three
buttons: Minimizing, Maximizing, and Closing buttons.
o Minimize button is used to minimize and change a window to an icon that
will be displayed on the task bar.
o Maximizing button is used to maximize a window and fill the whole
screen.
o Close button is used to close a window or an application.
o Menu Bar is located below the Title bar that contains list of menus: top
level (main) menus and drop down menu (sub-menu).
o Toolbar: contains buttons with images, menus or a combination of both.
They provide quick ways to do tasks. To find out what each button is,
move the mouse pointer over the button and read the tool tips.
o Scroll bars: are located either vertically on the right hand edge (for up and
down movement) or horizontal on the button. They allow the user to slide
the window to view different portions of information as desired.
o Task bar: is located at the bottom of the Desktop. It informs us about
applications, files, etc we have opened. It also contains the Start button.
Mouse Skills
 Most mice have two mouse buttons. Normally you use the left mouse button. You
can assume you will use the left mouse button whenever you see the words click
or double-click.
 Usually the elements of Windows (desktop, icon, windows, button, menu, dialog
box, task bar) are mouse driven. The common mouse operations are:
 o PointTo position the mouse pointer over an item.
o SelectTo select a character, word, line, sentence, paragraph, whole text,
etc.
o Left click To open a menu, position the cursor, open or close a window,
start up an application from icons.
o Right clickTo open shortcut menu.
 Pressing and then releasing the right button quickly.
 A menu displayed as a result of clicking the right mouse button is
called a shortcut menu that contains list of commands from which we
can choose one.
o Double clickTo open an item (folder, file, etc), run an application, etc.
 Clicking a mouse button twice in quick succession.
 Do not move the mouse between clicks.
o Dragging & dropping To move a window on the screen, move or copy
files or folders.
 Point to the object you want to move, then click and hold down the
mouse button;
 While you are still holding down the button, move the mouse until the
pointer is over the place you want to put the object; and
 Release the mouse button.
Start Menu and Task Bar
 Task bar usually appears at the bottom of your screen and contains the Start
button, which you use to start your programs. Whenever you open a program,
document or window, an icon for that program appears on the taskbar. This lets
you see which programs are currently running and easily switch between them.
 Start button lets you quickly open your programs and documents. You can also
use the Start button to find files and change the settings for Windows.
 Using the Start menu is one way of starting a program.
 To start a program using the Start Menu:
o Click on the Start button to display the start menu;
o Click on the program you want to start; (Some menu items have submenus)
o If the program is not found in the Start menu, point to All Programs, and
then look through the menus until you reach the program you want and click
on it.
 E.g. to open the Calculator application, do the following:
o Click on the Start button;
o Point to All Programs and then point to Accessories;
o Click on Calculator.
 To add your favorite programs to the Start menu, simply drag the file you want on
it. This creates a short cut on the menu.
 To remove a program from the Start menu:
o Right click on the Task bar and choose Properties from the shortcut menu to
open the Task bar and Start menu Properties dialog box;
o Click the Advance tab;
o Click the Remove button to open the Remove Shortcut/Folders dialog box;
 o Select the item to be removed and click Remove to bring up a dialog box for
confirmation; and
o Click the Close button.

Seeing What’s on Your Computer

 To see what is in your computer:
o Double click on My Computer icon in the Desktop;
o Open one of the drives or folders; and
o See the contents and open the subfolders, if any.
 You can also use the Windows Explorer to navigate your computer;
o Click on Start button;
o Select All Programs
o Select Accessories; and
o Select Windows Explorer.
 Note that the Windows Explorer Window has two parts: the folder pane and the
content pane.
Managing Files and Folders
 A file is a collection of information stored under a single name.
 File names contain two parts: name and extension separated by a dot.
( name.extension)
 File extensions usually give information about the type of file. For example,
whether it is a program, a text file, a graphic image, or a word processor
document. Many programs automatically add extensions to your file names.
 Examples:
o Autoexec.bat- a batch file that contains a group of commands.
o Word.exe- an executable (runnable) file.
o myLetter.doc- A document file, which is in Microsoft Word format (a file
created using Microsoft Word).
o myPage.htm- HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) file, for use on the
WWW (World Wide Web).
 Rules for Windows File Names
o Every file must have a name, which can be up to 255 characters long
(including the extension).
o Extensions are optional.
o Windows is not case sensitive.
o The following special characters are not allowed in Windows file
names: \ / : * ? “ < > |
 Folders can contain groups of files.
 Windows directories must have names that follow the same rules as Windows
files.
 We can use windows Explorer to organize files:
o Click on the Start button;
o Go to All Programs;
o Point to Accessories; and
o Click on Windows Explorer.
 The body of the Windows Explorer is divided into two panes: the folder pane
and the content pane.
 To navigate or find files using Windows Explorer:
o In the Folder Pane, select the folder which contains the file you are looking
for;
o In the content Pane, double-click the file you want to work on;
o If a folder contains other folders this is shown by a plus sign. If you click on
the plus sign other folders will appear. You can hide the folders again by
clicking on the minus sign.
 To create a folder:
o Open Windows Explorer;
o From the Folder Pane, select the folder or drive under which you want to
create the new folder;
o Click on the File menu;
o Point to New, select Folder; (A new folder will appear in the Content Pane)
o Type the name of the new folder; and
o Press the Enter key.
 To copy or move a file or folder:
o Open Windows Explorer;
o From the Folder Pane, select the folder or drive that contains the file or
folder you want to copy or move;
o From the Content Pane, click on the file or folder you want to copy or move;
o From the Edit menu, select Copy for copying or select Cut for moving;
o Navigate to the place where you want to copy or move the file to; and
o From the Edit menu, select Paste.
 To delete a file or folder:
o From the Folder Pane, select the drive or folder that contains the file you
want to delete;
o From the Content Pane, select the file or folder you want to delete;
o Press the Delete key; and
o Click on the Yes button to confirm the deletion.
 To retrieve a file or a folder you have deleted:
o Double click on the Recycle Bin icon on your desktop; and
o Right click on the file you want to retrieve, and then select Restore.
 To permanently delete a file or a folder:
o Press and hold down the Shift key while you press the Delete key.
 To permanently delete all files and folders in the Recycle Bin:
o From the File menu of the Recycle Bin select Empty Recycle Bin.
 To select multiple files or folders that are next to each other:
o Click on the first file/folder to select it; and
o Press and hold down the Shift key and click on the last file/ or folder.
 To select multiple files/folders which are not next to each other:
o Click on the first file/folder; and
o Press and hold down the Ctrl key and click on each file/folder that you want
to select.
 To deselect the files/folders, click on any empty area of the screen.
 We can only select more than one folder in the Content Pane not in the Folder
Pane.
Customization of Windows
 Most of the settings to customize Windows are done using the Control Panel.

 We can open the Control Panel in different steps. The following is only one way:
o Click the Start Button;
o Point to Settings; and
o Click on Control Panel.
 Date and Time setting:
o Double click the Date and Time icon in the Control Panel;
o Adjust the date and time; and
o Set the time zone.
 To customize the desktop background:
o Right click on the desktop;
o Select the Desktop tab in the Display Properties dialog box; and
o Select the background type and choose other options as necessary.
 To set the screen saver:
o Right click on the desktop;
o Select the Screen Saver tab; and
o Choose a screen saver and other options.
 To customize the settings of the cursor:
o Double click the Mouse icon in the Control Panel;
o Click the Pointers tab in the Mouse Properties dialog box;
o Click an item from the Customize list to change an assignment;
o Click Browse to bring up the Browse dialog box and click a cursor to load
it; and
o Click the Open button.
 To adjust the settings of the pointer option:
o Double click the Mouse icon in the Control Panel;
o Click the Motion tab in the Mouse Properties dialog box;
o In the Speed section, adjust the speed by moving the slider;
o In the Acceleration section, choose one of the accelerators and click Apply
or OK.
 Microsoft Windows self Test Exercise
1. See practically how to hide/Unhide desktop Icons
2. Arrange desktop Icons by Name
3. Arrange desktop Icons by type
4. Move the desktop icons by dragging
5. Create short cut icons for Ms-word & Ms-Excel programs on desktop
6. Create new folders named SSOM, IT and MKT on desktop
7. Rename the above Folders as AOST, ICT and SALES respectively
8. Open the above 3 folders and maximize all.
9. Title the 3 windows vertically
10. Change the arrangement to horizontal
11. Cascade the windows
12. Minimize all the windows in one operation
13. Customize the mouse buttons for left-hand users
14. See hot to adjust the double click speed
15. Change the mouse pointer shape of normal select to banana
16. Restore the default pointer shape
17. See how to adjust the repeating delay and repeating rate of the keyboard.
18. Open windows explore
19. Explore the contents of the C: drive
20. See how to adjust the tree pane and content pane size by dragging the slit bar
21. Open Ms-word program and identify the screen elements (Title Bar, Menu Bar, Tool Bars,
Document Area, Scroll Bars, Status Bar, View Bottoms, and Browse Buttons)
22. Hide all the Tool bars of Ms-Word Window
23. Display Standard tool bar, Formatting Tool Bar, Tables and Borders Tool Bar and Drawing tool
bar.
24. See how to change the location of tool bars by dragging
25. Hide the Scroll bars of Ms-Word window
26. Display the Scroll bars of Ms-word window
27. Close all the windows opened so far.
28. Open Ms-word and write a paragraph of your own
29. Save the paragraph in the folder AOST (use paragraph1 as file name)
30. Close Ms-Word and open windows explorer
31. Rename the file paragraph1 to document1
32. Delete document1 file
33. Open recycle bin window and look for file name documnet1
34. Restore docment1 file from the recycle bin and check if it is really resorted.
35. Open the file document1
 Duty 6: Basics of Application Software
6.1: Word Processing Application
Overview
Word processor is an application package that helps you create, modify, store and print any type of
written documents by the use of computers. There are different types of word processing packages. This
unit focuses on MS Word. The unit is divided into three sections. The first section deals with basics of
word processing package and creating word documents. Formatting word documents, creating drawings
and importing graphics are dealt in section two. The last section, section three, focuses on tables, mail
merge and printing.
Objectives:
Upon the completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 identify word processing package from others;
 list at least three word processing packages;
 choose appropriate word processing package for specific application;
 create, open, and save files using MS Word;
 format characters and paragraphs using MS Word;
 add pictures/ graphics from existing gallery;
 create documents made up of tables;
 create documents of varying nature for mailing/ distribution using MS Word;
 print documents, labels and envelops.

Working on Word Documents

Overview
Word processing is the process of producing readable and attractive documents (written information).
Word processors are the most commonly used application packages, which allows you, perform word
processing functions. This section deals with theoretical aspect of word processing applications followed
by practical discussion on how to create and work on word document.
Objectives:
Upon the completion of this section, you will be able to:
 identify functions of word processing software;
 identify word processing applications;
 explain features of MS Word;
 create and save MS Word documents; and
 Open/close MS Word document.

Dear learner! The process of typing might be common for you or you might have encountered when
other people are doing so. Mostly mistakes such as omitting a critical sentence some where in the
document, misspelling, etc. are common. Correcting such mistakes is time taking and sometimes
difficult to correct. However, word processing packages give you the ability to avoid such typing
mistakes.

Word processors help you in using the computer for any word related tasks like create high-quality
documents such as announcements, letters, memos, advertisements, brochures, newsletters, reports and
revise them easily. It can do more than these, but this is to mention few.

Can you give some examples of word processing software and their category?

The following are some of the available Word-Processing software. WordStar, WordPerfect, AmiPro,
EasyWriter, PYtype, MS Word, etc. Word processors are categorized into two groups depending on the
features they possess. They are: text-editors and full-featured. The features that are supported by text-
editors are: editing tools, word wrap facility, printing tools and page set up. Where as full-featured word
processors include more tools and facilities than text editors. Microsoft Word (MS Word) is a full-
featured word processor and the most widely used application package.

Starting Ms-Word
How are you going to start and close MS Word?

The technique of starting MS Word is similar to starting other applications such as Word pad. The most
common and frequently used method is getting through start button and pointing to programs. Then
click on the Ms Word application from the list.

Other methods to start MS Word are:

 Click Microsoft office icon from Microsoft office shortcut bar;
 Shortcut of MS Word on Desktop (if any);
 Getting through the start button and then using Run command;
 Getting through the start button and then using Find command.

Finally, click on the Microsoft word icon in the cascading menus. If you do one of the above in order to
open MS Word, the MS Word screen will be displays as shown in figure 2.1.1

The method of closing MS Word is that:

 You first click the File command;
 Then, click on Exit. (If you have document(s) already opened where you have made
some modification, first you are required to close the file(s) by clicking File
command and then Close.)

Screen Layout of MS Word

Minimize button Restore button Close button
 Screen layout of MS Word Menus
When you begin to explore MS Word (especially a recent version like Word 2000), you will notice a
significant change in the menu structure (if you are familiar with previous versions of Word). The
menus in recent versions of MS Word display only the commands you have recently used.  To view all
other options in each menu, you must click the double arrows at the bottom of the menu. Figure 2.1.2a
below shows the Format menu collapsed and figure 2.1.2b expanded after the double arrows at the
bottom of the menu were clicked.

a (Collapsed menu) b (Expanded menu)

Shortcut Menus
These features allow you to access various Word commands faster than using the options on the Menu
bar. View shortcut menus by right-clicking with the mouse. The options on this menu will vary
depending on the element that was right-clicked. For example, the shortcut menu below is produced by
right-clicking on a bulleted list.

A Shortcut menu
Actions such as "Decrease Indent" and "Increase Indent" are only applicable to lists and therefore only
appear on the list shortcut menu. The shortcut menus are helpful because they only display the options
that can be applied to the item that was right-clicked and, therefore, prevent searching through the many
menu options.
Toolbars
Many toolbars displaying shortcut buttons are also available to make editing and formatting quicker and
easier. Select View Toolbars from the menu bar to select the toolbars. The toolbars that are already
displayed on the screen are checked. Add a toolbar simply by clicking on the name.
Customizing Toolbars
There may be certain actions on a toolbar that you do not use and there may also be commands that you
execute often but that are not located on any toolbar. Word toolbars can be customized so these
commands can be added and deleted.
1. Select View|Toolbars|Customize and click the Commands tab.
2. By highlighting the command categories in the Categories box, the choices will change in the
Commands box to the right.
3. Select the command you would like to add to the toolbar by selecting it in the Commands box.
4. Drag the command with the mouse to the desired location on the toolbar and release the mouse
button.
5. Remove a button from the toolbar by clicking and dragging the button off the toolbar.
How do you create and work on MS Word documents?
There are several ways to create new documents, open existing documents, and save documents in
Word:
Create a New Document
1. Click the New Document button on the menu bar. or
2. Choose File New from the menu bar. or
3. Press CTRL+N (depress the CTRL key while pressing "N") on the keyboard.
Open an Existing Document
1. Click the Open File button on the menu bar. or
2. Choose File Open from the menu bar. or 3. Press CTRL+O on the keyboard.
Each method will show the Open dialog box. Choose the file and click the Open button.
Save a Document
1. Click the Save button on the menu bar. or
2. Select File Save from the menu bar. or, 3. Press CTRL+S on the keyboard.
Renaming Documents
To rename a Word document while using the program, select File Open and find the file you want to
rename. Right-click on the document name with the mouse and select Rename from the shortcut menu.
Type the new name for the file and press the ENTER key.
Deleting Documents
To delete a Word document while using the program, select File|Open and find the file you want to
delete. Right-click on the document name with the mouse and select delete from the shortcut menu. You
will be asked for confirmation to delete a file. Click on the Yes button from the shortcut menu.

Working on Multiple Documents

Several documents can be opened simultaneously if you are typing or editing multiple documents at
once.  All open documents are listed under the Window menu. The current document has a checkmark
beside the file name. Select another name to view another open document or click the button on the
Windows taskbar at the bottom of the screen.
Close a Document

Close the current document by selecting File Close or click the Close icon if it's visible on the Standard
Toolbar, or click the close button  at the right top corner of the menu bar..
Typing and Inserting Text

To enter text, just start typing! The text will appear where the blinking cursor is located. Move the
cursor by using the arrow buttons on the keyboard or positioning the mouse and clicking the left button.
The keyboard shortcuts listed below in the table are also helpful when moving through the text of a
document:
Keyboard shortcuts for moving inside a text
Move Action Key stroke
Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME
End of the document CTRL+END

Formatting Word Documents, Working With Drawings and Graphics

Overview
Using word processing application, you can easily create, edit, reorganize and format text documents
with out retyping all of it and then correct errors. Some of these activities are highly difficult to perform
manually. One of a key advantage of word processing software is that you can easily make changes in
documents such as correcting spelling, changing margins, and adding, deleting, or relocating entire
paragraphs. These changes would be difficult and time consuming to make using manual methods such
as type writers. This section discusses editing/formatting word documents, creating drawings, importing
graphics and related issues.

Objectives:
Upon the completion of this section, you will be able to:
 find and replace text;
 select text using mouse or keyboard;
 modify word documents by applying techniques of editing;
 rearrange the appearance of a text so that it becomes attractive and readable;
 add borders and shading to a paragraph or selected text;
 define, modify, and delete styles to title, text and/or paragraph;
 create and/or remove bullets and numbers to/from list of items;
 add pictures to your word document from an existing gallery;
 draw pictures using tools on the drawing toolbar;
 move graphic objects.

Selecting Text

To change any attributes of text it must be highlighted first. Select the text by dragging the mouse over
the desired text while keeping the left mouse button depressed, or hold down the SHIFT key on the
keyboard while using the arrow buttons to highlight the text. Table 2.1.2 contains shortcuts for selecting
different portions of the text:
Table 2.1.2 Shortcuts for selecting portions of the text
Selection Technique
Whole word double-click within the word
Whole paragraph triple-click within the paragraph
Several words or drag the mouse over the words, or hold down SHIFT while using the arrow
lines keys
Entire document choose Edit Select All from the menu bar, or press CTRL+A
Deselect the text by clicking anywhere outside of the selection on the page or press an arrow key on the
keyboard.

Find/replace and delete text

To find and replace text in your document, click Edit|Replace. Then type the text to be replaced in Find
What box and the text to replace in Replace With box. Finally, click Replace button if you want to
replace one by one or click Replace All to make all the replacements at once.

To delete text, use the BACKSPACE and DELETE keys on the keyboard to delete text. Backspace will
delete text to the left of the cursor and Delete will erase text to the right. To delete a large selection of
text, highlight it using any of the methods outlined above and press the DELETE key.

Formatting Text

The formatting toolbar is the easiest way to change many attributes of text. If the toolbar as shown in
figure 2.1.4 isn't displayed on the screen, select View|Toolbars and choose Formatting.

Figure 2.1.4 Formatting toolbar

Style Menu - Styles are explained in detail later in this section.
Font Face - Click the arrowhead to the right of the font name box to view the list of fonts available.
Scroll down to the font you want and select it by clicking on the name once with the mouse.
Font Size - Click on the white part of the font size box to enter a value for the font size or click the
arrowhead to the right of the box to view a list of font sizes available. Select a size by clicking on it
once. A font size of 10 or 12 is best for paragraphs of text.
Numbered and Bulleted Lists - Lists are explained in detail later in this section.
Font Style - Use these buttons to bold, italicize, and underline text.
Alignment - Text can be aligned to the left, center, or right side of the page or it can be justified
across the page.
Increase/Decrease Indent - Change the indentation of a paragraph in relation to the side of the page.
Outside Border - Add a border around a text selection.
Highlight Color - Use this option to change the color behind a text selection. The color shown on the
button is the last color used. To select a different color, click the arrowhead next to the image on the
button.
Text Color - This option changes the color of the text. The color shown on the button is the last color
chosen. Click the arrowhead next to the button image to select another color.
The Font dialog box allows you to choose from a larger selection of formatting options. Select
Format Font from the menu bar to access the box.
Format Painter

A handy feature for formatting text is the Format Painter located on the standard toolbar. For example,
if you have formatting a paragraph heading with a certain font face, size, and style and you want to
format another heading the same way, you do not need to manually add each attribute to the new
headline. Instead, use the Format Painter by following these steps:
1. Place the cursor within the text that contains the formatting you want to copy.
2. Click the Format Painter button in the standard toolbar. Notice that your pointer now has a
paintbrush beside it.
 3. Highlight the text you want to add the same format to with the mouse and release the mouse
button.
To add the formatting to multiple selections of text, double-click the Format Painter button instead of
clicking once.  The format painter then stays active until you press the ESC key to turn it off.
Undo
Feel free to experiment with various text styles. You can always undo your last action by clicking the
Undo button on the standard toolbar or selecting Edit Undo... from the menu bar. Click the Redo button
on the standard toolbar or select Edit Redo... to erase the undo action.
Paragraph Attributes

Format a paragraph by placing the cursor within the paragraph and selecting Format Paragraph from
the menu bar.
Moving (Cutting) Text

Highlight the text that will be moved and select Edit /Cut from the menu bar, click the Cut button on
the standard toolbar, or press CTRL+X at once. This will move the text to a clipboard.
To move a small amount of text a short distance, the drag-and-drop method may be quicker. Highlight
the text you want to move, click the selection with the mouse, drag the selection to the new location, and
release the mouse button.
Copying Text
To copy text, choose Edit|Copy, click the Copy button on the standard toolbar, or press CTRL+C to
copy the text to the clipboard.

Paragraph formatting dialog box

Pasting Text

To paste cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move the text to and select Edit|
Paste from the menu bar, click the Paste button on the standard toolbar, or press CTRL+V.
Drop Caps

A drop cap is a large letter that begins a paragraph and drops through several lines of text.
Add a drop cap to a paragraph by following these steps:
1. Place the cursor within the paragraph whose first letter will be dropped.
2. Select Format|Drop Cap from the menu bar.
 3. The Drop Cap dialog box allows you to select the position of the drop cap, the font, the number
of lines to drop, and the distance from the body text.
4. Click OK when all selections have been made.
5. To modify a drop cap, select Format|Drop Cap again to change the attributes, or click on the
letter and use the handles to move and resize the letter.
Columns
To quickly place text in a column format, click the Columns button on the standard toolbar and select
the number of columns by dragging the mouse over the diagram.

Column creation from the standard toolbar

For more column options, select Format|Columns from the menu bar. The Columns dialog box allows
you to choose the properties of the columns. Select the number and width of the columns from the
dialog box shown in figure 2.1.7.
What are styles and how you can use them in Word document?
Styles
A style is a set of formatting characteristics that you can apply to text, lists, etc. in your document to
quickly change their appearance. When you apply a style, you apply a whole group of formats in one
simple task. For example, instead of taking three separate steps to format your title as 16 pt, Arial, and
center-aligned, you can achieve the same result in one step by applying the Title style. Thus, the use of
styles in Word will allow you to quickly format a document with a consistent and professional look.
Paragraph and character styles can be saved for use in many documents.

Column setting dialog box

Applying a Style
Place the cursor in the paragraph where the style will be applied.
1. Click the Style drop-down menu on the Formatting toolbar and select a style by clicking on it.
 2. To apply the same style to multiple paragraphs, double click the Format Painter button on
the standard toolbar and click in all the paragraphs that the style should be applied to. Press the
ESC key to disable the Format Painter.
Apply a Style from the Style Dialog Box

Choose from a larger selection of styles from the Style dialog box.
1. Click in the paragraph you want to add a style to.
2. Select Format|Style... from the menu bar.
3. From the List drop-down menu, choose All styles to view all the styles available.
4. The styles are displayed in the Styles list. Preview each style by clicking once on the name.
Paragraph styles are preceded by the paragraph symbol ( ) and character styles are preceded by
an "a" icon ( ). A pointer arrow is located next to the current style. Highlight the style you want
to apply to the paragraph and click Apply.
Create a New Style from a Model

To create a style from text that is already formatted in a document, follow these steps:
1. Place the cursor in the paragraph you would like to set as a new style.
2. Click the Style box on the formatting toolbar so the style name is highlighted.
3. Delete the text in the field and type the name of the new style.
4. Press the ENTER key to save the new style.
Create a Simple Style from the Style Dialog Box
1. Select Format|Style... from the menu bar and click the New button on the Style dialog box to
access the New Style dialog box.
2. Type the name for the new style in the Name field.
3. Select "Paragraph" or "Character" from the Style type drop-down menu.
4. Click the Format button at the bottom of the window and choose the paragraph element that will
be formatted for the style. Continue to make changes from the options from the Format button
menu, making changes to the dialog boxes for each element you choose.
5. Click OK to set the style and close the New Style dialog box.
6. Click Apply on the Style dialog box to apply the new style to the current paragraph.
Modify or Rename a Style

An existing style can be changed from the Style dialog box.

1. Select Format|Style... from the menu bar.
2. Highlight the style from the Styles list that you want to modify and click the Modify button.
3. Use the same methods to modify the style from the Modify Style dialog box that were used for
the New Style box.
4. To only rename the style, type a new name in the Name field.
5. Click OK when you are finished making modifications.
6. Click Apply to update the style in the document.
Delete a Style

Preset styles created by Word cannot be deleted, but to delete it you have made, follow these steps:
1. Select Format|Style... from the menu bar.
2. Highlight the style from the Styles list that you want to delete.
3. Click the Delete button.
4. You will be asked if you really want to delete the style. Click Yes.
5. Click Close on the dialog box.
Bulleted and Numbered Lists
1. Click the Bulleted List button or Numbered List button on the formatting toolbar.
 2. Type the first entry and press ENTER.  This will create a new bullet or number on the next line.
If you want to start a new line without adding another bullet or number, hold down the SHIFT
key while pressing ENTER.
3. Continue typing entries and press ENTER twice when you are finished typing to end the list.
Use the Increase Indent and Decrease Indent buttons on the formatting toolbar to create lists of
multiple levels. You can also type the text first, highlight the section, and press the Bulleted List or
Numbered List buttons to add the bullets or numbers.
Nested Lists

To create a nested list, such as a numbered list inside of a bulleted list, follow these steps:
1. Type the list and increase the indentation of the items that will make up the nested list by
clicking the Increase Indent button for each item.
2. Highlight the items and click the Numbered List button on the formatting toolbar.
Formatting Lists

The bullet image and numbering format can be changed by using the Bullets and Numbering dialog
box. To do so:
1. Highlight the entire list to change all the bullets or numbers, or
Place the cursor on one line within the list to change a single bullet.
2. Access the dialog box by selecting Format|Bullets and Numbering from the menu bar or by
right-clicking within the list and selecting Bullets and Numbering from the shortcut menu.
3. Select the list style from one of the seven choices given, or click the Picture... button to choose a
different icon. Click the Numbered tab to choose a numbered list style.
4. Click OK when finished.
Remove Bulleted and Numbered Lists
To remove bulleted and numbered lists, highlight the list, click on Format|Bullets and Numbering from
the menu bar and then click on None. Finally click Ok. Another option is that first you can select the
bulleted or numbered list and then click the numbering or bullets button on the standard toolbar to
remove the effect.

Working with graphics and drawings Clip Art

To add a clip art image from the Microsoft library to a document, follow these steps:
1. Select Insert|Picture|Clip Art from the menu bar.
2. To find an image, click in the white box following Search for clips. Delete the words "Type one
or more words. . ." and enter keywords describing the image you want to use. or,
Click one of the category icons.
Click once on the image you want to add to the document;
Insert Clip to add the image to the document.
Preview Clip to view the image full-size before adding it to the document. Drag the bottom, right
corner of the preview window to resize the image and click the "x" close button to end the preview.
Add Clip to Favorites will add the selected image to your favorites directory that can be chosen from
the Insert ClipArt dialog box.
Find Similar Clips will retrieve images similar to the one you have chosen.
3. Continue selecting images to add to the document and click the Close button in the top, right
corner of the Insert ClipArt window to stop adding clip art to the document.
Add an Image from a File

Follow these steps to add a photo or graphic from an existing file:

1. Select Insert|Picture|From File on the menu bar.
2. Click the down arrow button on the right of the Look in window.
3. Highlight the file name from the list and click the Insert button.
Editing a Graphic

Activate the image you wish to edit by clicking on it once with the mouse. Nine handles will appear
around the graphic. Click and drag these handles to resize the image. The handles on the corners will
resize proportionally while the handles on the straight lines will stretch the image. More picture effects
can be changed using the Picture toolbar. The Picture toolbar should appear when you click on the
image. Otherwise, select View|Toolbars|Picture from the menu bar to activate it.

Picture toolbar
Insert Picture will display the image selection window and allows you to change the image.
Image Control allows making the image grayscale, black and white, or a watermark.
More/Less Contrast modifies the contrast between the colors of the image.
More/Less Brightness will darken or brighten the image.
Click Crop and drag the handles on the activated image to delete outer portions of the image.
Line Style will add a variety of borders to the graphic.
Text Wrapping will modify the way the document text wraps around the graphic.
Format Picture displays all the image properties in a separate window.
Reset Picture will delete all the modifications made to the image.

Auto Shapes

The AutoShapes toolbar will allow you to draw many different geometrical shapes, arrows, flow chart
symbols, stars, and banners on the document. Activate the AutoShapes toolbar by selecting Insert|
Picture|AutoShapes or View|Toolbars|AutoShapes from the menu bar, or clicking the AutoShapes button
on the Drawing toolbar. Click each button on the toolbar to view the options for drawing the shape.

Figure 2.1.9 Auto shapes toolbar

Lines - After clicking the Lines button on the AutoShapes toolbar, draw a straight line, arrow, or
double-ended arrow from the first row of options by clicking the respective button. Click in the
document where you would like the line to begin and click again where it should end. To draw a
curved line or freeform shape, select curved lines from the menu (first and second buttons of second
row), click in the document where the line should appear, and click the mouse every time a curve
should begin. End creating the graphic by clicking on the starting end or pressing the ESC key. To
scribble, click the last button in the second row, click the mouse in the document and hold down the
left button while you draw the design. Let go of the mouse button to stop drawing.
Basic Shapes - Click the Basic Shapes button on the AutoShapes toolbar to select from many two-
and three-dimensional shapes, icons, braces, and brackets. Use the drag-and-drop method to draw
the shape in the document. When the shape has been made, it can be resized using the open box
handles and other adjustments specific to each shape can be modified using the yellow diamond
handles.
Block Arrows - Select Block Arrows to choose from many types of two- and three-dimensional
arrows. Drag-and-drop the arrow in the document and use the open box and yellow diamond handles
to adjust the arrowheads. Each AutoShape can also be rotated by first clicking the Free Rotate
button on the drawing toolbar . Click and drag the green handles around the image to rotate it.
Flow Chart - Choose from the flow chart menu to add flow chart elements to the document and use
the line menu to draw connections between the elements.
Stars and Banners - Click the button to select stars, bursts, banners, and scrolls.
Call Outs - Select from the speech and thought bubbles, and line call outs. Enter the call out text in
the text box that is made.
More AutoShapes - Click this button to choose from a list of clip art categories.
Each of the submenus on the AutoShapes toolbar can become a separate toolbar. Just click and drag the gray
bar across the top of the submenus off of the toolbar and it will become a separate floating toolbar.

Example sub-tool bar in the auto shape bar

AutoCorrect

Word automatically corrects many commonly misspelled words and punctuation marks with the
AutoCorrect feature. To view the list of words that are automatically corrected, select Tools|
AutoCorrect. This may be a hidden feature so click the double arrows at the bottom of the Tools menu
listing if the AutoCorrect choice is not listed.
Many options including the accidental capitalization of the first two letters of a word and capitalization
of the first word of the sentence can be automatically corrected from this page. If there are words you
often misspell, enter the wrong and correct spellings in the Replace and With fields.
How can you check spelling error and grammar in Word documents?
Spelling and Grammar Check

Word will automatically check for spelling and grammar errors as you type unless you turn this feature
off. Spelling errors are noted in the document with a red underline. Grammar errors are indicated by a
green underline. To disable this feature, select Tools|Options from the menu bar and click the Spelling
and Grammar tab on the dialog box. Uncheck "Check spelling as you type" and "Check grammar
as you type", and click OK.
To use the spelling and grammar checker, follow these steps:
1. Select Tools|Spelling and Grammar from the menu bar.
2. The Spelling and Grammar dialog box will notify you of the first mistake in the document and
misspelled words will be highlighted in red.
3. If the word is spelled correctly, click the Ignore button or click the Ignore All button if the word
appears more than once in the document.
4. If the word is spelled incorrectly, choose one of the suggested spellings in the Suggestions box
and click the Change button or Change All button to correct all occurrences of the word in the
document. If the correct spelling is not suggested, enter the correct spelling in the Not In
Dictionary box and click the Change button.
5. If the word is spelled correctly and will appear in many documents you type (such as your
name), click the Add button to add the word to the dictionary so it will no longer appear as a
misspelled word.
As long as the Check Grammar box is checked in the Spelling and Grammar dialog box, Word will
check the grammar of the document in addition to the spelling. If you do not want the grammar checked,
remove the checkmark from this box. Otherwise, follow these steps for correcting grammar:
 1. If Word finds a grammar mistake, it will be shown in the box as the spelling errors. The mistake
is highlighted in green text.
2. Several suggestions may be given in the Suggestions box. Select the correction that best applies
and click Change.
3. If no correction is needed (Word is often wrong more than it is right), click the Ignore button.
Can you find the synonym for words in the Word dictionary?
Synonyms
Recent versions of MS Word have a new feature for finding synonyms. Simply right-click on the word
and select Synonyms from the shortcut menu. From the list of suggested words, highlight the word you
would like to use or click Thesaurus... for more options.
Thesaurus
To use the thesaurus, select Tools|Language|Thesaurus from the menu bar or select it from the
Synonyms shortcut menu as detailed above.
A list of meanings and synonyms are given on the windows. Double-click on the words in the Meanings
box or click the Look Up button to view similar words. Double-click words in the Replace with
Synonym box to view synonyms of those words. Highlight the word you would like to add and click the
Replace button.
Page Margins

The page margins of the document can be changed using the rulers on the page and the Page Setup
window. The ruler method is discussed first:
1. Move the mouse over the area where the white ruler changes to gray.

Page margins using the ruler

2. When the cursor becomes a double-ended arrow “”, click with the mouse and drag the margin
indicator to the desired location.
3. Release the mouse when the margin is set.
The margins can also be changed using the Page Setup dialog box:
1. Select File|Page Setup and choose the Margins tab in the dialog box.
2. Enter margin values in the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes. The Preview window will
reflect the changes.
3. If the document has Headers and/or Footers, the distance this text appears from the edge of the
page can be changed.
4. Click OK when finished.
Page Size and Orientation

Change the orientation page within the Page Setup dialog box.
1. Select File|Page Setup and choose the Paper Size tab.
2. Select the proper paper size from the drop-down menu.
3. Change the orientation from Portrait or Landscape by checking the corresponding radio button.
Headers and Footers

A header is text that is added to the top margin of every page such as a document title or page number
and a footer is text added to the bottom margin.  Follow these steps to add or edit headers and footers in
the document:
 1. Select View|Header and Footer from the menu bar. The Header and Footer toolbar will appear
and the top of the page will be highlighted as shown below.
2. Type the heading in the Header box. You may use many of the standard text formatting options
such as font face, size, bold, italics, etc.
3. Click the Insert AutoText button to view a list of quick options available.
4. Use the other options on the toolbar to add page numbers, the current date and time.
5. To edit the footer, click the Switch Between Header and Footer button on the toolbar.
6. When you are finished adding headers and footers, click the Close button on the toolbar.
How can you give page numbers for your document?
Page Numbers
Follow these instructions for another way to add page numbers to a document.
1. Select Insert|Page Numbers from the menu bar and the following dialog box will appear.
2. Select the position of the page numbers by choosing "Top of page" or "Bottom of page" from the
Position drop-down menu.
3. Select the alignment of the page numbers in the Alignment drop-down menu.
4. If you do not want the page number to show on the first page (if it is a title page, for example),
uncheck the Show number of first page box.
5. Click OK when finished.
Working with graphics and drawings Clip Art

To add a clip art image from the Microsoft library to a document, follow these steps:
Select Insert|Picture|Clip Art from the menu bar.
To find an image, click in the white box following Search for clips. Delete the words "Type one or
more words. . ." and enter keywords describing the image you want to use. or,
Click one of the category icons.
Click once on the image you want to add to the document;
Insert Clip to add the image to the document.
Preview Clip to view the image full-size before adding it to the document. Drag the bottom, right
corner of the preview window to resize the image and click the "x" close button to end the preview.
Add Clip to Favorites will add the selected image to your favorites directory that can be chosen from
the Insert ClipArt dialog box.
Find Similar Clips will retrieve images similar to the one you have chosen.
Continue selecting images to add to the document and click the Close button in the top, right corner
of the Insert ClipArt window to stop adding clip art to the document.
Add an Image from a File

Follow these steps to add a photo or graphic from an existing file:

Select Insert|Picture|From File on the menu bar.
Click the down arrow button on the right of the Look in window.
Highlight the file name from the list and click the Insert button.
Editing a Graphic

Activate the image you wish to edit by clicking on it once with the mouse. Nine handles will appear
around the graphic. Click and drag these handles to resize the image. The handles on the corners will
resize proportionally while the handles on the straight lines will stretch the image. More picture effects
can be changed using the Picture toolbar. The Picture toolbar should appear when you click on the
image. Otherwise, select View|Toolbars|Picture from the menu bar to activate it.
Picture toolbar
Insert Picture will display the image selection window and allows you to change the image.
Image Control allows making the image grayscale, black and white, or a watermark.
More/Less Contrast modifies the contrast between the colors of the image.
More/Less Brightness will darken or brighten the image.
Click Crop and drag the handles on the activated image to delete outer portions of the image.
Line Style will add a variety of borders to the graphic.
Text Wrapping will modify the way the document text wraps around the graphic.
Format Picture displays all the image properties in a separate window.
Reset Picture will delete all the modifications made to the image.

Auto Shapes

The AutoShapes toolbar will allow you to draw many different geometrical shapes, arrows, flow chart
symbols, stars, and banners on the document. Activate the AutoShapes toolbar by selecting Insert|
Picture|AutoShapes or View|Toolbars|AutoShapes from the menu bar, or clicking the AutoShapes button
on the Drawing toolbar. Click each button on the toolbar to view the options for drawing the shape.

Auto shapes toolbar

Lines - After clicking the Lines button on the AutoShapes toolbar, draw a straight line, arrow, or
double-ended arrow from the first row of options by clicking the respective button. Click in the
document where you would like the line to begin and click again where it should end. To draw a
curved line or freeform shape, select curved lines from the menu (first and second buttons of second
row), click in the document where the line should appear, and click the mouse every time a curve
should begin. End creating the graphic by clicking on the starting end or pressing the ESC key. To
scribble, click the last button in the second row, click the mouse in the document and hold down the
left button while you draw the design. Let go of the mouse button to stop drawing.
Basic Shapes - Click the Basic Shapes button on the AutoShapes toolbar to select from many two-
and three-dimensional shapes, icons, braces, and brackets. Use the drag-and-drop method to draw
the shape in the document. When the shape has been made, it can be resized using the open box
handles and other adjustments specific to each shape can be modified using the yellow diamond
handles.
Block Arrows - Select Block Arrows to choose from many types of two- and three-dimensional
arrows. Drag-and-drop the arrow in the document and use the open box and yellow diamond handles
to adjust the arrowheads. Each AutoShape can also be rotated by first clicking the Free Rotate
button on the drawing toolbar . Click and drag the green handles around the image to rotate it.
Flow Chart - Choose from the flow chart menu to add flow chart elements to the document and use
the line menu to draw connections between the elements.
Stars and Banners - Click the button to select stars, bursts, banners, and scrolls.
Call Outs - Select from the speech and thought bubbles, and line call outs. Enter the call out text in
the text box that is made.
More AutoShapes - Click this button to choose from a list of clip art categories.
Each of the submenus on the AutoShapes toolbar can become a separate toolbar. Just click and drag the gray
bar across the top of the submenus off of the toolbar and it will become a separate floating toolbar.

Example sub-tool bar in the auto shape bar

AutoCorrect

Word automatically corrects many commonly misspelled words and punctuation marks with the
AutoCorrect feature. To view the list of words that are automatically corrected, select Tools|
AutoCorrect. This may be a hidden feature so click the double arrows at the bottom of the Tools menu
listing if the AutoCorrect choice is not listed.
Many options including the accidental capitalization of the first two letters of a word and capitalization
of the first word of the sentence can be automatically corrected from this page. If there are words you
often misspell, enter the wrong and correct spellings in the Replace and With fields.
How can you check spelling error and grammar in Word documents?
Spelling and Grammar Check

Word will automatically check for spelling and grammar errors as you type unless you turn this feature
off. Spelling errors are noted in the document with a red underline. Grammar errors are indicated by a
green underline. To disable this feature, select Tools|Options from the menu bar and click the Spelling
and Grammar tab on the dialog box. Uncheck "Check spelling as you type" and "Check grammar
as you type", and click OK.
To use the spelling and grammar checker, follow these steps:
6. Select Tools|Spelling and Grammar from the menu bar.
7. The Spelling and Grammar dialog box will notify you of the first mistake in the document and
misspelled words will be highlighted in red.
8. If the word is spelled correctly, click the Ignore button or click the Ignore All button if the word
appears more than once in the document.
9. If the word is spelled incorrectly, choose one of the suggested spellings in the Suggestions box
and click the Change button or Change All button to correct all occurrences of the word in the
document. If the correct spelling is not suggested, enter the correct spelling in the Not In
Dictionary box and click the Change button.
10. If the word is spelled correctly and will appear in many documents you type (such as your
name), click the Add button to add the word to the dictionary so it will no longer appear as a
misspelled word.
As long as the Check Grammar box is checked in the Spelling and Grammar dialog box, Word will
check the grammar of the document in addition to the spelling. If you do not want the grammar checked,
remove the checkmark from this box. Otherwise, follow these steps for correcting grammar:
4. If Word finds a grammar mistake, it will be shown in the box as the spelling errors. The mistake
is highlighted in green text.
5. Several suggestions may be given in the Suggestions box. Select the correction that best applies
and click Change.
6. If no correction is needed (Word is often wrong more than it is right), click the Ignore button.
Can you find the synonym for words in the Word dictionary?
Synonyms
Recent versions of MS Word have a new feature for finding synonyms. Simply right-click on the word
and select Synonyms from the shortcut menu. From the list of suggested words, highlight the word you
would like to use or click Thesaurus... for more options.
Thesaurus
To use the thesaurus, select Tools|Language|Thesaurus from the menu bar or select it from the
Synonyms shortcut menu as detailed above.
A list of meanings and synonyms are given on the windows. Double-click on the words in the Meanings
box or click the Look Up button to view similar words. Double-click words in the Replace with
Synonym box to view synonyms of those words. Highlight the word you would like to add and click the
Replace button.

TABLES, MAIL MERGE AND PRINTING

Overview
Word processor also offers facilities for incorporating tables, create form letters and printing. Nowaday,
word processing packages such as MS Word made them simple tasks that can be effectively done by
anybody who is competent in using MS Word. This section focuses on teaching you how to work with
tables, mail merge, printing and related issues.
Objectives:
Upon the completion of this section, you will be able to:
 add tables in your word document;
 modify tables in your word document;
 identify components of mail merge process;
 create the main document for mail merge;
 generate letters for all records in your data source;
 print documents, labels, and envelops;
 select a printer among those connected to your computer;
 Cancel a printing job.

Working with tables

Tables are used to display data and there are several ways to build them in Word. Begin by placing the
cursor where you want the table to appear in the document and choose one of the following methods.
Insert a Table

There are two ways to add a table to the document using the Insert feature:
1. Click the Insert Table button on the standard toolbar. Drag the mouse along the grid,
highlighting the number of rows and columns for the table.
2. Or, select Table|Insert|Table from the menu bar. Select the number of rows and columns for the
table and click OK.
A table can also be drawn onto the document:
1. Draw the table by selecting Table|Draw Table from the menu bar. The cursor is now the image
of a pencil and the Tables and Borders toolbar has appeared.
2. Draw the cells of the table with the mouse. If you make a mistake, click the Eraser button and
drag the mouse over the area to be deleted.
3. To draw more cells, click on the Draw Table button .
Inserting Rows and Columns

Once the table is drawn, insert additional rows by placing the cursor in the row you want to be adjacent
to. Select Table|Insert|Rows Above or Rows Below. Or, select an entire row and right-click with the
mouse. Choose Insert Rows from the shortcut menu.

Much like inserting a row, add a new column by placing the cursor in a cell adjacent to where the new
 column will be added. Select Table|Insert|Columns to the Left or Columns to the Right. Or, select
the column, right-click with the mouse, and select Insert Columns.
Moving and Resizing a Table

A four-sided moving arrow and open box resizing handle will appear on the corners of the table if the
mouse is placed over the table. Click and drag the four-ended arrow to move the table and release the
mouse button when the table is positioned where you want it. Click and drag the open box handle to
resize the table. Change the column widths and row heights by clicking the cell dividers and dragging
them with the mouse.

Resizing handles
Tables and Borders Toolbar

The Tables and Borders toolbar allows you to add border styles, shading, text effects, alignment, and
more options to your table. Access the toolbar by clicking Table|Draw Table or View|Toolbars|Tables
and Borders.
You will need to highlight the cells of the table you want to format. Click and drag the mouse over the
cells, or use the following shortcuts:

Tables and border toolbar

Table Properties

Use the Table Properties dialog box to modify the alignment of the table with the body text and the text
within the table. Access the box by selecting Tables|Table Properties.
Size - Check the Preferred width box and enter a value if the table should be an exact width.
Alignment - Highlight the illustration that represents the alignment of the table in relation to the text
of the document.
Table 2.1.3 Methods of selection within a table
Selection Menu Method Mouse Method
Click the bottom, left corner of the cell when a
One cell Table|Select|Cell
black arrow appears
One row Table|Select|Row Click outside the table to the left of the row
Click outside the table above the column when
One column Table|Select|Column
a black arrow appears
Click outside the table to the left of the row and
Several rows (none)
drag the mouse down
Several columns (none) Click outside the table above the column
Entire table Table|Select|Table Triple-click to the left of the table

Text wrapping - Highlight "None" if the table should appear on a separate line from the text or
choose "Around" if the text should wrap around the table.
Borders and Shading - Select from a number of border styles, colors, and widths. Click the
Shading tab to change the background color and pattern.
Options - Click the Options button on the Table Properties window. To change the spacing
between the document text and the table borders under Default cell margins. Check the Allow
spacing between cells box and enter a value to add space between the table cells.

Mail merge or creating form letter

Mail merge is the process of merging or inserting or transferring personal information (usually
addresses) from one document into another document and combines them into a single document.
Commonly you can use mail merge for mass mailing.
To create for letters you merge a mail document with a data source. The main document contains the
text and other items that remain in each version of the form letter. The data source contains the
information that varies in each version of the merged document, such as the names and addresses of the
recipients of a form letter. You can use a new or existing document as a main document. You can also
open an existing data source. Mail Merge process consists of three parts (major Steps) as discussed
below:
Part I: Creating a main document
1. On the Tools menu click Mail Merge ...
2. Click on Create button and click Form Letters ... option.
3. Click on either Active Window or New Main Document command.
4. Click on edit button at the right side of the Create button and click on the form letter name.
Part II: Creating a Data Source
1. On the Tools menu click Mail Merge ...
2. Click Get Data button.
3. To create a new data source, click Create Data Source option.
4. Use the Remove Field Name button to remove unwanted field names in the Field names in
header row list box.
5. Use the Field Name text box to enter new fields.
6. When you finish, click Ok.
7. The Save As dialog will appear, and save the data source file.
8. From the confirmation dialog box displayed click on Edit Data Source to edit the data source or
click on Edit Main Document to edit the main document.
9. Enter the data in the data form dialog box, click Add New button to add new records.
10. When you finish, click Ok.
Part III: Merging the Data Source with the main document
After you complete the first and second part of this process:
1. Click where you want to insert the merge fields;
2. Click Insert Merge Field button on the Mail Merge toolbar, click the filed name you want.
Repeat 1 and 2 until you complete inserting filed names in their proper place in the main
document.
3. To merge the data source with the main document, click on Merge to New document button on
the Mail Merge toolbar. Finally, MS Word creates a merged document by the name "Form
Letters1" and save this file yourself.
After inserting the field names to the main document, you can use the Mail Merge toolbar to add,
modify or delete the data source, to find records and to navigate through the data source. You can also
edit the main document and merge the data source to printer.
Printing
Print Preview and Printing

Preview your document by clicking the Print Preview button on the standard toolbar or by selecting
File|Print Preview. When the document is ready to print, click the Print button from the Print Preview
screen or select File|Print.
How do you select and cancel printer?
If there are more printers installed in your computer or if you are connected to more than one printer,
you can choose which one to use for the current job at your hand by clicking on the down arrow in the
Name drop-down list box and make selection among the list.
To cancel a printing job or a job waiting to be printed, double-click the printer icon on the status bar. In
the printer window, click the job to be cancelled and then click cancel printing on the document menu.
Generate a Table of Contents
After you have marked all the headings for your TOC, follow these steps:
1. Place the cursor where you would like the TOC to appear in the document.
2. Select Insert|Reference|Index and Tables from the menu bar.
3. Customize the appearance of the TOC from the Table of Contents tab. You may choose a preset
design from the Formats drop-down menu. A preview of each design will be shown in the Print
Preview window.
4. Check the Show page numbers box if you would like page numbers to show on the TOC. Check
the Right align page numbers box if the page numbers should appear on the right side, then
select the Tab leader between the heading and the page number. Uncheck the box if the page
numbers should appear right next to the heading.
5. Click OK.

Ms word Self Test Exercise

1. create a document with 45 pages having different sections and add the following header and footer
Pages Header footer

1-5....................................................None.............................Roman page Nos. start at I

6-15..................................................Chapter 1......................Arabic page Nos. start at 1

16-25................................................Chapter 2......................Arabic page Nos. continue from previous

26-35................................................Chapter 3......................Arabic page Nos. continue from previous

36-45................................................Chapter 5......................Arabic page Nos. continue from previous

46-50................................................Appendix.......................None

2. create the following paragraph on page 5

The Genealogy of the Web

In the late 1950s, at communications waging of a that the nation's
the height of the Cold systems in the event worldwide war, but it existing
War, the Department of an atomic war. It was also obvious that communications
of Defense began to was obvious that the very nature of an systems would be
worry about what maintaining all-out nuclear knocked out.
would happen to the communications conflict would
nation's would be vital to the practically guarantee

In 1962, Paul Baran, a researcher at the government's RAND think tank, described a solution to the problem in a
paper titled "On Distributed Communications Networks." He proposed a nationwide system of computers
connected together using a decentralized network so that if one or more major nodes were destroyed, the rest
could dynamically adjust their connections to maintain communications.

If, for example, a computer in computer in Kansas City, then on to L.A. But if Kansas City was
Washington, D.C., needed to destroyed or knocked out by an A-bomb blast, the Washington
communicate with one in Los computer could reroute its communications through, say, Chicago
Angeles, it might normally pass instead, and the data would still arrive safely in L.A. (though too late to
the information first to a help the unfortunate citizens of Kansas City).
 3. Create the following structure on page 15

Computer

Software Hardware

System Application Input Unit Output Unit CPU Memory Storage

RAM

ROM

4. write Admas university College using word Art and make the shape circle on page 21
. 5. Open new document and create the following tabular data & save it by a file name address
on desktop

Name Department Course title date fee

Hana Debebe Accounting Principles of 04/12/07 Birr 75
Accounting

Mahlet Alemu Secretarial Computer 04/13/07 Birr 75

Science Application

Mamo Tolla IT System Analysis 05/14/07 Birr 75

Kedir hassen Accounting Principles of 05/12/07 Birr 75

Accounting

6. Write the following letter on new document & save it by letter on desktop

To: <<Name>>

59
Department :<< Department >>

Subject: Make up Examination

You know that you have missed the final examination of the course << course title>>. There will
be making up examination for this course on << Date >>at 4:00 AM. Therefore you should
submit your valid evidence to <<department name>> department & pay the service charge
<<fee>> before the exam date.

The Program Officer

7. Merge the letter (question 10) with the data source (question 11) & save the merged data by
memo under your name folder

6.2: Microsoft –Excel

Ms- Excel is one of the Spreadsheet applications which are used all over the world. A
computer spreadsheet is similar to a very large piece of paper, which is ruled into rows
and columns. The intersection of a row and a column is called a cell and each cell has its
own unique reference, similar to a map reference.

Starting Ms-Excel

60
  To Launch Excel:
 Click the Start button from the task bar
 Choose the Programs sub-section.
 Click on Microsoft offices, Microsoft Excel will appear listed
with its icon – click this to start Excel.

The Excel Screen Layout

When you launch Excel, you will be provided with a blank file ready for you to start
work. Files in Excel are called workbooks – this is where you enter, manipulate and store
your data. Because each workbook can contain many sheets (pages if you like), you can
organize various kinds of related information in a single file.
Each workbook consists of a default of 3 worksheets bound together. The worksheets are
divided up in a grid of 256 columns wide (labeled by letters) by 65536 rows long (labeled
by numbers).
Menu bar
The menu bar contains menus giving access to all the commands that can be carried out
in Excel. You can also gain access to shortcut menus that group together options that
would normally be in separate menus. See the section on Menus for more information.
Toolbars

Excel has many different toolbars that can be displayed on-screen but the default toolbars
are the Standard toolbar and the Formatting toolbar. The Standard toolbar contains
buttons for commonly carried out operations such as saving a file, copying information
and so on, whereas Formatting toolbar buttons are devoted to enhancing the appearance
of data on the worksheet. When you hover your mouse over any toolbar button, Excel
will display a description of what the button does.
Name box
The Name box sits under the Formatting toolbar on the left-hand side of the screen.
You can reference cells in Excel by allocating names to them rather than using cell
references. If you have named cells, the name box displays the name of the selected
cells. You can also move to named cells by clicking the drop down list arrow on the right
of the name box and selecting the required name from the resulting list.
Formula Bar
To the right of the Name box is the Formula bar. When you type data into a cell it
appears inside the cell and also on the Formula bar. Where the entry is a formula, Excel
displays the result of the formula in the cell, but the underlying calculation in the formula
bar.

61
Worksheets
You use worksheets to list and analyse data. You can enter and edit data on several
worksheets simultaneously and perform calculations based on data from multiple
worksheets. When you create a chart, you can place the chart on the worksheet with its
related data or on a separate chart sheet.
Only a small area of each worksheet can normally be viewed at any one time.
The names of the worksheets appear on tabs at the bottom of the workbook window. The
name of the active sheet is bold.
Status Bar
The Status bar, across the bottom of the screen, displays different information at different
times. To the left is an indicator, which will display Ready, Edit etc. depending on the
mode in which the user is currently working. If menus are being accessed, this area will
usually give details on the currently highlighted menu option. If you is in the middle of
a task - copying data for example - this area will often display messages and prompts
instructing you on what to do next.
To the right of the Status bar, keyboard status indicators reveal whether the Num Lock
etc. is switched on.

Use Toolbars
Excel displays two toolbars by default when you load it up – the Standard toolbar and the
Formatting toolbar. The first 13 buttons on the Standard toolbar are consistent
throughout the Microsoft Office suite. The buttons display “screentips” when the mouse
is hovered over them to tell you what the button does.
Show and hide toolbars
You can call up many more toolbars while you are working with Excel giving you access
to buttons that relate to specific tasks.

 To show a toolbar:
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over a displayed toolbar.
 From the resulting menu, click the toolbar you want to show.

 To hide a toolbar:
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over a displayed toolbar.
 The resulting menu will show you the currently displayed toolbars
with a tick symbol next to them. Click the toolbar you want to
hide.
Use Menus
Excel has a variety of ways that you can issue commands. One way is to use
menus. There are two methods for accessing menus and their options - the menu
bar and the shortcut menu.
Menu Bar
The menu bar displays all options available within Excel. You can access a menu by
clicking its name with the left mouse button.

62
  To select a menu bar menu:
Mouse
 Click on the menu title. A pull-down menu will appear listing all
options available. To expand the menu click on the arrows at the
bottom of the list.
 Click the required menu option.
The shortcut menus can only be accessed when the mouse is positioned over a cell on the
worksheet itself and you click the right mouse button. The options that appear on the
shortcut menus may differ depending on what you have selected.

 To select a shortcut menu option:

Mouse
 Click with the right mouse button on the required cell. A pull-
down menu will appear listing all options available.
 Click the required menu option.

Managing worksheets
Worksheets are electronic sheet of papers where you enter your data. Worksheets are
labelled as sheet1, sheet2, sheet3, etc. worksheets can renamed, inserted, moved, copied,
deleted etc. we call this operations worksheet management.

Moving
With such a large working area available, you need to be aware of some of the techniques
used for moving around the workbook. It is possible to move using either the keyboard
or the mouse.
Move with the mouse
The mouse is good if you want to move small distances.
Depending on the position of the mouse in relation to the active cell, Excel displays
different pointer shapes. The shape that must be displaying when moving to a cell or
selecting cells is

 To move to a cell:
Mouse
 Click the white plus on any cell that you want to move to. The
cell you clicked in becomes the active cell.
Scrolling
The vertical and horizontal scroll bars don’t move the active cell but they do allow you to
see areas of the worksheet that are not currently visible. Having scrolled to an area of the
worksheet, if you then need to move the active cell into that region, click the mouse.

 To use the scroll bars:

Mouse
 Click on the scroll arrows up/down or left/right.

63
 The size of a scroll box indicates the proportional amount of the used area of the sheet
that is visible in the window. The position of a scroll box indicates the relative
location of the visible area within the worksheet.
The table below lists some useful tips for scrolling:
Figure 8 – Methods for scrolling
To scroll Do this
One row up or down Click the arrows in the vertical scroll bar.
One column left or right Click the arrows in the horizontal scroll bar.
One window up or Click above or below the scroll box in the
down vertical scroll bar.
One window left or Click to the left or right of the scroll box in
right the horizontal scroll bar.

When dragging the scroll box a scroll tip will display, showing the row or column
you will move to when you release the mouse.

Moving between the Workbook sheets

Each new workbook contains worksheets, named sheets1 to sheet 3. The sheet name
appears on a tab at the bottom of the workbook window.

 To move between worksheets:

Mouse
 Click on the appropriate tab

Previous Sheet Last Sheet

First Sheet Next Sheet

If the sheet required is not in view, use the tab scrolling buttons to display the sheet.
 .

Multiple worksheets
When you create a new workbook, Excel gives you multiple pages within that workbook
called worksheets. The number of worksheets you get defaults to 16, but you can change
that (see the section on customisation for more information). The worksheets are useful
when you want to store information under common column headings but need to split it
up, (for example by month, week or by department).
When the same data needs to be entered on several worksheets, you can use Group mode
which forces data that you type on one worksheet appear on all selected sheets. When
Group mode is active, any formatting that you apply to the active worksheet also gets
applied to the selected sheets.

64
Moving between the Workbook sheets
Each new workbook contains worksheets, named sheets 1 to sheet 3. The sheet name
appears on a tab at the bottom of the workbook window.

 To move between worksheets:

Mouse
 Click on the appropriate tab

Previous Sheet Last Sheet

First Sheet Next Sheet

If the sheet required is not in view, use the tab scrolling buttons to display the sheet.
Worksheet names
Excel assigns the names “Sheet 1, Sheet 2” and so on to worksheets in a workbook but
you can overwrite them with more meaningful names to describe the data they contain.

 To rename a worksheet:
Mouse
 Double-click the sheet tab that you want to rename – the current
name will become highlighted.
 Type the name you want.
 Press [ENTER].
Worksheet names can be a maximum on 31 characters.
Move and copy worksheets
Having named your sheets, you may need to switch them about so they are arranged in a
different order.

 To move a sheet:
Mouse
 Click and drag the sheet tab left or right. You’ll see a page which
follows your mouse pointer as you drag and a black marker arrow
to show where the sheet will jump if you release the mouse.
 Release the mouse when the sheet is in the correct position.

65
  To copy a worksheet:
Mouse
 Hold down the [CTRL] key then click and drag the sheet tab.
 When the black arrow marker indicates the position that you want
the copy, release the mouse then the [CTRL] key.
Because no 2 worksheets can have the same name, when you copy a sheet as
described above, Excel will suffix the copy’s name with (2).

Insert and delete worksheets

You can add and remove worksheets to and from a workbook as required.

 To add a worksheet:
 Click the right mouse button over the sheet tab immediately after
where you want the new one.
 Choose Insert from the shortcut menu. The following dialog box
will appear:
 Double-click the Worksheet icon. Your new worksheet will
appear. Excel will name it initially with the next sequential number
available.

 To delete a worksheet:
 Click the right mouse button over the worksheet that you want to
delete.
 Choose Delete from the shortcut menu. The following dialog box
will appear:
 Click OK to confirm the deletion.
Protect worksheet data

 To protect a worksheet:
Mouse
 Ensure that the sheet you want to protect is the active sheet.
 Choose Tools from the menu bar, click Protection then Protect
Sheet. The following dialog box will appear:
 Type a password to prevent unauthorized users from removing
sheet protection. A password is case sensitive, can be up to 255
characters long, and can contain any combination of letters,
numbers, and symbols.
 Click OK to close the dialog and switch on sheet protection.
Unprotect sheets
If you do need access to the locked cells, you can switch worksheet protection off,
provided you know the correct password.

66
  To switch off sheet protection:
Mouse
 Select the protected sheet.
 Choose Tools from the menu bar, click Protection and then
Unprotect Sheet. You will be prompted for the password:
 Type the password and click OK. The sheet is now unprotected.
Excel only lets you protect and unprotect sheets one at a time, that is you can’t group
all the sheets you want to protect or unprotect and do it in one go.

working on Excel Data

Ms-Excel can handle different data types like text, numbers and date. This unit will
introduce you how to handle data in ms-Excel worksheets.
Data entry and Editing
Enter Text And numbers
Excel recognizes text and numeric entries and initially displays them with different
alignments – left for text and right for numbers. You can override these with other
formats if required.

 To enter information:
 Move to the cell where you want the entry and type a word (for
example NAME in cell A1). The text will appear in the Formula
bar as well as in the current cell. The cursor will be visible as a
flashing insertion point in the formula bar.
 Click on the green tick mark on the formula bar to confirm the
entry.
Until you confirm an entry, Excel remains in "Enter" mode, (see Status bar). Excel
will return to the "Ready" mode, and the text will appear in the cell.
When you press [ENTER] to confirm an entry, Excel may move the active cell down
to the cell below. You can disable this setting or choose to move the active cell in a
different direction using the Options dialog (Tools menu). See the Customisation
section for more information.
Cancel an entry
You may find that you have typed an entry into the wrong cell. Provided you haven’t
confirmed the entry by pressing [ENTER] or clicking the green tick from the formula bar,
you can abandon it.

 To abandon an entry:
Mouse
 Click the red cross from the Formula Bar.
When you’ve confirmed an entry, while the cell is still selected, the current cell reference
will be displayed in the Name box and the cell contents are displayed in the Formula bar.
Text information, as opposed to numeric information, will initially appear left aligned
within the cell. If you enter text which is longer than the column width, the display on
the worksheet will seem to overlap into the next cell to the right (if that cell is empty).

67
Edit an unconfirmed entry
Occasionally, you may make a typing error prior to confirming an entry. You can use the
arrow keys and the [BACKSPACE] and [DELETE] keys to change an entry before
confirming it.

 To edit the text before entering it:

 Use [][] keys to move the cursor within the entry.
 Press [BACKSPACE] to delete characters behind the cursor or
[DELETE] to delete characters in front of the cursor.
Enter Dates
It is possible to enter dates into Excel and have them accepted and displayed as such
provided you use a recognized format. Excel ’2000 will allow entry of dates from 1900
onward.
Recognized formats for dates
Use a forward slash (/) as the day/month/year separator:
01/01/98
Use a dash (hyphen) as the day-month-year separator:
1-1-98
If you omit the year from a date, Excel will assume the current year. You won’t see the
year in the cell but if you look at the cell contents on the Formula bar, you will see that
Excel has added it.
Editing
There are various ways in which you can change or remove data you have entered in cells
on the worksheet.
Typing replaces selection
This option is a feature that is standard throughout the Microsoft Office suite. It ensures
that if you type when an item is selected, your typing replaces the selected item. This is
extremely useful in a number of instances. When you want to change a short cell entry, it
might be quicker to make use of this option to overwrite the entry with the new one.

 To overwrite a cell entry:

 Move to the cell you want to change.
 Type in the new entry (the former one will disappear as soon as
you start typing).
 Press [ENTER] to confirm the changed entry.
Use the Mouse to edit
Perhaps one character has been omitted, or two characters have been transposed, and only
a slight adjustment needs to be made. If this is the case, you can add or change characters
using edit mode. You can edit directly in the cell or on the Formula bar.

 To edit in cell:
 Double-click the cell to change – this will access Edit mode (the
prompt on the Status bar will say “Edit”).
 Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the edit position within
the entry and the [DELETE] and [BACKSPACE] keys to remove
characters if necessary.

68
  Press [ENTER] to confirm the changes.

 To edit on the Formula bar:

 Move to the cell to change.
 Click in the Formula bar where the cell contents appear. This will
drop you straight into Edit Mode (see Status bar) and a cursor
appears in the Formula bar.
 Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the edit position within
the entry and the [DELETE] and [BACKSPACE] keys to remove
characters if necessary.
 Press [ENTER] to confirm the changes.

Select cells the mouse

When you select with the mouse, you need to make sure that the selection pointer is
displayed. This is the white plus that appears when the mouse is positioned over the
middle of a cell.
Mouse sélection techniques
To select Do this
A single cell Click the cell, or press the arrow keys to move
to the cell.
A range of cells Click the first cell of the range, and then drag to
the last cell.
All cells on a worksheet Click the Select All button.
Nonadjacent cells or cell ranges Select the first cell or range of cells, and then
hold down [CTRL] and select the other cells or
ranges.
A large range of cells Click the first cell in the range, and then hold
down [SHIFT] and click the last cell in the
range. You can scroll to make the last cell
visible.
An entire row Click the row number.
An entire column Click the column letter.
Adjacent rows or columns Drag across the row or column headings. Or
select the first row or column; then hold down
SHIFT and select the last row or column.
Nonadjacent rows or columns Select the first row or column, and then hold
down [CTRL] and select the other rows or
columns.
More or fewer cells than the active Hold down SHIFT and click the last cell you
selection want to include in the new selection
Deselect a block
You can quickly cancel a selection by moving somewhere else.

 To cancel a selection:
Mouse
 Click the white plus on any cell outside the selection.

69
Select multiple sheets
There are some circumstances where you need to select more than one worksheet. The
active sheet in a workbook can be determined by its white tab where the name appears in
bold.
Select adjacent sheets
When the worksheets that you want to select are next to each other, you can use the
[SHIFT] key to block select them.

 To select adjacent worksheets:

 Click the on the first worksheet’s tab that you want to include in
your selection.
 Hold down the [SHIFT] key and click on the last worksheet’s tab
that you want included in your selection. All the sheets between
the first and the last will be selected. The selected sheet tabs will
turn white and the word “[group]” will appear on the title bar.
Select non-adjacent sheets
When the sheets you want aren’t next to each other in the workbook, you can use the
[CTRL] key to select them.

 To select non-adjacent worksheets:

 Click the on the first worksheet’s tab that you want to include in
your selection.
 Hold down the [CTRL] key and click each other worksheet’s tab
that you want included in your selection. The selected sheet tabs
will turn white and the word “[group]” will appear on the title bar.
You can cancel sheet selection by clicking on a sheet tab that isn’t included in the
current selection. For more information on working with multiple worksheets, see the
relevant section later in this manual.
Clear cells
If you want to remove an entry completely from a cell, you need to clear the cell. There
are a variety of ways you can do this and the method you choose depends on what you
want to remove from the cell.
Clear contents
You can remove data from cells using shortcut menus or the keyboard. This command
would only remove cell data (numbers, text, dates, formulae). If you have formatted the
cells, clearing their contents would leave the formats intact so that new data you type in
the cleared cells would keep the old data’s formats.

 To clear contents:
 Select the cell or cells you want to clear.
 Right click on the cell/selection.
 Choose Clear contents from the shortcut menu.
Clear contents, formats and comments

70
If you need to be able to choose what gets removed when you clear a cell, you should use
the Clear command under the Edit menu.

 To clear contents, formats or comments:

 Move to the cell or select the cells whose entries you want to
clear.
 Click Edit from the menu bar and choose Clear.
 From the resulting sub-menu, select the item you want to clear
from the selected cell.
Novice users occasionally imagine that they can clear a cell simply by replacing its
contents with a space. This is a dangerous practice and is to be avoided. Although a
cell containing nothing but a space may appear to be empty, in fact Excel remembers
that a space has been entered there. Such renegade spaces will take up room both in
memory and on disk, and can cause real problems with more advanced spreadsheet
and database functions. Because it is difficult to tell if a cell contains a space, solving
these problems is not always easy. Avoid them by clearing cells properly.
The fill handle
The fill handle is a very useful tool in Excel. It allows you to copy and clear data but also
to fill in series of data (dates, weekdays etc.). Those aspects of the fill handle are dealt
with later in this manual. The fill handle appears in the bottom right hand corner of the
active cell or selection. When your mouse is over the fill handle, the white plus pointer
changes to a black plus.
You can use the fill handle to clear the data from a cell.

 To clear cell contents with the fill handle:

 Select the cells whose contents you want to clear.
 Position your mouse over the fill handle to display the black plus.
 Drag the fill handle back over the selected cells. Release the
mouse when all cells have been included.
Section2: formatting

Having produced a spreadsheet, it may be formatted to achieve a more professional and

more easily readable layout of data for both screen display and printout. There are
several different ways of formatting data in Excel to produce extremely impressive
effects, and many of the tools on the Formatting toolbar are used for the most popular
formatting tasks. This section looks at several different approaches to improving the
layout of a spreadsheet.

Formatting Toolbar

The Formatting toolbar groups together the buttons that create formats most frequently
used to enhance worksheet appearance. Not all the formats that you can apply in Excel
are contained on a Formatting toolbar button, some can only be accessed via the Format
menu which is discussed later in this section.

71
Font
By default, Excel uses Arial as its base font and all new worksheets will use this font for
data that you enter. However, you can choose different font faces for cells on the
worksheet using the Formatting toolbar.

 To change the font:

 Select the cells where you want to change the font.
 Click the drop-down list arrow to the right of the Font box on the
Formatting toolbar.
 The fonts are listed alphabetically. Use the vertical scroll bar on
the right of the list to move the list items up and down.
 Select the desired font by clicking on it. The font face for the
selected cells will change to reflect your choice.
Point Size
This controls the size of the printed characters.

 To change the point size :

 Select the cells with the data to change.
 Click on the drop-down list arrow to the right of the currently
displayed point size.
 Pick a new number from the list – the selected cell data will
change size accordingly.
Bold, Italic and Underline
Bold, italic and underline can be applied to the selection using buttons on the formatting
toolbar or keyboard shortcuts.

 Apply bold, italic or underline:

 Select the cells to change.
 Click on either the B, I or U buttons on the toolbar. The button
will “switch on” and the selected text will display the applied
format.

 Remove Bold, Italic and Underline:

 Select the cells with the format.
 Click the Bold, Italic or underline button to turn the format off.
Font Colour
This will change the colour of on-screen information. It will also print the information in
the chosen colour if you are connected to a colour printer.

 To change font colour:

 Select the cells whose font colour you want to change.
 Click the drop-down list arrow displayed on the right-hand side of
the button and choose the desired colour..

72
  To reset font colour:
 Select the cells you want to reset to the default colour.
 Click the drop-down list arrow displayed on the right-hand side of
the Font colour button.
 The Automatic option will reset text back to the default colour
(normally black).
Background Fill color
If you want to shade the background of cells, use the Fill color button.

 To change fill colour:

 Select the cells whose background colour you want to change.
 Click the drop-down list arrow displayed on the right-hand side of
the Fill colour button.
 The None option will remove any applied fill colours.

Borders
When you print a worksheet, Excel allows you to choose whether you want all the cell
gridlines to print or not. Often, you want to print some but not all of the lines – this is
when you need to apply borders. You can then tell Excel not to print the gridlines but
your borders will be printed.

 To apply borders:
 Select the area you want to border.
 Click the drop-down list arrow to the right of the Borders button
on the Formatting toolbar.
 From the palette, click on the required border option.
If the palette doesn’t have the bordering option that you want to apply, use
the Format cells dialog (discussed later in this section) to apply the
borders.

 To remove borders:
 Select the area with the borders you want to remove.
 Click the drop-down list arrow to the right of the Borders button
on the Formatting toolbar.
 From the palette, click on the first border option.
Alignment
You can select from three different cell alignment options in Excel by clicking the
relevant button (described below). The buttons determine how data lines up between the
left and right edges of the selected cell(s).

 To change alignment:
 Select the cell(s) whose alignment you want to change.
 Click on the button for the alignment you require (see below).

73
 Click this button to left-align cell data. Left alignment
ensures that the left edge of an entry is flush with the left
edge of the cell. Left alignment is the default alignment for
text entries in cells.
Click this button to centre cell data. This will make each
cell entry in the selection position itself in the middle of the
cell.
Click this button to right-align cell data. Right alignment
ensures that the right edge an entry is flush with the right
edge of the cell. Right alignment is the default for numeric
cell entries.
Number formats
Initially, numbers in Excel use a General format. You may find that the results of
formulae run to different numbers of decimal places, or you might want to display
numbers as monetary values with a currency symbol and two decimal places. There is no
need for you to enter the numbers in the way you want them displayed – it is far better to
use Excel’s number formatting buttons.
Increase and decrease decimal places
You can add and remove decimal places from numeric data using the Increase Decimal
and Decrease Decimal buttons. Where you decrease, Excel will round numbers up or
down to the nearest unit.

 To increase decimals:
 Select the cells with the numbers you want to change.
 Click the Increase Decimal button from the Formatting toolbar.
 Keep clicking the Increase Decimal button until your numbers
display the correct number of decimal places.

 To decrease decimals:
 Select the cells with the numbers you want to change.
 Click the Decrease Decimal button from the Formatting toolbar.
 Keep clicking the Decrease Decimal button until your numbers
display the correct number of decimal places.
Comma style
Comma style sets all the selected numbers to 2 decimal places and puts commas between
different thousand multiples.
e.g. 100000 would become 100,000.00 when comma style is applied to it.

 To apply comma style:

 Select the cells with the numeric data you want to format.
 Click the Comma Style button from the Formatting toolbar.
Currency
Applying this style will add a £ sign and two decimal places (pence) to the selected
numbers.

74
  To apply currency style:
 Select the cells with the numeric data you want to format.
 Click the Currency button from the Formatting toolbar.
The currency symbol that Excel adds depends on the Regional settings in the Control
Panel. You can choose from different currency symbols using the Format Cells
dialog discussed later in this section.
Percent Style
Where you have typed decimals on the worksheet, you may want to express those values
as percentages. You can do this with the Percent Style format.
e.g. 0.5 would become 50% when you apply Percent Style.

 To apply Percent Style:

 Select the cells with the numeric data you want to format.
 Click the Percent Style button from the Formatting toolbar.
The number formats (apart from Increase and Decrease Decimal) are mutually
exclusive. Applying Comma Style to cells that already have Currency formats would
lose the currency symbol. If you need to return to the default General style for
numbers, you can use the Format Cells dialog discussed later in this section.
If you ever see ###### in cells that normally display numbers, it is because the format
you have applied is too wide for the column. To show the numbers, either change to
a format that fits or widen the column (see later in this section for details on changing
column widths).
Advanced Formats
When you want to apply formats that Excel doesn’t give you buttons for on the
Formatting toolbar, you need to use the Format Cells dialog. This dialog contains all the
formatting options (including those accessible via the Formatting toolbar) that you can
use within the Excel application.

Format Cells dialog

The Format Cells dialog is divided into tabs, each tab dealing with a format category.

 To access the Format Cells dialog:

 Select the cells whose formats you want to change.
 Choose Format from the menu bar and click the Cells option.
Once the dialog is on-screen, you can move between the format categories by clicking on
the labelled tabs and change settings on each. Each tab has a Preview window to show
you what the effects of your changes will look like should you choose to apply them.
When all the formats have been set, click the OK button to close the dialog and apply the
new formats.
Font tab
Most of the formats you find on the Font tab of the Format cells dialog can be applied
directly from the Formatting Toolbar and need no further discussion. However, there are
some extra Effects that can be applied should you need to do so.

75
Alignment tab
The settings on this tab give you lots of options for alignments which aren’t available on
the Formatting toolbar.
Horizontal
Most of the formats for horizontal alignment are available on the Formatting toolbar,
however there are some extras:
Orientation
You can display and print data in Excel oriented any way you choose.

 To change orientation:
 Select the cells you want to format.
 Choose Format from the menu bar and click Cells to access the
Format cells dialog.
 Click the Alignment tab.
 In the Orientation section, to keep characters horizontal but
arrange them one underneath the other, click the picture that
corresponds.

 To apply patterns to cells:

 Select the cells you want to format.
 Choose Format from the menu bar and click Cells to access the
Format cells dialog.
 Click the Patterns tab.
 Click the drop-down list arrow on the right of the Patterns box to
display a palette of patterns and their colours.
 Choose the pattern that you want (i.e. lines, dots etc). If you want
to choose what colour the lines/dots etc. that make up your pattern
will be, access the palette once again and click a colour.
 The Sample pane will display what the chosen formats will look
like should you choose to apply them. If you want a background
fill colour (the solid colour behind the pattern), click a colour
from the Color palette.
 Choose OK to close the dialog and apply your formats.

Borders tab
You can change border line styles, colours and directions using the Borders tab.

 To apply custom borders:

 Select the cells you want to format.
 Choose Format from the menu bar and click Cells to access the
Format cells dialog.
 Click the Border tab.

76
  Choose the line style by clicking on the appropriate line from the
Style palette.
 Choose the line colour by clicking on the drop-down arrow to the
right of the Color box to access a colour palette. Click the colour
you want your border to be.
 In the Border section, set which edges of your selection need
bordering by clicking the button which shows the relevant edge.
Numbers tab
The Numbers tab gives you the ability to display data that Excel stores numerically in
lots of different ways. The Formatting toolbar gives you buttons for applying only very
few of the vast selection of number formats that Excel contains. The options that you see
on the tab vary depending on which category of format you select. Generally speaking,
Excel will display a sample based on the contents of the active cell and the default option
within the category you selected. You can then pick from a list of format codes until the
sample is displayed the way you want it.

 To apply number formats:

 Select the cells you want to format.
 Choose Format from the menu bar and click Cells to access the
Format cells dialog.
 Click the Number tab.
 Click the category of formatting your numeric data should use
from the Category list.
 Select the relevant options that appear until the Sample data looks
the way you want your numbers to look.
 Click OK to close the dialog and apply the format.
Formatting Columns and rows
Excel has some formats that apply themselves to whole columns and rows. Changing
widths and heights, hiding, inserting and deleting rows and columns are all operations
that you might want to carry out.
Column width
You can alter the width of a single column, or by selecting the columns whose width you
want to change, you can make all columns in the selection the same width. With a single
column, Excel changes the width of the column to the left of your mouse pointer.

 To change column width:

 Move the mouse over the intersection between the column letters
on the right-hand side of the column you want to change. The
mouse pointer will display the shape that you need for changing
column width.
 Click and drag to the right or left to widen or narrow the column –
a guide will draw itself down into the worksheet to preview where
the column edge will jump to, and Excel will display the actual
width of the column in points in a tip box that appears.

77
  Release the mouse when the desired width has been reached.

 To revert columns to standard width:

 Select the column you want to change to standard width by
clicking on the column letter, or if there are multiple columns,
drag across the letters with the selection pointer.
 Choose Format from the menu bar, click Column and then choose
Standard Width.
Row height
Excel automatically changes row height when you alter the font and point size of the cell
entries within it. However, you can alter the height of a single row manually, or by
selecting the rows whose height you want to change, you can make all rows in the
selection the same height. With a single row, Excel changes the height of the row above
your mouse pointer.

 To change row height:

 Move the mouse over the intersection between the row numbers
below the row you want to change. The mouse pointer will
display the shape that you need for changing row height.
 Click and drag up or down to increase or decrease row height – a
guide will draw itself across into the worksheet to preview where
the row edge will jump to, and Excel will display the actual height
of the row in points in a tip box that appears.
 Release the mouse when the desired height has been reached.
Hide columns and rows
You can choose not to display certain rows and columns on your screen. Hiding them
also prevents them from printing.

 To hide columns:
 Select the column you want to hide by clicking on the column
letter, or if you want to hide multiple columns, highlight them.
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over the selection to
display the shortcut menu.
 Choose Hide.

 To hide rows:
 Select the row you want to hide by clicking on the row number, or
if you want to hide multiple rows, highlight them.
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over the selection to
display the shortcut menu.
 Choose Hide.

78
  To unhide columns and rows:
 Select the columns or rows either side of the hidden ones by
dragging over the column letters or row numbers with the
selection pointer.
 Position the mouse over the row or column intersection between
the selected rows or columns
 Double-click.
Insert and delete cells
You can add new cells into a worksheet if you need to make space to add new entries in.
Excel also gives you tools for adding entire rows and columns. If you add cells, Excel
will ask you how the existing cells should be rearranged to accommodate the new ones.
Add cells

 To insert a cell:
 Select the cell below or to the right of where you want the new
one.
 Click the right mouse button to access the shortcut menu.
 Choose Insert. The following dialog box will appear:
 Choose Shift cells right to insert a new cell to the left of the
selected one, or Shift cells down to insert a new cell above the
selected one.

 To insert multiple cells:

Mouse
 Select the amount of cells corresponding to the number you want
to insert below or to the right of where you want the new ones.
 Click the right mouse button to access the shortcut menu.
 Choose Insert to access the dialog.
 Choose Shift cells right to insert new cells to the left of the
selected one, or Shift cells down to insert new cells above the
selected one.

 To insert entire rows:

 Select the row below where you want the new one by clicking its
row number, or if you are inserting multiple rows, highlight them.
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over the selection to
access the shortcut menu.
 Choose Insert. Excel adds the number of selected rows above the
first row in your selection.

79
  To insert entire columns:
 Select the column to the right of where you want the new one by
clicking its column letter, or if you are inserting multiple columns,
highlight them.
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over the selection to
access the shortcut menu.
 Choose Insert. Excel adds the number of selected columns to the
left of the first column in your selection.
Delete cells

 To delete cells:
 Select the cells you want to delete.
 Click the right mouse button to access the shortcut menu.

 Choose Delete.

 Choose Shift cells left to close the gap left by the deleted cells
with cell entries to the left.

 To delete entire rows or columns:

 Select the row or column you want to delete by clicking its row
number or column letter or, if you are deleting multiple columns
or rows, highlight them.
 Click the right mouse button anywhere over the selection to
access the shortcut menu.
 Choose Delete.

Format Painter
The Format Painter is a tool that you can use to copy all formats from one area of the
worksheet to another. This is particularly useful when you have spent time formatting
one group of cells and you decide that another group of cells should have the same
formats – rather than reapplying the formats again manually, one by one, you can paint
them on to the new cells with the Format Painter.

 To paint formats:
Mouse
 Select the cell that has the formatting you want to use.
 Click the Format Painter button from the Standard toolbar. Your
mouse pointer will change to display a paintbrush next to the
selection pointer (white plus).
 Select all the cells you want to apply the formats to by dragging
over them. As soon as you release the mouse, the formats will
appear.

80
 If you want to keep cell contents but remove all the formatting from those cells, use
Edit, Clear, Formats. This option is discussed in more detail in Section 3 of this
manual.

Format cells dialog

You can access the Format cells dialog using a shortcut menu. Click the right mouse
button and choose Format cells from the resulting menu.
Conditional formatting
You can make Excel format cells in certain ways according to whether their data meets a
condition. For example, in a table of numbers, you might want to display numbers over
100 in red, numbers below 50 in green and anything in-between in blue. You can use
conditional formats to achieve this.

 To apply conditional formatting:

 Select the cells whose formats you want to set conditionally.
 Choose Format from the menu bar and select Conditional
Formatting. The following dialog box will appear:
 The first drop-down list displays the option “Cell Value Is”. Your
condition can be based on a constant value or the result of a
formula. If you want to build the condition from a formula, drop
down the list and choose “Formula Is”.
 Click the drop-down list arrow next to the box marked “Between”
to choose a comparison operator against which to match your
data.
 Set the limiting value you are testing against. The number of
limiting values you can enter depends upon which comparison
operator you chose.
 Click the format button to specify how cells that meet your
condition should appear. Click OK when you have set them.
 Click the Add button to add another condition to be tested for.
 Repeat steps 3 to 7 above until all conditions and their formats
have been specified. Click OK to apply the formats.

Formulas and Functions

Ms-excel enable you to enter a formula manually, or select built-in functions for
numerical analysis. This unit consists of two sections. The first section will show you
how to enter and edit formula. The second section enables you to use the built-in
functions of Ms-Excel.
Section 1: Entering formula
In a spreadsheet application, at a very basic level, values often need to be added,
subtracted, multiplied and divided. To allow for the fact that individual values
might change, spreadsheet formulae generally refer not to actual values, but to the
cells where those values are being held.
Excel recognizes formulae because they are preceded by an equals sign (=).

81
When entering basic formulae, the mathematical operators defining the operation to be carried
out are as follows:
Addition +
Subtraction -
Multiplication *
Division /
Exponentiation ^

You will find all of these mathematical operators ranged across the top and down the
right hand side of the numeric keypad.
Typing Formulae
You enter formulae by typing them in the cell where you want the formula’s result to
appear. When you confirm entry of a formula, Excel will display the result on the
worksheet, but the underlying calculation appears on the Formula bar.

formula entry

 To enter a formula:
 Move to the cell where you want to enter the formula.
 Type an equals sign (=).
 Type a the formula (e.g. d2*e2).
 Press [ENTER] to confirm the entry.
Excel automatically recalculates formulae. If you change one of the cells referenced in
your formula, as soon as you press [ENTER] to confirm the changed value, your formula
result will update.
Entering Formulae by Pointing
It is possible to enter formulae without actually typing the equals sign (=) or the cell
references. Instead, you can make use of a pointing technique to indicate which cells are
to be included. As with typing formulae, it is important to start off in the cell where the
answer is to be displayed.
Pointing can be quicker and more efficient than typing cell references as it reduces the
chances of errors.

 To enter a formula by pointing:

 Position the cursor in the cell where you want the formula.
 Click the equals sign on the formula bar.
 Click the first cell whose reference should be included in your
formula. A moving dotted line, known in Excel as a "marquee",

82
 will appear around that cell and the cell reference will appear in
the formula bar immediately after the equals sign.
Filling Formulae
Having entered an initial formula in the first cell of a column or row, you often find that
you want to generate results for the other cells in that column or row. In the example
below, you would probably want your formula to work out totals for all the orders.

There are a variety of ways that you can get Excel to copy a formula so that it generates
results for other cells in a column or row.
The fill handle
The fill handle has already been described earlier in this manual. It can be used to clear
cells but has other uses as well, one of which is filling formulae.

The fill handle

 To use the fill handle to copy formulae:

 Move to the cell that has the formula that you want to fill.
 Position your mouse pointer over the fill handle. It will change to
a black plus.
 Drag the black plus down, up, left or right over the cells where
you want your copied formula to generate results. You will see
an outline around those cells.
 Release the mouse when the outline includes all the cells where
you want results.

Using Functions
Overview: Having mastered how to set up your own custom formulae, you will be able to
carry out any calculations you wish. However, some calculations are complicated or
involve referring to lots of cells making entry tedious and time consuming. When
formulae become unwieldy or complex, Excel comes to the rescue with its own built-in
formulae known as functions. Excel has a huge number of functions, not all of them are

83
relevant to everyone. The functions are categorized according to what they do. In this
section, we outline some of the functions that can be usefully used at a general level.
One of the most useful functions is the SUM function. This function allows you to create
totals for groups of cells. Because generating totals is done so frequently, Excel has
included a button on the standard toolbar that will put the SUM function in the selected
cell to obtain a total instantly.

 To create totals with AutoSum:

Mouse
 Select the cell immediately below a column of figures (or to the
right of a row of figures) to be totalled.
 Click the AutoSum button on the Standard toolbar. The Sum
function will automatically appear in the Formula bar and Excel
will make a guess at which cells you want to total (you’ll see a
marquee around the cells and their references will be the function
arguments).
 Press [ENTER] to accept the cells that Excel proposes.

Paste Function
The SUM function is the only function to have been allocated its own button! However,
Excel contains many functions that do lots of different things. To gain access to those
functions, use Paste Function.

 Enter a function with Paste Function:

Mouse
 Click in the cell where you want the result.
Click the Paste function button from the Standard
toolbar.
 Select the category the function you require falls into from the
Function category list or click the All category if you don’t
know the category for your function. The Function name list
will change to display functions for the selected category.
 Scroll down the list of function names to find the function you
require and click to select it.
 Click OK. The Paste function dialog will disappear, Excel
displays your worksheet with a dialog as shown above:
 Excel will place the function on the worksheet in the selected cell.
You can see the selected function being built on the formula bar.
 With some functions, Excel tries to guess which cells you want
included as the function arguments. Click OK to accept Excel’s
guess and confirm the function.

84
Function box
There are some functions that are accessed more than others and for that reason, Excel
gives you a slightly quicker method for entering them than the Paste function dialog. The
Function box, groups the most commonly used functions for quick and easy access.

 To enter a function using the Function box:

Mouse
 Click the equals sign (=) on the formula bar. Excel displays the
function box to the left of the Formula bar.
 Click the drop-down list arrow to the right of the function box to
display a list of function names.
 Select the function you require by clicking its name from the list.
 Excel will place the chosen function on the worksheet in the
selected cell. You can see the selected function being built on the
formula bar.
 With some functions, Excel tries to guess which cells you want
included as the function arguments. Click OK to accept Excel’s
guess and confirm the function.
 Click the Range selector button. This will collapse the dialog box
shown above.
 Drag across the cells to replace Excel’s preselected guess with
your own cell references. Click the button marked on the picture
below to return to the dialog.
 Click OK to confirm the entry.

Type functions

When you get more familiar with functions and start to remember how they are
constructed, you can type them rather than selecting them using the previously described
methods.

 To type a function:
 Move to the cell where you want the function.
 Type an equals sign (=) followed immediately by the function
name and an open bracket.
 Select the cells you want the function to act upon using the mouse
or arrow keys.
 Press [ENTER] to confirm the entry.
As long as your formula only contains one function, you don’t need to type the
closing bracket. Pressing [ENTER] makes Excel close the bracket automatically.
Cell references
In functions, you often need to refer to a range of cells. The way Excel displays cell
references in functions depends on whether the cells you want the function to act upon
are together in a block or in several non-adjacent cells or blocks.
The table below explains how you can use different operators to reference cells:

85
Operator Description Example
Reference Range operator, which produces B5:B15
operator: (colon) one reference to all the cells
between two references, including
the two references
, (comma) Union operator, which combines SUM(B5:B15,D5:D15)
multiple references into one
reference
(single space) Intersection operator, which SUM(B5:B15 A7:D7)
produces one reference to cells
common to two references - In this
example, cell B7 is common to
both ranges

86
Useful functions
Now that you know how functions can be entered, it is worth detailing some of the more
useful ones. The table below lists simple functions:
Figure 9 – List of basic functions
Function Name Description
=SUM() Totals the cells you enter as the function
arguments
=MIN() Returns the lowest value from the range
of cells you enter as the function
arguments
=MAX() Returns the highest value from the range
of cells you enter as the function
arguments
=AVERAGE() Returns an average of the cells you enter
as the function arguments
=COUNT() Returns a count of the number of cells
that contain numbers from the range of
cells you enter as the function arguments
(excludes blank cells from the count).
=COUNTA() Returns a count of the number of cells
that contain data (numbers or text) from
the range of cells you enter as the
function arguments (excludes blank cells
from the count).

Absolute and relative references

Relative References
When you fill formulae, you tell Excel to base the formulae it creates on the one you have
entered by starting from the cell that contains it.
In the example shown left, the formula being copied says
=D2*E2. However, once copied, if you click on any of
the copies, Excel will have updated the references to
keep the row numbers current (D3*E3, D4*E4 and so
on).
This is because Excel by default uses relative
referencing. When you enter a formula, you enter
specific cell references. Behind the scenes, Excel
“translates” those references into positions relative to the
result cell. So, in our example shown left, Excel would
take the formula:
=D2*E2 and translate it as follows:
=[two cells to the left]*[one cell to the left].
It therefore doesn’t matter what row you copy the
formula into, Excel will always use “[two cells to the left] multiplied by [one cell to the
left]” to generate the result.

87
Most of the time, this is what you would want, but there are occasions where you need to
stop Excel updating cell references when you copy formulae.

Absolute References

The example below shows a formula being created to work out the amount of discount
each order would receive. The order totals are in column F and the discount rate is in
B13. The initial formula has therefore been set up as:
=F2*B13

The formula will generate a result for the first order. However, when copied, you will get

zeros against the discount amounts for the other orders. This is due to the relative
referencing that Excel applies to all formulae by default.
Having copied the above formula, if you clicked on any formula in the Discount amount
column below the first one, you would see that Excel has updated the references
(=F3*B14, F4*B15). This is where the problem lies – you want Excel to change the first
reference as your formula needs to refer to the different order totals, but the discount rate
should remain constant. You need to make that reference absolute.

 To make a reference absolute:

Keyboard
 Move to the cell where you have typed the formula and press [F2]
to access Edit mode.
 Move the cursor with the arrow keys so that it is next to the
reference to want to fix.
 Press [F4]. Dollar signs will appear against the column letter and
the row number.
 Press [ENTER] to confirm the change.
In our example, amending the formula to read:
=F2*$B$13

88
would prevent Excel from changing the B13 reference when the formula is copied.

nothing absolute A1.

Charting

One of the most impressive aspects of Excel is its charting ability. There are endless
variations available, allowing you to produce a chart, edit and format it, include notes,
arrows, titles and various other extras as desired. In this unit you will look at many of
the issues involved in producing and formatting Excel charts.
Charts are based on data contained in Excel Worksheets. It is necessary to understand
how Excel picks up the data to be used in a chart because the way in which the data is
laid out will influence how the chart is presented.
Creating and editing a chart
Terminology
As a starting point, there are some terms used in charting which should be understood by you.
The terms defined below relate to the example car sales worksheet and column chart which
appear beneath the table:
Data Point An individual figure on the spreadsheet which is reflected in the
chart e.g. Fred's Orion sales figure
Data Series A collection of related data points, e.g. all of Fred's figures,
which will appear on a chart as markers (bars, for example) of
the same colour
Legend The "key" to the chart, identifying which patterns/colours relate
to which data series
Marker A bar, column, or slice of pie for example, representing a data
point
Category The category axis appears across the bottom of a graph (pie
charts excepted) and the categories are listed here. Points within
the different data series are grouped by category
Embedded Charts
An embedded chart appears on the worksheet where it was created. It is an embedded
object, which does not normally appear in its own window, and has no separate existence
apart from the worksheet. The chart is saved only when the worksheet file itself is saved,
and will be printed with the worksheet in which it is embedded. The Chart Wizard will
ask you whether you want an embedded or separate chart when you first create one.

89
Separate Chart Pages
A chart sheet, although linked to the worksheet whose figures it represents, exists as a
separate page in a workbook.
ChartWizard
Excel has a 4-step process for creating a chart, called the ChartWizard. Each step
explains what you are supposed to do at each stage. The steps are as follows:
 Choose the type of chart
 Check that you have selected the correct data
 Choose the Chart Options required, i.e. labels, title or legend
 Choose whether you want the chart on a new sheet or as an object in a sheet

 To create a chart using the wizard:

Mouse
Before proceeding with the above steps you should select the data you
want to chart. When selecting this data, you must include at least
one series of numbers. You may also wish to include text headings
above and/or alongside your figures as it may be helpful to see
these on the chart. The following illustration depicts a typical
selection for charting.
Click on the ChartWizard button on the Standard toolbar – the
ChartWizard dialog will open and guide you through the four steps
of the ChartWizard.
Step 1 – choose the type of chart required. Use the Press and hold to view
sample button to see what the chart will look like. Click Next to
move to Step 2.
Step 2 – specify the data to be plotted on the chart – these will be the cells
you selected before launching the Chart Wizard. If you have
changed your mind and no need to include extra cells, you can
select them now by clicking in the Data Range text box. Click
Next to move to the next step.
Step 3 – change the way the data in the chart looks. This is where you can
turn on and off some of the standard options for the chart type you
selected.

Chart Element Description

Titles This is the area where you can specify the

titles to have on the chart (i.e. X-axis
“1998”, Z-axis “GBP”
Axes Here you specify whether you want a Y/Z
axis and whether you are using timescales
to plot your data
Gridlines The gridline tab allows you to switch on
and off horizontal and vertical gridlines
Legend Use this tab to switch the legend on and
off or reposition it

90
 Data Labels The Data Labels tab allows you to
display the amount each point represents
or display the label (i.e. in the example
above, each cylinder would have Qtr1,
Qtr2 displayed as appropriate at the top
of each data marker)
Data Table The Data Table tab will display a grid
underneath the chart that will show the
information that is being plotted.
Make your choices and click Next.
The final step allows you to add the chart either as a new chart sheet or as
an embedded object that will print alongside the data it represents.
Make your choice and click Finish.
Moving and resizing embedded charts
Once the chart object has been created and stored as an embedded object, you can move
and resize it.

 To move an embedded chart:

Mouse
Click just inside the chart frame border and hold the mouse button down
as you drag. Release the mouse when the chart is in the desired
location.

 To resize an embedded chart:

Mouse
Click just inside the Chart frame border.
Position the mouse over one of the handles provided at the object’s
corners.
Drag up, down, left or right.
Hold down the [ALT] key if you wish the chart to resize by snapping to the cell
gridlines
Creating Separate Chart Pages
The wizard will offer you the option of creating an embedded or a separate page chart,
however, there is a very quick way of producing a separate page chart using Excel’s
default chart settings.

 To create a separate chart file:

Keyboard
Select the data to be charted, including row and column headings
Tap the [F11] function key.
This technique will result in a chart window appearing on screen, reflecting the
worksheet data which was selected. The default graph settings are for a 2-dimensional
column chart.

91
Data Layout
Depending on the "shape" of the selected data, Excel will assign categories and data
series to either the rows or columns of information. Usually it will be assumed that there
are more categories than data series, therefore, if there are more rows than columns of
selected information, the data series will be based on columns, with the legend labels
being picked up from the row across the top of the selected area and the category labels
being picked up from the leftmost column:

3500
3000
2500
S a le s
2000
Co s ts
1500
P ro fits
1000
500
0
Jan Fe b Ma r Ap r Ma y J un

If there are more columns than rows in the selected area, the data series will be based on
rows, with the legend labels being picked up from the leftmost column and the category
labels taken from the top row of the selected area:

92
If the number of rows and columns is the same, Excel will opt for data series in rows. It

6000

5000 Jan

4000 Feb
Mar
3000
Apr
2000 May
1000 Jun

0
Sales variable Profits Fixed Rental Salaries Plant and
costs overheads machinery

is possible to override the choice made by Excel in how the data series and categories are
decided. Details of this procedure will be found under the section on manipulating data.
Shortcut Menus
You may be familiar with the Shortcut menus associated with the selected cell(s) on the
Excel worksheet. When working on a chart - either embedded on a worksheet or in its
own window, clicking on the chart with the secondary mouse button will call up a
Charting Shortcut menu.

The Shortcut menu will contain a selection of choices from some of the Standard Menu
bar options mostly relating to the chart as an embedded object - almost like a graphic on
the worksheet.

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Chart Toolbar

There is a Chart toolbar in Excel which includes tools for many of the most commonly
accessed charting options. The toolbar will usually appear on screen automatically when
a chart (either embedded or separate) is active. When dealing with an embedded chart,
you may find that the Chart toolbar vanishes if an area on the worksheet is selected, then
reappears when the chart is selected.
If you deliberately hide the Chart toolbar while the chart is selected, it will no longer
appear automatically on selecting the chart.
Chart Types
There are several different types of chart available within Excel. The type to choose will
vary depending on the data involved and what information the chart is intended to convey
or highlight. Practice will improve your instinct on which type of chart to use in each
instance. Initially it may be useful to try different types until the result is reasonably
close to your requirements, and then add custom formats and elements as desired. Some
chart types are very specialised and may only be of use to particular business sectors.
Available types
Click on the Chart button from the chart toolbar to see the chart types available.
Selecting any of the types listed will apply a given chart type to the active
chart. The most useful types available and some of their applications have
been summarised below:
Area
Area charts can be 2 or 3-dimensional. They are used to compare the
change in volume of a data series over time, emphasising the amount of
change rather than the rate of change. Area charts show clearly how
individual data series contribute to make up the whole volume of
information represented in the graph.
Bar
Bar charts can be 2 or 3-Dimensional. They are used to show individual
figures at a specific time or to compare different items. Categories are listed vertically,
so that bars appear on the horizontal, thus there is less emphasis on time flow. Bars
extending to the right represent positive values while those extending left represent
negative values.
Column
Column charts can be 2 or 3-Dimensional. They are frequently used to show variation of
different items over a period of time. Categories (often days or months for example,
representing a progression of time) are listed horizontally and columns are displayed side
by side, making for easy comparisons.
Two variations on the theme of Column charts are represented by further tools on the
Chart toolbar. The Stacked Column chart can be used to show variations over a period of
time, but also shows how each data series contributes to the whole. A further variation
on the 3-D column chart produces 3-D columns in a 3-D plot area, receding away from
the viewer.

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Line
Line charts can be 2 or 3-Dimensional. Line charts are used to compare trends over time.
There are similarities with Area charts, but line charts tend to emphasise the rate of
change rather than volume of change over time. 3-D lines appear as "ribbons" which can
be easier to see on the chart.
Pie
Pie charts can be 2 or 3-Dimensional. They are used to compare the size of the parts with
the whole. Only one data series can be plotted, making up 100%. Pie charts within their
own window can be made to "explode" by dragging one or more pieces of pie away from
the centre.
Radar
Each category in a radar chart has its own axis radiating from the centre point. Data
points are plotted along each spoke, and data points belonging to the same series are
connected by lines.
XY Scatter Charts
XY charts are used to compare two different numeric data series, and can be useful in
determining whether one set of figures might be dependent on the other. They are also
useful if the data on the X axis represents uneven intervals of time or increments of
measurement.
Combination
A combination chart allows you to overlay one 2-Dimensional chart type on top of
another. This can be useful for comparing different types of data, or for charting data
requiring two different axis scales. Once the combination chart has been set up, the
actual type of the main or overlay chart can be changed by you.
3-D Surface
3-D Surface charts present information in an almost topographical layout. They can be
used to pinpoint the high and low points resulting from two changing variables. It can be
helpful to think of a 3-D surface chart as a 3-D Column chart which has had a rubber
sheet stretched over the tops of the columns.

 To change the chart type:

1. Select the created chart.
2. Click the chart type button from the Chart toolbar.
3. Click on the chart that you want to use to plot your data. The selected type will
be applied to your chart.
Default Chart type
The default graph setting in Excel is set to a simple 2-dimensional column chart, however
you can change the default to any of the types offered within the chart type dialog.

 To set the default chart type:

1. Choose Chart from the menu bar, then Chart type.
2. Select the chart type from the list and click on the specific format that you want
the chart to have from the gallery of pictures on the right.
3. Click the Set as default chart button.
New charts created from now on will use the default format as defined by you.
Section 2: chart Formatting

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There are several different ways of formatting the various elements in a chart. Some
formats, such as adding a legend can be applied to a chart using the Chart toolbar.
Calling up the Shortcut menu on a Chart will also allow you to access the dialog boxes
which can be used to change formatting on the entire chart.
Format chart elements
Your chart is made up of many different elements each of which can be formatted. You
must select the particular element that you want to format prior to changing it.

 To select a chart element:

Mouse
1. Select your chart by clicking on it.
2. Click the drop-down list arrow to the right of the chart element list box on the
charting toolbar. A list of all the chart elements will appear.
3. Click on the element you wish to select.
Format Chart Area
You may choose to add a Border to the chart, or add patterns and shading to its
background.

 To format the chart area:

Mouse
1. Select the chart area.
2. Click the Format selected item button from the Chart toolbar. The
following dialog box will appear:
3. Set the Border option to add a border around the outside of the chart
area.
4. Use the Area option to specify background colours.
5. Click the Font tab to set font formatting options for the whole chart.
6. Click the Options tab for settings determining how the chart will
move and print.
7. Click on OK when the desired settings have been selected.

Font

From here, you can choose the desired Font for the legend (or other selected text), the
Font Style and the Size.

Special effects such as Strikeout or Underline may be applied to the selected text by
clicking the appropriate Check boxes []. The Colour to be applied to the selected text
may be chosen from a drop down list, and the Sample area will change to reflect the
chosen settings. A further refinement allows you to dictate how the Background behind
the text will appear.

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Formatting the Legend
The Legend can be selected and formatting like the other chart elements The legend can
be positioned manually simply by pointing and dragging it to a new position on the chart,
but there are some preset positions which can be selected from this dialog box.

 To format the legend:

1. Select the Legend.
2. Click the Format selected item button from the Chart toolbar.

3. When all the options have been dealt with satisfactorily, click on OK.

All your selections will now be applied to the legend. Note that the legend cannot
actually be resized. Changing the font size will cause the size of the overall legend to
adjust, but it cannot be resized by dragging on the selection handles. No chart
element which shows white selection handles (rather than the usual black) can be
resized by dragging.
Dragging the legend to a new position on the chart will sometimes affect the shape of
the legend and the size of the chart. The legend may be placed overlapping the chart,
but if it is dragged to the edge of the chart area, thin black lines will appear,
indicating that the chart will be moved aside to make room for the new legend
position.
Note that the text appearing in the Legend box is picked up from the worksheet data.
Edit the text on the worksheet in order to change the legend text (the legend text can
also be altered manually - see later section on Manipulating Chart Data). The legend
may be deleted by selecting it and pressing the Delete key on the keyboard.

Unattached Text
Floating text may be typed directly onto the Chart, then dragged to the desired position.

 To add floating text to a chart:

1. With your chart selected, type the text you want to see displayed on it
and press [ENTER].
2. Move the text to the desired location by clicking and dragging it.
Basic Chart Formats
In addition to double clicking in order to edit specific chart elements, you may use the
Chart Options item from the Chart Menu bar to access a variety of formatting options.

 To add chart elements:

Mouse
1. With the chart selected, choose Chart from the menu bar, then Chart
Options.
Use the Titles tab to specify which titles you want attached to the chart
itself and the various axes.

Use the Axes tab to add or remove axes, or to change the format of the
category axis if you want a timescale.

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 Use the Gridlines tab to add the horizontal and/or vertical lines to your
chart. These can be useful in helping you to distinguish the exact
values of the data markers or separate the categories.

Use the Legend tab to switch the Legend on and off and change its
position.

Use the Data Labels tab to write the values or the labels on the data
markers.

Use the Data Table tab to add the plot data so that it is visible on the chart
itself.
When all options have been set, click OK.

Formatting Axes
The axes can be formatted to appear in different ways, or the scales of the axes can be
changed.

 To format the Category (X) Axis:

Mouse
2. Use the drop-down list of elements on the Chart Toolbar to select
“category axis”.
Click the Format selected chart element button from the Chart toolbar.
The following dialog box appears:
From the Patterns tab, you can affect the line displayed on the selected
axis. Automatic will apply the default thin black line. Custom will
allow you to define the Style, Colour and Weight of the line. The
option for None will suppress the axis from showing.
Under Tick Mark Type, you may click on the appropriate option
button to specify that tick marks on the axis will appear on the
inside or outside of the axis line, cross the axis line, or not appear
at all. Minor tick marks can also be included (click on the Scale...
button to set the intervals for major and minor tick marks).
The Tick Labels section allows you to dictate where the Labels
associated with the selected axis will display. This can be at the
High Values end of the axis, the low values end of the axis, next to
the axis, or completely suppressed.
Use the Scale tab to specify at where the value axis will appear, which
categories are labelled, and how many categories will appear
between each pair of tick marks.

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 A series of check boxes [] allows you to dictate whether or not
the Value Axis crosses between categories. The default setting is
to have this box checked, which produces a Value Axis at the edge
of a given category. Unchecking this box will result in a Value
Axis which cuts down the middle of a category. This will also
affect the location of tick marks on the axis. Categories may be
displayed in reverse order if desired, and the Value Axis may be
required to cross at the last plotted category on the chart.
Use the Font tab to specify font formatting for the axis labels.
Use the Number tab to specify number formatting for the axis labels.
Use the Alignment tab to specify the orientation of the category labels.
When all options have been set, click OK to apply them to your chart.

 To format the Value (Y) axis:

Mouse
1. Follow steps described above for the category axis.
The Scale tab will have different options relating to the values on the axis.
From the Scale tab, you may specify the Minimum and Maximum
values to appear on the axis. The intervals to be used as Major and
Minor units on the axis may also be set. You may dictate the point
at which the value and category axes cross, whether or not the axes
are plotted on a Logarithmic Scale, or whether to have the values
plotted in Reverse order.

Microsoft Excel Self Test Exercise

Ms Excel Exercise 1

1. Open a new workbook and enter the following data on Sheet 1 and format it as it looks
like as it looks like

Students Result
Total

Average

Rank

Name of Maths English Physics Chemistry

Sutdent

Abebe 65 50 45 66
Daniel 75 65 78 78
Freweyine 70 62 84 68
Geremew 55 74 69 64
Gudeta 80 76 74 84
Muna 86 89 93 94
Maximum
Minimum

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 2. Calculate the total, average, maximum, rank and minimum.

3. Insert two rows between Gudeta and Muna and add the following data.

Sara 92 82 73 80

Solomon 68 77 95 55

4. Calculate the total and average of the new students and update the rank,
maximum, and minimum values.

5. On a new column after the Rank column, type Grade and calculate the grade of
students as:

If Average>90, Grade=”A”

If Average>80, Grade=”B”

If Average>60, Grade=”C”

If Average>50, Grade=”D”

Otherwise, Grade= “F”

6. Calculate the Maximum and Minimum for the new field and update the values of
total, Average and rank.

7. Make the average column to show “%” sign.

Ms Excel Exercise 2
1. Create a new workbook and type the following on sheet1.
Employee Gross Pension Income Net Salary
Name Salary Tax
Ayele Mamo 750
Birknesh Hailu 980
Debebe Yigezu 650
Hagos Hadego 1150
Konjit Yimenu 830
Mulatu Kassa 1400
Tsegaye Maru 1640
Workitu 500
Amanuel
Zelalem Mulu 1250
2. Calculate Pension as 4 %of Gross Salary.

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3. Calculate the income tax as follows:
If Gross Salary <=150 then Income Tax =0%
If Gross Salary >150 and <=650 then Income Tax = 10% of Gross Salary – 15
If Gross Salary > 650 and <=14000 then Income Tax = 15% of Gross Salary –
47.5
If Gross Salary> 1400 and <=2350 then Income Tax= 20% of Gross Salary –
117.5
If Gross Salary>2350 and <=3550 then Income Tax = 25% of Gross Salary –
235
If Gross Salary >3550 and <=5000then Income Tax = 30% of Gross Salary –
412.5
If Grsoss Salary >50000 then Income Tax =35% of Gross salary -662.5
4. Calculate Net Salary as Net Salary = Gross Salary – Gross Salary – (Income Tax
+ Pension)
5. Sort the Gross Salary in ascending order.
6. Save the workbook by a filename Payroll under the folder you want.
7. Create the following income projection report on the same workbook on sheet2.
8. Complete the above income projection report based on the following information.
 Sales are expected to grow by 10% each year.
 Cost of goods sold is 40% of sales.
 Salaries are expected to grow by 5% each year.
 Commissions are calculated to be 8% of sales.
 Other Expenses are expected to be 15% of sales.
Income Projection Report for the next 5 Years

Year 1 Ye ar 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Sales
Cost of goods sold
Gross Profit
Salaries
Commission
Other Expenses
Net Profit

9. Calculate the Gross Profit as: Sales – Cost of goods.

10. Insert a new row between Expenses and Net profit and calculate Total Expenses
as:
Salaries + Commission + other Expenses
11. Calculate the Net profit as: Gross Profit – Total Expenses.

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 12. Format all the cells with numeric values to birr currency with 2 decimal places
and comma to separate thousands.
13. Save the workbook by a filename Income Forecast under the folder you want.

6.2 Database Management

2.2.3.1. Lesson 1: Assessing database management basics

Microsoft Access 2000

Unit 1: introduction to database

Overview
Data is a basic resource of every organization. In order to access the right data at the
right time data needs to be kept in a systematic and organized format. A collection of
related data kept in an organized format id called a database. In this unit you will be
introduced to databases.
6.4: Basics Of Databases

6.1. What is a DATABASE?

A database is a collection of related information organized for easy retrieval. Databases are
used all the time, but the word database is usually associated with computers. However,
many physical systems for organization such as card files, encyclopaedias, and dictionaries
qualify as databases.
162. Computer Vs Manual Database Systems

The most common example of a database (manual) is the telephone book. The telephone
book contains names, addresses and telephone numbers for thousands of people. It is
designed to easily access any phone number or address.

Suppose you find a phone number on a sheet of paper and you cannot determine to whom it
belongs. Clearly, with the telephone book it would be difficult to look up the person with
that phone number, because the book is organized by name. However, with a computerized
database, any particular piece of data can be used for search criteria. Reorganizing,
manipulating, and finding information is much easier with computers than with manual
systems.
6.3: Flat-Files Vs Relational database systems
Computerized database management systems are of two types: Flat-File and
Relational. How the database allows you to organize and retrieve data is just one way to
differentiate databases. To make our discussion easier, let's make another example of
database systems. This is a personnel office's filing cabinet. The database itself like the
filing cabinet, and the inside filing cabinet are the employee files (the database files), which
store different kinds of information. Each employee's file is called a record and each item of
information in the record-name, address, etc. is called a field.

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 Suppose we want to see a list employees whose name starts with the letter A and
who are hired before Jan 1989. To do this what a Flat-file database system does is : first it
lists all employees whose name starts with the letter A, then from that list it searches for
employees hired before Jan 1989. This is time consuming, however, it is faster than a
manual database system. Even though Flat-File database systems are PC based, they are
not that much powerful. They luck the efficiency of doing complicated database tasks.

Relational database systems on the other hand, are more powerful and do whatever
complicated the database task is. This includes linking multiple database files, performing
complex data filtering operations and so on. Thus, Relational databases enable you to keep
different information in different files and allow you to search for information in two or
more files. For example, Cybesys Technology could have a database for trainees
registration and another database for the trainees result. To generate a report the different
databases can be linked and used for the report. This is possible only if we have a
Relational database system.
dBASE, Paradox, Fox Pro, Microsoft Access are some examples of Relational database
management system.

6.4 Microsoft Access Database

What is Microsoft Access?
Microsoft Access is a relational database management system. It allows the collection,
organization, relational analysis, and presentation of information with the use of a personal
computer.

What is a Microsoft Access Database?

A database is a collection of data that's related to a particular topic or purpose. Employee

records in a file cabinet, a stamp collection in an album, a collection of sales leads in a
notebook - each of these collections of data is a database.

A database management system (DBMS) is a system that stores and retrieves information in
a database: It's the file cabinet, the album, or the notebook. A computerized DBMS is a
program you can use to store and retrieve data on your computer. Microsoft Access is a
relational database management system (RDBMS), which stores and retrieves information
according to relationships you define. Using Microsoft Access, you can organize your data
according to subject so that the data is easy to track and verify, and you can store
information about how different subjects are related so that it's easy to bring related data
together.

To see the power behind this approach, consider a relational database that's not stored in a
computer - one in which the relationships among the data are stored in your head. For
example, you might keep information about products and suppliers in several places in your
office. You might have a mailing list in a word processor file, a list of invoices in a
spreadsheet file, information about products in a file cabinet, and supplier phone numbers in
a card file next to the telephone.

103
Together, these containers of data form a relational database. Each container serves a
particular purpose, and you can combine information from two or more of them to meet
your special needs. The key element that makes the system work is your knowledge of how
the information in the containers is related.

Suppose that you decide to use a computer to manage your data. With a nonrelational
DBMS program, you might create one large table in your database that holds all of your
information - telephone numbers, product information, invoices, everything.

With this database, you'd end up storing a lot of duplicate data. Each time you add a new
product, for example, you might want to include the supplier's phone number so that you
can easily find it when you need it. If you bought 10 products from the same supplier, you'd
store the supplier's phone number 10 times. Your table would get very large and require a lot
of extra disk space. If any information changed, you'd have to change it everywhere it
appeared - maybe hundreds of places. That would take a great deal of time, and you could
easily make an error in the process. Finally, when you want to change the structure of your
data - add fax numbers, for example, or group products into categories - you would be in for
a lot of tedious, error-prone work to revise the structure of your database table.

In contrast, a Microsoft Access database can have several small tables, much like the
containers in your office. You can design your database so that it also stores information
about how the tables are related.

Creating an Access database

Introduction
Unlike other Microsoft applications, ms-Access requires you to create the blank
database (file) before adding any data to the file. Once you create the blank database
to design the table where the actual data of your database is going to stored. In this unit
you will learn the detail steps to create a database file and how to design tables in your
database.
creating blank database
Overview
Blank database is like a container having nothing inside. To store data in ms-Access
file, you first task is to create the blank database.
The first step in creating a successful database is to plan it out before you begin to use
your software, as discussed earlier.

When you start Microsoft Access, no database is open. Microsoft Access displays the
Database window, a container for the objects you store in the database. The steps that
follow describe how to create a Microsoft Access database :

1. From the File menu, choose New Database. Or, click the New Database button on
the toolbar if the toolbar is displayed. (To identify the New Database button , point
the mouse pointer on each of the buttons on the toolbar; then a description of each
button will be displayed .)

104
2. In the File Name box , type a name as the filename for the new database, and then
choose the OK button. At this point, you would create all of the objects you need
such as tables, forms, reports, and queries. Then you will be in the Database window,
within which you can create, open and restructure Microsoft Access Objects. The
Database window contains buttons for all objects such as Table, Query, and Form.
When you click on the appropriate button, you will have a list of existing objects.

3. From the File menu, choose New.

-Or-
Click on the object button you want to create , then click on New. For instance, to
create a table click on Table button, then on click on New.

4. If you select New from the File menu in the Database window, then from the list
displayed, select the object you want to create such Table, Form, and Report.

When you create a new table, you define how many fields the table has and what kind of
data can be stored in each field.

Creating Tables
Overview
Tables are one of the objects of your database window which enables you to store your
data. Tables are the data sources for all other objects of ms-Access database. Thus you

105
 need to give due attention for table designing. This section will teach you the details of
table design process and relationships.

What is a Table?

A database table is a collection of data with the same subject or topic. One table might
contain data about customers, such as each customer's name, address, and phone number.
Another table might contain data about employees, such as each employee's name,
picture, salary and hired date.

A Microsoft Access database is a collection of tables - or at least one table - that you use
to store related information. The tables in a company database, for example, may all
contain data relating to different sections of the company, such as Sales, Administration
and so on.

Tables are elements of a database. As defined earlier, a Microsoft Access database is a

collection of related tables. So to create a table its container (the database) should be
created first. That is, the first step in creating any table is first to create the database that
will accommodate the table.
Creating New Tables

When you first create a table, it is an empty container for data. You design the table to
contain the specific type of data you want to store, such as names and addresses. After
you save your table, it’s ready for you to enter data.

There are two ways of creating a table in Microsoft Access : with the Table Wizard and
with out it.

Creating with the Table Wizard provides ready made fields, i.e., with the Table Wizard
there is no need to worry as to which field and data type to select.

But creating without the Table Wizard means defining all the fields and their data type.

Creating a table with a Table Wizard

Microsoft Access can guide you through the table creation process with a Table Wizard.
It is a quick way to get started in a new database, or to add a new table to an existing
database. So the easiest way to create most common tables for business or personal use is
with the Table Wizard. With the Table Wizard, you can choose from specific table types

106
such as business contacts, household inventory, or medical records. The Table Wizard
asks you questions about the fields you want in your table, then creates the table for you.

It's a good idea to limit the field size to the smallest setting you need, since Microsoft
Access works faster with smaller field sizes. For example, for a field that stores only small
integers, you should choose Byte. For a field that stores large integers, such as invoice
numbers, you should choose Integer or Long Integer.

If you want to store numbers with decimal places, you must set the field size to
single or Double. For a field that stores monetary values, however, you should
choose the Currency data type, not the Number data type.
Setting Display Formats
Microsoft Access can display values such as numbers and dates in many formats.
For example, Microsoft Access can display numbers with a currency symbol or with
a specified number of decimal places. The format affects only how a value is
displayed, not the value stored in the table. To specify the display format Microsoft
Access uses for data in a field, you set the Format property. If you don't set the
Format property, Microsoft Access displays values in General format, and the data
appears exactly as you enter it.

Microsoft Access uses a field's display format in table and query datasheets and
copies the format to new forms and reports. Existing forms and reports aren't
affected when you change a field's display format. To match the change you're
made, you must also change the display format for existing controls that are bound
to the field.
International Data Formats
Microsoft Access can display a wide range of international formats. To help ensure
consistency among applications, Microsoft access uses the settings from the
International section in Windows Control Panel for the number and date/time
formats listed in the following table.

Microsoft Access Gets the format for From this setting in Control Panel
Standard (and other number formats) Number Format
Currency Currency Format
Short Date Short Date Format
Long Date Long Date Format
Short time Time Format
2.3.1 Number Formats and the DecimalPlaces Property

If you don't specify a format, or if you specify the General Number format,
Microsoft Access displays numbers with no thousands separator or other formatting.
If you want numbers in a field to have a thousands separator, choose the Standard or
Currency setting.

The following table shows the formats available for fields with the Number or
Currency data type and the way they display data by default in a form or datasheet.

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 With this Format This Number Is displayed this way
General Number 1234.5 1234.5
Currency 1234.5 $1,234.50 (U.S.)
1,234.50 (UK)
Fixed 1234.5 1235
Standard 1234.5 1,234.50
Percent 0.824 82.40%
Scientific 1234.5 1.23E + 03

The General Number format displays just the number of decimal places necessary
for each value. If you specify a format other than General Number, such as Fixed,
you can specify the exact number of decimal places you want to display by setting
the Decimal Places property. When the DecimalPlaces property is set to Auto, the
default, Microsoft Access displays the default number of decimal places for the
display format (0 for Fixed, 2 for other formats).
Date/Time Formats
The following table shows the formats available for fields with the Date/Time data type and
the way they display data in a form or datasheet.

With this format Dates and times are displayed this way
General Date 1/3/92 4:30:00 PM (U.S.)
31/01/92 16:30:00 (UK)
Long Date Friday, January 31, 1992 (U.S.)
31 January 1992 (UK)
Medium Date 31-Jan-92
With this format Dates and times are displayed this way
Short Date 1/31/92 (U.S.)
31/01/92 (UK)
Long Time 4:30:00 PM
Medium Time 04:30 PM
Short Time 16:30

Creating Input Masks for Data Entry

If all the values you'll enter in a field are to have the same format, you can simplify data
entry by creating a pattern called an input mask. An input mask automatically shows literal
display characters in a field . When you enter data into the field, you don't have to enter

108
these characters, even if they are to be stored in the field; instead, you fill in the blanks in the
input mask.

For example, if all the phone numbers you enter in a field have the same format, you can use
an input mask so that you don't have to enter the parentheses, spaces, dots, or dashes for
each phone number. Instead, you can just type numbers in the blanks in the input mask.

Input masks have other uses, too. With input masks to protect confidential information. If
you want Microsoft Access to conceal the characters entered in a field, you can use the
password input mask. With the password input mask, all characters entered in a field are
displayed as asterisks (*).

Creating an input Mask

To create an input mask, you set the InputMask property for a field in a table or query or for
a control on a form or report. You can use the input Mask Wizard to help you set this
property, or you can type a setting directly into the property sheet. After you set the input
Mask property, new data you enter must fit the input mask. Existing data in the field isn't
changed, but if existing values don't fit in the input mask, they are displayed without the
mask.

If you want to create a common input mask, such as one for a phone number or date, it may
be easiest to use the input Mask Wizard instead of typing the input mask. To use the
Wizard, click anywhere in the InputMask property box, and then choose the Build button to
the right of the property box. Then Input Mask Wizard appears. From the list of predefined
input mask, choose the one you want, and then follow the directions in the Wizard dialog
boxes.

To set your own input mask, you enter mask characters and literal display characters for the
input Mask property. Mask characters determine how many blanks are in the mask, what
you can enter in the blanks, and how the input mask appears and works. The following
table explains how Microsoft Access interprets characters in an input mask.

Setting a Default Value

If you know that a certain field often has the same value, you can set a default value that
appears in the field whenever you add a record in a form or datsheet. For example, if most
orders you enter are for a single item, you could set the default value for the Quantity field
to 1.

To specify a default value for a field, you set its DefaultValue property. Once you set a
default value for a field, it's used whenever you add a record in a table. (Setting a default
value has no effect on existing data.) Default values are used when you add records in a
form as well, although you can override the default value set for a field in a table by setting
a different default value for the control on the form. In that case, when you add a record
from the form, the default value set for the control is entered in the field.

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When you set a default value for a field, you'll usually specify a constant value (such as 1 or
WA) as a field's default. However, you can also specify an expression for the DefaultValue
property. For example, you can enter=Date() or =Now() to insert the current date or time
into a field. Expressions you enter as default values can't include any control or field
references or user-defined functions.

Example Setting a Default for a Date/Time Field

Suppose that you want the Order Date field in the Northwind Orders table to be
filled with the current date whenever you add an order. In Design view, set the DefaultValue
property for the Order Date field to =Date().

Each time you add a new record to the Orders table, the current date (the computer's
system date) appears in the Order Date field. This date is just the default; you can change the
value to another date if necessary.

Requiring Data Entry in a Field

If you want a field to contain a value for every record, you can set the Required
property for the field to Yes. If this property is set to Yes, Microsoft Access doesn't allow a
null value to be stored in the field.

For example, you might want to require that an employee's first and last name
always be entered before the record is saved. When you try to save a record that doesn't
contain a value in a required field, Microsoft Access displays a message and doesn't save the
record until you fill in the field.

Using Validation Rules to Limit Values in a Field

Microsoft Access automatically validates values based on a field's data type; for
example, Microsoft Access doesn't allow text in a numeric field. You can set more specific
rules for data using validationRule property for the field.

When you set the ValidationRule property, you specify requirements for data that's
entered into a field. For example, you can specify that numbers entered into a certain field
be less than 100. Microsoft Access doesn't let you enter data that breaks a field's validation
rule.

When you make an entry that breaks the validation rule you've specified, you'll want
a message to tell what has happened. You specify the message text by setting the field's
ValidationText property. Microsoft Access displays the text you specify when an entry in
the field breaks the validation rule. For example, if your validation rule requires that values
entered be less than 100, you can set the ValidationText property to display this message:

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"You must enter a value less than 100." The message you create should always make it
apparent why a value entered isn't allowed.

Entering a Validation Expression

You specify validation rules as expressions. The expression tells Microsoft Access how to
determine whether a value is allowed in a field. Expressions range from simple expressions
such as <=0 to more complex ones such as : "USA" Or "UK" Or "Canada".

Typing an expression is a quick way to set the ValidationRule property. For

complex expressions, however, it may be easier to use the Expression Builder. To use the
Expression Builder, click the ValidationRule property box, and then click the Build button
to the right of the property box. Microsoft Access displays the Expression Builder. For more
information on the Expression Builder, search Help for "Expression Builder."

The following table shows examples of common validation rule expressions. Note
that you must place number signs (#) around date values. (For more information on
validation expressions and using Microsoft Access functions with expressions, search Help
for "expressions.")

ValidationRule setting ValidationText setting

<>0 Please enter a nonzero value.

0 Or >100 Value must be either 0 or over 100.

Like "K???" Value must be four characters beginning with

the letter K.

<#1/1/92# Enter a date before 1992.

>=#1/1/91# And <#1/1/92# Date must be in 1991.

2.9 Indexes

If you often search a table or sort its records by a particular field, you can speed up
these operations by creating and index for the field. Microsoft Access uses indexes in a table
as you use an index in a book: to find data, it looks up the location of the data in the index.
2.9.1. Creating Indexes

You create an index on a single field by setting the Indexed property. The following
table lists the possible settings for the Indexed property.

Indexed property setting Meaning

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No Don't create an index on this field (or delete existing
index).

Yes (Duplicates OK) Create an index on this field.

Yes (No Duplicates) Create a unique index on this field.

If you create a unique index, Microsoft Access doesn't allow you to enter in a field a value
that already exists in the same field for another record. Microsoft Access automatically
creates a unique index for primary keys, but you may want to prohibit duplicate values in
other fields, as well. For example, you can create a unique index on a field that stores serial
numbers so that no two products have the same serial number. For more information on
unique indexes, search Help for "Indexed."

Deciding Which Fields to Index

In general, indexes speed up searches and queries, but in some cases they can slow
down data entry. When you enter data in a table that contains one or more indexed fields,
Microsoft Access must update the indexes each time a record is added or changed. Adding
records with an append query or by appending imported records is likely to be slower if the
destination table contains indexes.

The primary key of a table is automatically indexed, and you can't index a field
whose data type is Memo or OLE Object. For other fields, you should consider indexing a
field if all the following apply:

¨ The field's data type is Text, Number, Currency, or Date/Time.

¨ You anticipate searching for specific values or ranges of values stored in the field, or
you anticipate sorting values in the field.

¨ You anticipate storing many different values in the field. If many of the values in the
field are the same, the index may not significantly speed up queries.

Relationships
Overview
Recall that one of the main characteristics of relational databases is the fact that all tables
are related to one another. Access has a means to make this relationship explicit using the
Relationships screen. Access uses this information when designing reports, forms and
queries that require more than one table to be displayed. This section guides you how to
ceate relationships

Creating Relationships Between tables

To get started, display the Relationships screen by pulling down the Tools menu and
selecting the Relationships menu item. The blank Relationships screen will appear as
follows:

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The next step is to display all of the tables on the relatinoships screen. Right click
anywhere on the Relationships screen and select the Show Tables... option from the

pop-up menu:
When the Show Table dialog box appears, highlight both the Customers table and the
Acounts table as shown below and then click on the Add button.

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Then click on the Close button to close this dialog box. The Relationships screen will
now reappear with the two tables displayed as below:

To connect the Customers table with the Accounts table to form a relationship, click on
the CustomerID field in the Customers table and drag it over on top of the CustomerID
field on the Accounts table. Upon releasing the mouse button, the Edit Relationships
dialog box will appear as below:

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Access will do its best to determine the Relationship Type (almost always One-to-Many).
For this example, Access knows that CustomerID is a key of the Customer table so it
chooses this field as the "One" side. This makes the Accounts table the "Many" side as
One customer may have Many accounts.
One additional step to be taken is the check off the box labeled "Enforce Referntial
Integrity". This option puts constraints into effect such that an Accounts record can not be
created without a valid Customer and Access will also prevent a user from deleting a
Customer record if a related Accounts record exists. At this point, click on the Create
button to create the relationship. The Relationships screen should reappear with the new
relationship in place as follows:

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Note the symbols "1" (indicating the "One" side) and the infinity symbol (indicating the
"Many" side) on the relationship. Close the relationships screen and select Yes to save the
changes to the Relationships layout.
If the relationship does not appear in the above fashion, highlight it and press the delete
key to delete it. Then go back to the table design view and make certain that the
CustomerID field is designated as the key of the Customers table. Then go back to the
Relationships screen and try to recreate the relationship.

Queries
Introduction
The real power of a database is the ability to see the data you want, in the order you want to
see it. With queries, you can ask questions about the data in your tables. What are the
names of our Canadian customers? Which salesperson sold the most units of a given
product? The data in a query can come from one or more tables. After Microsoft Access
retrieves the data that answers your question, you can view and analyze the data. Once
you've created a query, you can use it as the basis for a form, report, graph, or even another
query.

This chapter shows you how to design a query -- how to specify the tables, fields, and
records to retrieve from you database -- and hoe to view the results of a query.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
 Identify different querie of Ms-Access
 Design new queries,
 Set query critetia,
 Save queries

what is a query?

Introduction

With a query, you ask a question about the data stored in your tables. The way you design
your query tells Microsoft Access exactly what data to retrieve.

The most commonly used queries are select queries. With select queries, you can view data
from your tables, analyze your data, and even make changes to the data. You can view data
from just one table, or you can add files from several tables.

After you run a select query, Microsoft Access collects the data you ask for in a dynaset. A
dynaset looks and behaves like a table, but isn't a table -- it's a dynamic view of data from
one or more tables, selected and sorted as specified by the query. Whenever you open a
query in Datasheet view, or when you open a form or print a report that is based on a query,
a dynaset is created using the information currently stored in the database. You can enter
and modify data in dynaset fields just as you can in a table. The changes you make affect
the underlying tables in the database itself.

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Why do we use Queries?

Microsoft Access gives you a great deal of flexibility in designing queries. With queries,
you can:

• Choose fields You don't have to include all of a table's fields in your query. For
example, you can create a query that shows customer names and phone numbers
without addresses or other information.

• Choose records You can specify criteria that records must meet to be included in a
dynaset. For example, you may be interested in seeing sales figures only for a
certain month.

• Sort records You can view records in a specific order. For example, you can list
customer records alphabetically by customer name. To display sorted data in a
form, you can create a query that sorts the record and then use the query as the
source of data for your form.

• Ask questions about data in several tables You can use a query to answer a
question about data from more than one table and see the results in a single
datasheet. You can also ask questions about data from other databases, such as
Microsoft FoxPro, Paradox, dBASE, Btrieve, and SQL databases such as Microsoft
or Sybase SQL Server.

• Perform calculations You can create new fields that contain the results of a
calculation, called calculated fields. For example, to find total price, you can create
a field that multiplies price by quantity and stores the result. To display calculated
fields in forms or reports, you can create a query that contains the calculated fields
and then base your form or report on the query.

• Use a query as a source of data for forms, reports, and other queries To select
just the right data to display in a form of report, you can create a select query and
then use that query the source of data for the form or report. By using a query, you
can include data from more than one table and you can set criteria to show only a
limited set of data. Every time you open the form or print the report, your query
retrieves up-to-date information from your tables. You can also enter new data or
modify existing data directly in the query deduced or on a form that is based on the
query.

• Make Changes to data in tables You can update, delete, or append a group of
records all at once using action queries. Or you can create a new table that includes
from an existing table or group of tables.

Ø To create a query without a Query Wizard

1. In the Database window, click the Query button.

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2. Choose the New button.
3. Choose the New Query button.

Microsoft Access opens a Select Query window and displays the Add Table
dialog box, which displays the tables and queries in your database.

Note Since you'll probably design most queries based on tables, the dialog box
display by default only the tables in your database. If you want to design a
query based on another query, select either the Queries button or the Both
button in the view box.

4. Select the table that contains the data you want to add to your query:

• To select a table, click the table and choose the Add button (or double-click
the table).

• To add more than one table at a time, hold down the CTRL Key and click
each table you want to add; then choose the Add button. To select a block of
tables, select the first table, hold down the SHIFT Key and click the last
table, and then choose the Add button.

In the Query window, Microsoft Access displays a field list for each table
you select.

5. Choose the Close button.

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 If you've added more than one table, you may notice line between the tables.
These lines are joins, which show records from one table are related to records from another.
The symbols at end of each join line stand for "one" and "many." In the tables shown
below, for example, one supplier can provide many products , so there is a one-to-many
relationship between Suppliers records and Products records.

1.3. Saving a Query

When you save a query, it becomes a part of the database. Microsoft Access provides a
default query name, but it's a good idea to give your query a more descriptive name.

To save and name a query

1. From the File menu, choose Save (or click the Save button on the toolbar).
2. If you are saving the query for the first time, type a name for the query for the first time ,
type a name for the query, and then choose OK. A query name can contain up to 64
characters and can include spaces.

Section 2: Query design

Overview:
Like a table, a query has its design view where you set the fields and criteria. This section
will show you how to design a query.
Objectives
After completing this section you will be able to :
 Design new query,
 Set criteria in a query
Views in the Query Window

The Query window has four views-Design , datashet view, SQL view, and Print Preview:

Use Design view to create a query or change the design of an existing one . In design view,
you use graphical query tools to create a query.

Use datasheet view to see the data retrieved by your query.

Use Print preview to see how query data will look in print.

Use SQL view when you want to enter SQL statements to create or change a query

When you Design view to create your query , you use a tool called graphical query by
example (QBE). With graphical QBE, you create queries by dragging fields from the field
lists in the upper portion of the Query window to QBE grid in the lower portion of the
window. In the QBE grid, each column contains information about a field included in the
query.

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The buttons on the default Query window toolbar provide shortcuts to the commands you
use when designing a query.

For information on each button on the toolbar, hold the mouse pointer over the button.
You'll see the name of the button right below the button, as well as a description in the status
bar.

Note: To move between the upper and lower portions of the Query window, click the upper
or lower portion, or press F6.

Choosing Fields

After you've added tables to your query, you're ready to select the fields to include in the
query. The fields shown in the field list belong to the tables or queries you selected in the
Add Table dialog box. The fields you select determine the data you see when you look at
query's dynaset in Deduced view.

Adding Fields to a Query

The field list in the upper portion of the Query window display all the fields available for
your query. If you add more than one table, you'll see a field list for each table.
To add a field to a query

Drag the field from the field list to a cell in the field row of the QBE grid.

To add more than one field at a time, hold down the CTRL key and click the fields you want
to add: then drag the group to a cell in the Field row. To select a block of fields , select the
first field, hold down the SHIFT key and click the last field, and then drag.

Note: If the field name contains a colon (for example, Cost:), select the field name in the
QBE grid and add brackets around the field name (for example,[Cost:])

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Adding All Fields

What if you want to add all the fields from a table or query? Microsoft Access provides two
quick methods for choosing all fields. You can select and drag all the fields to the QBE grid
as a group, or you can select the asterisk from the field list.

The two methods produce slightly different queries: If you drag all the fields as a group,
only those fields are part of the query. If you later add a field to the underlying table or
query, or if you remove a field, you have to annually make the same change in the query
design. If you select the asterisk from the field list, any changes you make later to the
underlying table or query are automatically included in the query. But you can't use fields
specified by the asterisk to sort records or to define selection criteria for the data to be
displayed, and you must display either all of the fields defined by the asterisk or none of
them. For more information, see "Excluding Fields from a Dynaset" and "Specifying Sort
Order" later in this chapter.

Dragging All Fields as a Group

One way to move all fields is to select all the fields as a group and drag them together to the
QBE grid. The advantage of this method is that it gives you greater flexibility in sorting and
displaying your data.

To drag all fields

1. Double-click the title bar of the field list.

2. With the mouse, point to any of the selected fields in the field list.
3. Drag the fields to the QBE grid.
Microsoft Access places each field in a Field cell in the QBE grid.
Specifying Criteria

To limit your query's dynaset to certain records, you specify criteria for the query.
For example, suppose that you want to view only the suppliers from France. You specify a

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criterion that limits the records to those whose Country field is "France". Only records that
meet your criterion are included in the dynaset.

When you specify criteria for a query, you use an expression.

An expression tells Microsoft Access which records to include in the query's dynaset.
Expressions range from simple expressions such as "France" to more complex ones such as
"Between 1000 And 5000.

To create an expression, you can either type the expression directly into the QBE
grid or use the Expression Builder. With the Expression Builder, you can select the
components of your expression from lists, and the Expression Builder creates your
expression for you.

To specify criteria for a field by typing an expression

• In the Criteria cell for the field, type an expression.

If you're typing a very long expression, you may want to view it in the Zoom box as
you type. To open the Zoom box, select the cell containing the expression and then press
SHIFT+F2 (or click the right mouse button and then choose Zoom from the shortcut menu).

Entering Expressions

Microsoft Access gives you a great deal of flexibility in the way you enter
expressions. If you want to find only records whose Country field contains Australia, for
example, any of these expressions would work:
• Australia
• =Australia
• "Australia"
• ="Australia"

After you've entered your expression and pressed ENTER or moved the focus to
another cell in the QBE grid, Microsoft Access displays your query in the standard format.
For the expression shown above, Microsoft Access displays "Australia."

The following examples show some of the ways you can enter expressions and how
Microsoft Access displays them. For complete rules on expressions, search Help for
"expressions."

When you enter Microsoft Access displays And retrieves records where

Callahan "Callahan" Value in Callahan

100 100 Value in 100

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When you enter Microsoft Access displays And retrieves records where

>15000 >15000 Value is greater than 15000

<=30-Jan-93 <=#1/30/93# Date value is on or before 30-Jan-93

"New York" "New York" Value is New York

Between 15-Mar-94 Between #3/15/94# Date Values are between

And 30-Mar-94 And #3/30/94# 15-Mar-94 and 30-Mar-94, inclusive

Note The date format Microsoft Access displays varies depending on the country specified in the
International section of Windows Control Panel.

Entering Dates

For fields with a Date/Time data type, you can enter an expression that includes just about any date
or time format. The # symbol, which is placed on either side of a value to show that it is a date, is
optional.
For example, you can enter any of the following expressions to find records for dates earlier that 16-
Jan-94:

<16 January 1994

<1/16/94
<16-Jan-1994
<Jan 16 94
<#1/16/94#

Note : If you want to enter digits only (such as 1/16/94), enter the digits in the sequence
appropriate for your country, as shown in the International section of Control Panel. The
two dates shown above, 1/16/94 and #1/16/94#, demonstrate month-day-year sequence as
used in the United States.
Entering Text
When entering Text values, you simply type the value. In criteria, you can use either uppercase
letters (entering "Argentina" is the same as entering "Argentina").
Using Criteria in Queries
Knowing how to specify criteria is the key to designing queries-both simple and complex-so you
can retrieve just the data you want. This section provides examples of some common types of
criteria you can use to retrieve:

A range of records, such as employees hired between 1-May-93 and 1- Jun-93.

A pattern of characters, such as products with names that start with "Br."

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 Records that don't match a value, such as suppliers who aren't located in Canada.
Records that meet AND and OR criteria, such as suppliers who provide seafood products and who
are from Singapore or Japan.
Records that contain or don't contain values in certain fields, such as all employee records that
contain photos.
Records for a specific day, month, or year, such as orders that were placed during the month of
February.
Records based on calculations, such as the number of orders shipped within the past 30 days.
Selecting Ranges of Records
You can select records that fall within a range of values. For example, you can find orders placed
before 1-Jan-93, or products that have between 10 and 35 units in stock.

Identify a range in an expression by using the Between...And operator or the comparison operators
(<,>,<>, <=, and >=). The following tables shows some examples of operators used in expressions.

Expression Meaning

>234 Numbers greater than 234

Betwee4n#2/2/93#And #12/1/93# Dates from 2-Feb-93 through 1-Dec-93
<1200.45 Numbers less than 1200.45
>="Callahan" All names from Callahan through the
end of the alphabet

Note: Dates and numbers are displayed in the QBE grid in the format appropriate for the
count6ry selected in the International section of Windows Control Panel. For example, the
date’s sequence is month/day/year for the United States, day/month/year for the United
Kingdom, and year/day/month for Sweden.

forms and Reports

Introduction
In the previous units you have studied two objects of Ms-Access database: Table and
Query. The other two commonly used objects are Form and Report. In this unit you will
be introduce to forms and reports.
Forms
Overview
Microsoft Access forms are versatile-you can use them to enter, change, view, and print data. For
example, you can use a form to enter information about new products or to update and review
information on existing products. If you should decide to distribute information about the products,
you can print the form.

This introduces the possibilities for entering, displaying, and printing data in forms and shows you
how forms work. It shows you how to create a form using a Form Wizard, which creates a form

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based on your preferences. It also covers other basic tasks, such as making simple changes to a
form's design and previewing and printing forms.
What Are Forms?
Like a paper form that you fill out with a pen or pencil, a Microsoft Access form identifies the data
that you want to collect. However, it also gives you a way to enter the data into your database,
display it for review, and print it for distribution.

With Microsoft Access, you can design forms that are easy to use and present information the way
you want. You can use a variety of design elements (text, data pictures, lines, and color) to create
just the form you want. Which elements you use and how you arrange them are up to you.

Why Use Forms?

A form provides an easy way to view data. You can view all the values for one record in Form
view, or you can switch to the Datasheet view of the form to see all the records for that form.

Using a form is also an efficient way to enter data; it can save you time and prevent typing errors.
For example, rather than type values for all fields, you can create lists on the form from which you
choose values.
A form offers the most convenient layout for entering, changing, and viewing records in your
database. The form design tools in Microsoft Access help you design easy-to-use forms that:

Present your data in an attractive format with special fonts and other graphical effects such as color
and shading.
Look like the paper forms you're familiar with.
Calculate totals.
Contain a graph.
Display data from more table.

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How Forms Work

The quickest way to understand how a form works is to look at a form and the source of its data.
Some information on a form can come from a table or query. Information can also be independent
of a table or query-for example, a company name and logo at the top of a form. The "look' of the
form is stored in the form design.

All the information on a form is contained in controls. Controls are objects on a form that display
data, perform actions, or decorate the form.
Some controls are bound to fields in the underlying table or query, so you can either enter data into
fields or display data from them. For example, you can enter and display names and numbers using
text boxes, and display pictures using object frames.
Other controls display information that is stored only in the form design. For example, you use
labels to display descriptive text, and lines and rectangles to organize data and make a form more
attractive.
Types of Form
1. AutoForm
The quickest way to create a form is to choose the AutoForm Wizard doesn't prompt you for
information; instead it creates a form immediately. the form resembles a single-column form and
displays all the fields in the underlying table or query.
Single-Column Form
A single-column form displays the values in records in one column, with each value on a separate
line. It shows one record at a time.
2. Tabular Form

A tabular form displays the values in records in row-and-column format. It shows multiple records
at a time.
Creating Forms
You can create forms without the aid of Form Wizards. Form Wizards speed up the process of
creating forms because they do all the basic work for you. The AutoForm Wizard produces a
simple preformatted form without prompting you for information. The other Form Wizards prompt
you with questions and then create a form based on your answers. Even if you've created many
forms, you may want to use a Form Wizard to quickly create a form that you can use as is or refine
to your specifications.

When you use a form to enter or display data in your database, you must connect the form to the
table or query that is its source of data. If all the data is in one table, base the form on that table. If
the data is in more than one table, base the form on a query.
1.5.1. Creating a Form With a Form Wizard
Using a Form Wizard is a fast and foolproof way to create a new bound form. Once the form is
created, you can use it as is, or you can define it to get exactly the form you want.
You can create a preformatted form quickly by using the AutoForm Wizard, or you can create a
form by using one of the other Form Wizards.
To create a form with the AutoForm Wizard
1. In the Database window, click the Table or query button.
2. Select the table or query on which you want to base the form.

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3. Click the AutoForm button on the toolbar.
Microsoft Access displays the form.
To create a form with another Form Wizard
1. In the Database window, click the Form button (or choose Forms from the view menu)
2. Choose the New button (or choose New from the File menu, and then choose Form)
3. From the Select a table/Query box, select the table or query containing the data you want to
display on the form.
4. Choose the Form Wizards button.
Microsoft Access displays the first Form Wizard dialog box.
5. Select one of the Wizards in the list, and then choose OK.

6. Follow the directions in the Form Wizard dialog boxes. Click the Finish button.
1.6. Views in the Form Window

The Form window has four views-Design view, Form view, Datasheet view, and Print Preview:

Use Design view to create a new form or change the structure of an existing one.
Use Form view to enter, change, and view data using the form itself. In Form view, you can
usually see all the fields for one record at a time.
Use Datasheet view to enter, change, and view data using a datasheet. In Datasheet view, you can
see many records at one time, but the datasheet may be wider than your screen, so you might
not see all the fields for each record without scrolling. Also, Datasheet view doesn't display
pictures, other OLE objects, or command buttons, as Form view does.
Use Print Preview to see how a form will look when printed.
1.7. Saving a Form

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When you close the Form window after creating a form or changing an existing one, Microsoft
Access automatically prompts you to save your form. However, to protect against loss because of a
power failure or other system problem, you should save your form frequently as you work with it.
To save a form
1. From the File menu, choose Save.
2. If the form is untitled, type a name in the Form Name box, and then choose OK.
Section 2: Reports
Overview
Creating a report is an effective way to present your data as a printed document. Although you can
also print forms and datasheets, reports give you more control over how data is displayed and
greater flexibility in presenting summary information. For example, in a report that shows sales by
product category, you can compute the total for each category and calculate its percentage of the
grand total.

This section introduces the possibilities for presenting data in reports. It shows you how to
create a report using a Report Wizard, which creates a report based on the information you
provide. It also covers other essential tasks, such as previewing and printing reports.
21. What Are Reports?
A report is information you have organized and formatted to fit your specifications. A report gives
you a way to retrieve and present data as meaningful information that you can use and distribute.
Examples of reports are mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries, and phone lists.

With Microsoft Access, you can design reports that present information the way you want. You can
use many different design elements, such as text, data, pictures, lines, boxes and graphs, to create
just the report you need. Which elements you use and how you arrange them are up to you.
2.2. Why Use Reports?
Microsoft Access provides several methods of getting information from your database-using
a query, a form, or a report. You use the method that best matches the task:
To view all the products a particular vendor supplies, use a query.
To view all the information about one product at once, use a form.
To organize and print product sales for a formal presentation, use a report.
Reports are also an efficient way to print information that you use regularly. You can create a
design for a report and then save it so that you can use it over and over again. Once you save the
report design, it stays the same, but you get current data each time you print the report. If your
reporting needs change, you can adjust the report design or create a similar report based on the
original report.
With Microsoft Access, you can create reports that:
Organize and present data in groups.
Calculate running totals, group totals, grand totals, and percentages of totals.
Include subforms, subreports, and graphs.
Present your data in an attractive format with pictures, lines, and special forms.
2.3. Creating a Report Without a Report Wizard

If you want to build a report on your own, you can start with a blank report and place all the text
boxes, labels, and other controls on the report yourself.

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To create a report without a Report Wizard

1. In the Database window, click the Report button (or choose Reports from the View
menu).
2. Choose the New button (or choose New from the File menu, and then choose
Report).
3. From the Select A Table/Query list box, select an underlying table or query for your
report. (To create a report not based on a query or table, don't choose an
underlying table or query in the Select A Table/Query list.)
4. Choose the Blank Report button.
Microsoft Access displays the report in Design view. to view the field list for the underlying
table or query, click the Field List button on the toolbar.

Views in the Report Window

The Report window in Microsoft Access has three views-Design view. Sample Preview, and
Print Preview:
Use Design view to change the layout of a report or to create a new report from scratch.
Use Sample Preview to check the font, font size, and general layout of a report.
Use Print Preview to check the data for the entire report.
You can print a report from any view as well as from the Database window.
Design view of a report is similar to a workbench on which you arrange a project along with
the tools you need to complete it. Some of the tools available in Design view are the toolbar, rulers,
the toolbox, and the status bar.
Previewing reports
By previewing a report, you can see how it looks on the page without printing it. For example, you
can check the alignment and spacing of the columns of data, or see if the report is returning the data
you want. When you preview a report, you have two views to choose from:

Use Sample Preview to take a quick look at your report and check the font, font size, and general
layout. Sample Preview displays all the sections of a report and a few detail records. It sorts
and groups the data it displays, but ignores any criteria or joins in the underlying query.
Use Print Preview to check the data or see the entire report exactly as it will be printed.
To preview a sample of a report from Design view

From the File menu, choose Sample Preview (or click the Sample Preview button on the toolbar).
To return to Design view, click the Close button on the toolbar.
To preview an entire report from Design view
From the File menu, choose Print Preview (or click the Print Preview button on the toolbar). To
return to Design view, click the Close button on the toolbar.
To preview a report from the Database window
1. In the Database window, Click the Report button, and then select the report you
want to preview.
2. In the Database window, Choose print Preview from the File menu (or click the
print preview button on the toolbar).
To move to another page

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 Using the navigation buttons, you can view the pages of a report sequentially or jump to any
page in the report.
1. Open the report in Print Preview.
2. Click one of the navigation button (lower-left corner of the window ) or type the
page number you want to see in the page number box, and then press ENTER.
Printing a Report
The following sections describe how to set a report's page orientation, how to print a report, and
how to print a report's definition. A definition contains information that can help you reconstruct
the report if you accidentally delete it. A definition includes the report's properties and the names,
types, and properties of the report's controls.

MS-Access Self Test Exercise

1. Create a database named exam on desktop and design two tables which can store the
data below

Table1: Campus

Camp_Code Camp_Name Location Program

OLY Olympia Bole Area Degree

MES Meskel Meskel Square TVET

MIS Misrak Lem Hotel TVET

N.B.: In the campus Table

1. Code is primary Key

2. Code values should be set to be Capital letter in the table design
3. Values of the Program field should be set using lookup wizard in the design

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Table2: Student

ID.NO. FName Gender BirthDate Shift Camp_Code City

ST01 Almaz Female May-05- Regular OLY A.A

1982

ST02 Zelalem Male Apr-12- Extension MES A.A

1985

ST03 Belay Male Sep-23- Regular MIS A.A

1984

ST04 Almaz Female Oct-25- Extension MIS A.A

1985

ST05 Mamo Male Nov-20- Regular OLY A.A

1986

Note: In the student Table:

1. ID.NO. is a primary key

2. The pattern “ST” in the ID.No. Field should be set in the table design to get it
without keyboard
3. Gender should allow only Male or Female values
4. There should be a text message displayed when invalid value is entered in to
Gender field
5. BirthDate should be displayed in the format shown in the table
6. Shift field should accept either regular of extension
7. All the values of City field are the same. Thus set appropriate field property to it
2. Create appropriate relationships between the two tables

3. Input as may data as you can into the tables (the given data is sample)

4. Create different types of queries( SELECT, PARAMETER, MEKE-

TABLE,APPEND,DELETE, UPDATE, CROSSS-TAB)

5. Create main/sub form using campus as main-form source and student as sub-form

6. Generate different reports which groups, sorts and calculate group totals

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 Duty 7. Basics of Internet Services
Question: What is the internet?

Internet is a wide area network, which is the network of networks. Internet has a lot of
services.

Electronic- Mail (E-mail)

E-mail is one of the most widely used services on the internet, E-mail is easy to send,
read, reply to and manage, and it is fast and convenient. E-mail is also global, allowing
messages to pass from Japan to the U.S in minutes, regardless or the time they were sent.
It is much cheaper to send an e-mail message then a letter, or to make a long distance
telephone call. Another advantage of e-mail is, it is possible to send the same message to
any number of individuals as long as you know their e-mail address.

World Wide Web ( WWW):- Is one of the newest Internet services. The WWW allows
you to combine text, a video, graphics, and even animation to make a document a
viewed easy. Links within WWW documents can take you quickly to other related
documents. WWW is a set of sites that you can go o for information.

To access the WWW, it is necessary that you run a WWW browser on your computer.

Use Net:- It is one of the Internet services which allows users from any where on the
Internet to participate a discussion groups ( News groups). It is an organized electronic
mail ( e-mail) system, except there is no single user that mail is sent to. Instead, the
messages you and every one else using Use Net write are sent to a newsgroup section,
available for anyone who accesses that news group.

Telnet:- It is a program that lets you log into a remote computer directly through the
Internet and you can work on that computer.

File Transfer Protocol ( FTP)

This enables you to examine the files of remote hosts on the Internet and to transfer files
b/n your hosts and the others. Using FTP programs we can upload or download files. But
to do this there should be an admission from the remote computer.

Video Conferencing:- The internet is, in its raw form, communication. Video
conferencing means making a conference on the internet by individuals who live in
different locations. The individuals speak and see each other.

Some uses of the web

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1) Performing Research: provides access to a vast a mount of research material,
including resources from libraries, museums, and research institutes
e.g Microsoft Encarta sit/www.enacrta.com

- Internet public library/www.ipl.com

 Online reference material including
 Magazine, newspapers, almanacs
- Library of congress www.loc.gov
2) Chatting- provides a way to socialize with a group of other individuals interactively
- Participants can type in messages for the group to view, other group
members can respond immediately
- There are a wide range of chat rooms-on different topics, for socializing
… etc.
3) News- BBC, CNN, ESPN Sportzone
4) Downloading softwar
- Sharewares, free softwares
www.sharewares .com

5) E- learning- course of offerings via the web

- earning college degree from home using the web
e.g century university

6) Arranging travel plans

e.g travel shopper (www. Travel.shopper.com) Search for fights and book
reservation

7) Shopping (e-commerce)
- There are over 25,000 links to online merchants selling anything from
flowers and clothing to computers and electronics

8). Managing investments

- Several investment brokerages have websites

- Money can be invested on portfolio or stock market

Searching information on the Internet

The search engines below are all excellent choices to start with when searching for
information.

Google
http://www.google.com/

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Voted four times Most Outstanding Search Engine by Search Engine Watch readers,
Google has a well-deserved reputation as the top choice for those searching the web. The
crawler-based service provides both comprehensive coverage of the web along with great
relevancy. It's highly recommended as a first stop in your hunt for whatever you are
looking for.

Google provides the option to find more than web pages, however. Using on the top of
the search box on the Google home page, you can easily seek out images from across the
web, discussions that are taking place on Usenet newsgroups, locate news information or
perform product searching. Using the More link provides access to human-compiled
information from the Open Directory (see below), catalog searching and other services.

Google is also known for the wide range of features it offers, such as cached links that let
you "resurrect" dead pages or see older versions of recently changed ones. It offers
excellent spell checking, easy access to dictionary definitions, integration of stock quotes,
street maps, telephone numbers and more. See Google's help page for an entire rundown
on some of these features. The Google Toolbar has also won a popular following for the
easy access it provides to Google and its features directly from the Internet Explorer
browser.

In addition to Google's unpaid editorial results, the company also operates its own
advertising programs. The cost-per-click AdWords program places ads on Google as well
as some of Google's partners. Similarly, Google is also a provider of unpaid editorial
results to some other search engines. For a list of major partnerships, see the Search
Providers Chart.

Google was originally a Stanford University project by students Larry Page and Sergey
Brin called BackRub. By 1998, the name had been changed to Google, and the project
jumped off campus and became the private company Google. It remains privately held
today.

Getting Listed: Read the Submitting To Google section of Search Engine Watch's
Essentials Of Search Engine Submission guide for more about being included in Google's
editorial results and the Google AdWords section for more about its paid listings
programs.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How Google Works section of the web
site, which provides in-depth coverage of the editorial and paid listings processes at
Google. Learn more about becoming a member on the membership information page.

Yahoo
http://www.yahoo.com/

Launched in 1994, Yahoo is the web's oldest "directory," a place where human editors
organize web sites into categories. However, in October 2002, Yahoo made a giant shift
to crawler-based listings for its main results. These came from Google until February

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2004. Now, Yahoo uses its own search technology. Learn more in this recent review from
our SearchDay newsletter, which also provides some updated submission details.

In addition to excellent search results, you can use tabs above the search box on the
Yahoo home page to seek images, Yellow Page listings or use Yahoo's excellent
shopping search engine. Or visit the Yahoo Search home page, where even more
specialized search options are offered.

The Yahoo Directory still survives. You'll notice "category" links below some of the sites
lists in response to a keyword search. When offered, these will take you to a list of web
sites that have been reviewed and approved by a human editor.

It's also possible to do a pure search of just the human-compiled Yahoo Directory, which
is how the old or "classic" Yahoo used to work. To do this, search from the Yahoo
Directory home page, as opposed to the regular Yahoo.com home page. Then you'll get
both directory category links ("Related Directory Categories") and "Directory Results,"
which are the top web site matches drawn from all categories of the Yahoo Directory.

Sites pay a fee to be included in the Yahoo Directory's commercial listings, though they
must meet editor approval before being accepted. Non-commercial content is accepted
for free. Yahoo's content acquisition program also offers paid inclusion, where sites can
also pay to be included in Yahoo's crawler-based results. This doesn't guarantee ranking,
Yahoo promises. The CAP program also bring in content from non-profit organizations
for free.

Like Google, Yahoo sells paid placement advertising links that appear on its own site and
which are distributed to others. These are sold through Overture. Yahoo purchased
Overture in a company Yahoo purchased in October 2003.

Overture was formerly called GoTo until late 2001. More about it can be found on the
Paid Listings Search Engines page. Overture purchased AllTheWeb (see below) in March
2003 and acquired AltaVista (see below) in April 2003. Now Yahoo owns these, gained
as from its purchase of Overture.

Technology AltaVista and AllTheWeb was combined with that of Inktomi, a crawler-
based search engine that grew out UC Berkeley and then launched as its own company in
1996, to make the current Yahoo crawler. Yahoo purchased Inktomi in March 2003.

Getting Listed: Read the Submitting To Yahoo section of Search Engine Watch's
Essentials Of Search Engine Submission guide for more information on appearing in
Yahoo's own editorial results. Read the Overture section of Search Engine Watch's
Essentials Of Search Engine Submission guide for more information on Overture's paid
listings program.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How Yahoo Works section of the web
site, which provides in-depth coverage of how Yahoo gathers listings. The How Overture

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Works page, which provides in-depth coverage of how cost-per-click ads can be placed
with Overture.

Ask Jeeves
http://www.askjeeves.com/

Ask Jeeves initially gained fame in 1998 and 1999 as being the "natural language" search
engine that let you search by asking questions and responded with what seemed to be the
right answer to everything.

In reality, technology wasn't what made Ask Jeeves perform so well. Behind the scenes,
the company at one point had about 100 editors who monitored search logs. They then
went out onto the web and located what seemed to be the best sites to match the most
popular queries.

Today, Ask Jeeves instead depends on crawler-based technology to provide results to its
users. These results come from the Teoma search engine that it owns, which is described
below.

Ask Jeeves is doing innovative things with invisible tabs and with what it calls Smart
Search. We think the future of search will be this much smarter approach to delivering up
more than just web pages. It makes Ask Jeeves a well-worth a visit by anyone looking for
information.

Ask Jeeves also owns now closed Direct Hit service.

Getting Listed: For the main editorial listings at Ask Jeeves, you need to be listed with
Teoma, which is described below. Paid listings come from Google AdWords, described
above.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How Ask Jeeves Works page, which
provides in-depth coverage of how Ask Jeeves integrates listings from Teoma and its
own editors.

Strongly Consider

The search engines below are other good choices to consider when searching the web.

AllTheWeb.com
http://www.alltheweb.com/

Powered by Yahoo, you may find AllTheWeb a lighter, more customizable and pleasant
"pure search" experience than you get at Yahoo itself. The focus is on web search, but
news, picture, video, MP3 and FTP search are also offered.

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AllTheWeb.com was previously owned by a company called FAST and used as a
showcase for that company's web search technology. That's why you sometimes may
sometimes hear AllTheWeb.com also referred to as FAST or FAST Search. However, the
search engine was purchased by search provider Overture (see below) in late April 2003,
then later become Yahoo's property when Yahoo bought Overture. It no longer has a
connection with FAST.

AOL Search
http://aolsearch.aol.com/ (internal)
http://search.aol.com/(external)

AOL Search provides users with editorial listings that come Google's crawler-based
index. Indeed, the same search on Google and AOL Search will come up with very
similar matches. So, why would you use AOL Search? Primarily because you are an
AOL user. The "internal" version of AOL Search provides links to content only available
within the AOL online service. In this way, you can search AOL and the entire web at the
same time. The "external" version lacks these links. Why wouldn't you use AOL Search?
If you like Google, many of Google's features such as "cached" pages are not offered by
AOL Search.

Getting Listed: AOL essentially duplicates the editorial and ad listings that are shown on
Google, so you need to be listed with Google in one of these ways, as described above .

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How AOL Search Works page, which
provides in-depth coverage of how AOL Search operates and why there may be subtle
differences between it and Google.

HotBot
http://www.hotbot.com/

HotBot provides easy access to the web's three major crawler-based search engines:
Yahoo, Google and Teoma. Unlike a meta search engine, it cannot blend the results from
all of these crawlers together. Nevertheless, it's a fast, easy way to get different web
search "opinions" in one place.

HotBot's "choose a search engine" interface was introduced in December 2002. However,
HotBot has a long history as a search brand before this date.

HotBot debuted in May 1996, it gained a strong following among serious searchers for
the quality and comprehensiveness of its crawler-based results, which were provided by
Inktomi, at the time. It also caught the attention of experienced web users and techies,
especially for the unusual colors and interface it continues to sport today.

HotBot gained more notoriety when it switched over to using Direct Hit's "clickthrough"
results for its main listings in 1999. Direct Hit was then one of the "hot" search engines
that had recently appeared. Unfortunately, the quality of Direct Hit's results couldn't

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match those of another "hot" player that had debuted at the same time, Google. HotBot's
popularity began to drop.

Even worse, HotBot also suffered by being owned by Lycos (now Terra Lycos). Lycos
had acquired HotBot when it purchased Wired Digital in October 1998. Lycos failed to
make search a priority on its flagship Lycos site as well as HotBot through much of 1999
and 2000, as it focused instead on adding "portal" features. The company refocused on
search in late 2001, making significant improvements to the Lycos site and, as noted,
reworked the HotBot site at the end of 2002.

Getting Listed: For the main editorial listings at HotBot, you need to be listed with the
three major crawlers that it can query. Follow the links for these crawlers on this page,
where they are mentioned.

Teoma
http://www.teoma.com/

Teoma is a crawler-based search engine owned by Ask Jeeves. It has a smaller index of
the web than its rival crawler-competitors Google and Yahoo. However, being large
doesn't make much of a difference when it comes to popular queries, and Teoma's won
praise for its relevancy since it appeared in 2000. Some people also like its "Refine"
feature, which offers suggested topics to explore after you do a search. The "Resources"
section of results is also unique, pointing users to page that specifically serve as link
resources about various topics. Teoma was purchased by Ask Jeeves in September 2001
and also provides some results to that web site.

Getting Listed: Read the Submitting To Teoma section of Search Engine Watch's
Essentials Of Search Engine Submission guide for more information on being included in
editorial results. Paid listings come from Google AdWords, described above.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How Ask Jeeves Works page, which
provides links to more in-depth coverage of how Ask Jeeves-owned Teoma gathers
listings.

Other Choices

The sites below are "major" in the sense that they either still receive significant amounts
of traffic or they've earned a reputation in the past that still causes some people to
consider them to be important. For various reasons explained below, they are not among
our top search choices. However, certainly feel free to try them. They could turn out to be
top choices for you.

AltaVista
http://www.altavista.com/

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AltaVista opened in December 1995 and for several years was the "Google" of its day, in
terms of providing relevant results and having a loyal group of users that loved the
service.

Sadly, an attempt to turn AltaVista into a portal site in 1998 saw the company lose track
of the importance of search. Over time, relevancy dropped, as did the freshness of
AltaVista's listings and the crawler's coverage of the web.

Today, AltaVista is once again focused on search. Results come from Yahoo, and tabs
above the search box let you go beyond web search to find images, MP3/Audio, Video,
human category listings and news results. If you want a lighter-feel than Yahoo but to
still have Yahoo's results, AltaVista is worth considering.

AltaVista was originally owned by Digital, then taken over by Compaq, when that
company purchased Digital in 1998. AltaVista was later spun off into a private company,
controlled by CMGI. Overture purchasing the search engine in April 2003, then it later
became part of Yahoo when Yahoo bought Overture.

Gigablast
http://www.gigablast.com/

Compared to Google, Yahoo or even Teoma, Gigablast has a tiny index of the web.
However, the service is constantly gaining new and interesting features. Give it a whirl, if
you want to try something experimental yet dependable. Read more about Gigablast in
this recent interview from our SearchDay newsletter.

LookSmart
http://www.looksmart.com/

LookSmart is primarily a human-compiled directory of web sites. It gathers its listings in

two ways. Commercial sites pay to be listed in its commercial categories, making the
service very much like an electronic "Yellow Pages." However, volunteer editors at the
LookSmart-owned Zeal directory also catalog sites into non-commercial categories for
free. Though Zeal is a separate web site, its listings are integrated into LookSmart's
results.

LookSmart launched independently in October 1996, was backed by Reader's Digest for
about a year, and then company executives bought back control of the service.

LookSmart also bought the WiseNut crawler-based search engine in April 2002.
WiseNut's are offered through the LookSmart via its Web tab above the search box.
Unlike its competitors, the WiseNut crawler has often been out of date, sometimes for
months at a time.

Finally, the real gem at LookSmart can be found via its Articles tab. That provides access
to content from thousands of periodicals.

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Getting Listed: Read the Submitting To LookSmart section of Search Engine Watch's
Essentials Of Search Engine Submission guide for more information on being included in
its free non-commercial listings. See the LookSmart Paid Listings section for information
about cost-per-click commercial listings.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How LookSmart Works page, which
has in-depth coverage of how LookSmart gathers listings.

Lycos
http://www.lycos.com/

Lycos is one of the oldest search engines on the web, launched in 1994. It ceased
crawling the web for its own listings in April 1999 and instead provides access to human-
powered results from LookSmart for popular queries and crawler-based results from
Yahoo for others.

"Fast Forward" lets you see search results in one side of your screen and the actual pages
listed in another. Relevant categories of human-compiled information from the Open
Directory appear at the bottom of the search results page.

Lycos is owned by Terra Lycos, a company formed with Lycos and Terra Networks
merged in October 2000. Terra Lycos also owns the HotBot search engine described
above.

Getting Listed: For the main editorial listings at Lycos, you need to be listed with
AllTheWeb.com, which is described above on this page. Paid listings come from
Overture, described below, and additional paid listings come from Terra Lycos's own
program, as described in this article.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How Lycos Works page, which
provides in-depth coverage of how Lycos integrates listings from its search providers.

MSN Search
http://search.msn.com/

Formerly one of Search Engine Watch's top choices, MSN Search is definitely one to
watch. The service was previously powered by LookSmart results and gained top marks
for having its own team of editors that monitored the most popular searches being
performed to hand-pick sites believed to be the most relevant. The system worked well.

Today, MSN Search is in transition. It provides access to Yahoo listings but not as much
functionality in terms of other types of searches that you'll find at Yahoo itself. However,
MSN is developing its own crawler-based technology and planning other changes that
should revitalize the service in later 2004.

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Getting Listed: You need to be listed with Yahoo and Overture, which are described
further above on this page.

Search Engine Watch members have access to the How MSN Search Works page, which
provides in-depth coverage of how MSN integrates listings from its search providers and
its own editors.

Netscape Search
http://search.netscape.com/

Owned by AOL Time Warner, Netscape Search uses Google for its main listings, just as
does AOL's other major search site, AOL Search. So why use Netscape Search rather
than Google? Unlike with AOL Search, there's no compelling reason to consider it. The
main difference between Netscape Search and Google is that Netscape Search will list
some of Netscape's own content at the top of its results. Netscape also has a completely
different look and feel than Google. If you like either of these reasons, then try Netscape
Search. Otherwise, you're probably better off just searching at Google.

Getting Listed: Netscape essentially duplicates the editorial and ad listings that are
shown on Google, so you need to be listed with Google in one of these ways, as
described above on this page.

Open Directory
http://dmoz.org/

The Open Directory uses volunteer editors to catalog the web. Formerly known as
NewHoo, it was launched in June 1998. It was acquired by AOL Time Warner-owned
Netscape in November 1998, and the company pledged that anyone would be able to use
information from the directory through an open license arrangement.

While you can search at the Open Directory site itself, this is not recommended. The site
has no "backup" results that kick in should there not be a match in the human-compiled
database. In addition, the ranking of sites during keyword searching is poor, while
alphabetical ordering is used when you choose to "browse" categories by topic.

Instead, to scan the valuable information compiled by the Open Directory, consider using
the version offered by Google, the Google Directory. Here, keyword searching uses
Google's refined relevancy algorithms and makes use of link analysis to better propel
good pages from the human database to the top. In addition, when viewing sites by
category, they will be listed in PageRank order, which means the most popular sites
based on analyzing links from across the web will be listed first.

Getting Listed: Read the Submitting To The Open Directory section of Search Engine
Watch's Essentials Of Search Engine Submission guide for more information.

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Search Engine Watch members have access to the How The Open Directory Works page,
which provides in-depth coverage of how the Open Directory gathers lisings.

Boolean Searching on the InternetBack to Internet Tutorials

Boolean Searching on the Internet

A PRIMER IN BOOLEAN LOGIC

The Internet is a vast computer database. As such, its contents must be searched

according to the rules of computer database searching. Much database searching

is based on the principles of Boolean logic. Boolean logic refers to the logical

relationship among search terms, and is named for the British-born Irish

mathematician George Boole.

On Internet search engines, the options for constructing logical relationships

among search terms extend beyond the traditional practice of Boolean searching.

This will be covered in the section below, Boolean Searching on the Internet.

Boolean logic consists of three logical operators:

OR

AND

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 NOT

Each operator can be visually described by using Venn diagrams, as shown below.

OR

college OR university

Query: I would like information about college.

In this search, we will retrieve records in which AT LEAST ONE of the search

terms is present. We are searching on the terms college and also university

since documents containing either of these words might be relevant.

This is illustrated by:

the shaded circle with the word college representing all the records that

contain the word "college"

the shaded circle with the word university representing all the records that

contain the word "university"

the shaded overlap area representing all the records that contain both

"college" and "university"

OR logic is most commonly used to search for synonymous terms or concepts.

Here is an example of how OR logic works:

Search terms Results

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 College 17,320,770

University 33,685,205

college OR university 33,702,660

OR logic collates the results to retrieve all the unique records containing one

term, the other, or both.

The more terms or concepts we combine in a search with OR logic, the more

records we will retrieve.

For example:

Search terms Results

College 17,320,770

University 33,685,205

college OR university 33,702,660

college OR university OR campus 33,703,082

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AND

poverty AND crime

Query: I'm interested in the relationship between poverty and crime.

In this search, we retrieve records in which BOTH of the search terms are

present

This is illustrated by the shaded area overlapping the two circles

representing all the records that contain both the word "poverty" and the word

"crime"

Notice how we do not retrieve any records with only "poverty" or only "crime"

Here is an example of how AND logic works:

Search terms Results

Poverty 783,447

Crime 2,962,165

poverty AND crime 1,677

The more terms or concepts we combine in a search with AND logic, the fewer

records we will retrieve.

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For example:

Search terms Results

Poverty 783,447

Crime 2,962,165

poverty AND crime 1,677

poverty AND crime AND gender 76

A few Internet search engines make use of the proximity operator NEAR. A

proximity operator determines the closeness of terms within the text of a source

document. NEAR is a restrictive AND. The closeness of the search terms is

determined by the particular search engine. Google defaults to proximity

searching by default.

NOT

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cats NOT dogs

Query: I want information about cats, but I want to avoid anything about

dogs.

In this search, we retrieve records in which ONLY ONE of the terms is present

This is illustrated by the shaded area with the word cats representing all the

records containing the word "cats"

No records are retrieved in which the word "dogs" appears, even if the word

"cats" appears there too

Here is an example of how NOT logic works:

Search terms Results

Cats 3,651,252

Dogs 4,556,515

cats NOT dogs 81,497

NOT logic excludes records from your search results. Be careful when you use

NOT: the term you do want may be present in an important way in documents that

also contain the word you wish to avoid.

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BOOLEAN SEARCHING ON THE INTERNET

When you use an Internet search engine, the use of Boolean logic may be

manifested in three distinct ways:

Full Boolean logic with the use of the logical operators

Implied Boolean logic with keyword searching

Predetermined language in a user fill-in template

1. Full Boolean logic with the use of the logical operators

Many search engines offer the option to do full Boolean searching requiring the

use of the Boolean logical operators.

Examples:

Query: I need information about cats.

Boolean logic: OR

Search: cats OR felines

Query: I'm interested in dyslexia in adults.

Boolean logic: AND

Search: dyslexia AND adults

Query: I'm interested in radiation, but not nuclear radiation.

Boolean logic: NOT

Search: radiation NOT nuclear

Query: I want to learn about cat behavior.

Boolean logic: OR, AND

Search: (cats OR felines) AND behavior

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 Note: Use of parentheses in this search is known as forcing the order of

processing. In this case, we surround the OR words with parentheses so that

the search engine will process the two related terms first. Next, the search

engine with combine this result with the last part of the search that involves

the second concept. Using this method, we are assured that the

semantically-related OR terms are kept together as a logical unit.

2. Implied Boolean logic with keyword searching

Keyword searching refers to a search type in which you enter terms representing

the concepts you wish to retrieve. Boolean operators are not used.

Implied Boolean logic refers to a search in which symbols are used to represent

Boolean logical operators. In this type of search on the Internet, the absence

of a symbol is also significant, as the space between keywords defaults to

either OR logic or AND logic. Many popular search engines traditionally

defaulted to OR logic, but as a rule are moving away from the practice and

defaulting to AND.

Implied Boolean logic has become so common in Web searching that it may be

considered a de facto standard.

Examples:

Query: I need information about cats.

Boolean logic: OR

Search: cats felines

This example holds true for the search engines that interpret the space

between keywords as the Boolean OR. To find out which logic the engine is

using as the default, consult the help files at the site. Nowadays, there are

few engines that use OR logic as the default.

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Query: I'm interested in dyslexia in adults.

Boolean logic: AND

Search: +dyslexia +adults

Query: I'm interested in radiation, but not nuclear radiation.

Boolean logic: NOT

Search: radiation -nuclear

Query: I want to learn about cat behavior.

Boolean logic: OR, AND

Search: cats felines +behavior

3. Predetermined language in a user fill-in template

Some search engines offer a search template which allows the user to choose the

Boolean operator from a menu. Usually the logical operator is expressed with

substitute language rather than with the operator itself.

Examples:

Query: I need information about cats

Boolean logic: OR

Search: Any of these words/Can contain the words/Should contain the words

Query: I'm interested in dyslexia in adults.

Boolean logic: AND

Search: All of these words/Must contain the words

Query: I'm interested in radiation, but not nuclear radiation.

Boolean logic: NOT

Search: Must not contain the words/Should not contain the words

Query: I want to learn about cat behavior.

Boolean logic: OR, AND

150
 Search: Combine options as above if the template allows multiple search

statements

Quick Comparison Chart:

Full Boolean vs. Implied Boolean vs. Templates

Full Boolean Implied Boolean Template Terminology

OR college or university college university

*see note below any of these words

can contain the words

should contain the words

AND poverty and crime +poverty +crime all of these words

must contain the words

NOT cats not dogs cats dogs must not contain the words

should not contain the words

NEAR, etc. cats near dogs N/A near

* This search statement will resolve to AND logic at search engines that use AND

as the default. Nowadays most search engines default to AND. Always play it

safe, however, and consult the Help files at each site to find out which logic

is the default.

Where to Search:

A Selected ListFeatureSearch Engine

Boolean operatorsAllTheWeb Advanced Search | Dogpile | HotBot | Ixquick |

ProFusion

Full Boolean logic with parentheses, e.g.,

behavior and (cats or felines)AlltheWeb Advanced Search | Ixquick

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Implied Boolean +/-Most search engines offer this option

Boolean logic

using search form terminologyAllTheWeb Advanced Search | AltaVista

Advanced Web Search | Google Advanced Search | Lycos Advanced Search |

Teoma Advanced Search

Proximity operatorsExalead | Google [by default] | Ixquick

References Books
Information Technology, 2nd ed by Curtin. McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001
Information Technology & Organizations: Strategies, Networks & Integration. Edited
by Brain P.Bloomfied, Rod Coombs, David Knights and Dale Littler. Oxford
University Press, Incorporated, 2000
An Introduction to Information Technology, by Anna Treby. Cassell Aademic.1999
Data Communication Testing & Troubleshooting, by Gilbert Held. 2nd ed. Wiley,
John & Sons, 1992
Communication & Global Society, Edited by Guo-Ming Chen and William J.Starosta
Lang, Peter Publishing, Incorporated, 2000
Converged Networks & Services: Internetworking, IP & the PSTN. Wiley, John &
Sons, Incorporated, 2000
E-Mail Business Strategies, And Dozens of Other Great Ways to Take Advantage of
the Internet by Philip Gurian Grand. National Press, 03/2000
How to Start & Operate an Internet, Used Book Store without spending a fortune
Laura Peterson. Geminini Bookls, 2000
Internet, by Lang. Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 2000
The Internet & Siciety, by James Slevin. Plity press, 2000

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