Announcements

• A&P textbooks available online:

• Essentials of anatomy and physiology
– ISBN: 9780803643758
• Anatomy and physiology
– Betts, J. Gordon ; Desaix, Peter ; Johnson, Eddie ; Johnson,
Jody E ; Korol, Oksana ; Kruse, Dean ; Poe, Brandon ; Wise,
James ; Womble, Mark D ; Young, Kelly A. Open textbook
library. Houston, Texas: OpenStax College, Rice University
2013 Open Textbook Library (UMN Center for Open Education)

• Cell and Molecular Biology

• Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th)
• 4th edition: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/
• Copies of course textbooks will be in the reserve
library
• I’ll ask for online textbooks
Outline

• Anatomy and physiology overview

• Structural organization
• Necessary life functions
• Homeostasis
• Cell and molecular biology review
• Anatomical positions
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy
– Study of structure
• Subdivisions:
– Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional,
systemic, and surface anatomy)
– Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
– Developmental (e.g., embryology)
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Physiology
– Study of the function of the body
– Subdivisions based on organ systems
(e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)
– Often focuses on cellular and molecular level
• Body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in
individual cells
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• To study physiology
– Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic
to cellular and molecular)
– Study of basic physical principles (e.g.,
electrical currents, pressure, and movement)
– Study of basic chemical principles
Principle of Complementarity

• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable

– Function always reflects structure
– What a structure can do depends on its
specific form
Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical
– Atoms and molecules; and organelles
• Cellular
– Cells
• Tissue
– Groups of similar cells
• Organ
– Contains two or more types of tissues
• Organ System
– Organs that work closely together
• Organismal
– All organ systems
Atoms Molecule Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level Cellular level

Atoms combine to Cells are made up
form molecules. of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
system
Tissue level
Heart Tissues consist of
Blood similar types of cells.
vessels
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue

Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.

Organismal level Organ system level

The human organism is made Organ systems consist of different
up of many organ systems. organs that work together closely.
Cells come in different shapes, sizes,
composition and function
Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries
• Movement
• Responsiveness
• Digestion
• Metabolism
• Disposal of wastes
• Reproduction
• Growth
Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries between internal

and external environments
– Plasma membranes
– Skin
• Movement (contractility)
– Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
– Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
Necessary Life Functions

• Responsiveness
– Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
– Withdrawal reflex
– Control of breathing rate
• Digestion
– Breakdown of ingested food
– Absorption of simple molecules into blood
Necessary Life Functions

• Metabolism
– All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
– Catabolism and anabolism
• Excretion
– Removal of wastes from metabolism and
digestion
– Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
Necessary Life Functions

• Reproduction
– Cellular division for growth or repair
– Production of offspring
• Growth
– Increase in size of a body part or of organism
Interdependence of Body Cells

• Humans are multicellular

– To function, must keep individual cells alive
– All cells depend on organ systems to meet
their survival needs
• All body functions spread among different
organ systems
• Organ systems cooperate to maintain life
Digestive system Respiratory system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them Takes in oxygen and
down, and eliminates unabsorbed eliminates carbon dioxide
matter (feces)
Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs

Blood
CO2
O2

Heart
Urinary system
Nutrients Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes and
Interstitial fluid excess ions

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system
Feces Protects the body as a whole Urine
from the external environment
Organ systems of the body
Overall energy
and mass balance
for the body
 Bones

Joint

Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
Skeletal
muscles

(c) Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression.
Maintains posture, and produces heat.
 Brain

Spinal Nerves
cord

Nervous System
As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
 Heart

Blood
vessels

Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart
pumps blood.
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx

Larynx Bronchus
Trachea

Lung

Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
The gaseous exchanges occur through
the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
 Kidney

Ureter

Urinary
bladder
Urethra

Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body. Regulates water, electrolyte and
acid-base balance of the blood.
Survival Needs

• Appropriate amounts necessary for life

– Too little or too much harmful
• Nutrients
• Oxygen
• Water
• Normal body temperature
• Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Survival Needs

• Nutrients
– Chemicals for energy and cell building
– Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins
• Oxygen
– Essential for energy release (ATP production)
Survival Needs

• Water
– Most abundant chemical in body
– Environment of chemical reactions
– Fluid base for secretions and excretions
• Normal body temperature
– 37oC
– Affects rate of chemical reactions
• Appropriate atmospheric pressure
– For adequate breathing and gas exchange in
lungs
Homeostasis

• Homeostasis
– Maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions despite continuous changes in
environment
– A dynamic state of equilibrium
– Maintained by contributions of all organ
systems
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Involve continuous monitoring and

regulation of all factors that can change
(variables)
• Communication necessary for monitoring
and regulation
– Functions of nervous and endocrine systems
• Nervous and endocrine systems
accomplish communication via nerve
impulses and hormones
Components of a Control Mechanism

• Receptor (sensor)
– Monitors environment
– Responds to stimuli (something that causes changes in
controlled variables)
• Control center
– Determines set point at which variable is maintained
– Receives input from receptor
– Determines appropriate response
• Effector
– Receives output from control center
– Provides the means to respond
– Response either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances
stimulus (positive feedback)
 3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information sent
sent along afferent Control along efferent pathway to
pathway to control Center effector.
center.
Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects 5 Response
change. of effector
feeds back to
1 Stimulus reduce the
effect of
produces stimulus and
change in returns
variable. BALANCE
variable
to homeostatic
level.
Negative Feedback

• Most feedback mechanisms in body

• Response reduces or shuts off original
stimulus
– Variable changes in opposite direction of
initial change
• Examples
– Regulation of body temperature (a nervous
system mechanism)
– Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an
endocrine system mechanism)
Component parts of a negative
feedback loop
 Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)

Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway

Receptors
Temperature-sensitive Effectors
cells in skin and brain) Sweet glands

Sweat glands activated

Response
Evaporation of sweat
Body temperature Body temperature falls;
rises stimulus ends
Stimulus: Heat BALANCE

Stimulus: Cold
Response
Body temperature
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends falls

Effectors Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
Skeletal muscles cells in skin and brain

Efferent Afferent
Shivering begins pathway pathway

Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Negative Feedback:
Regulation of Blood Glucose by Insulin
• Receptors sense increased blood glucose
(blood sugar)
• Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin
into the blood
• Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to
absorb more glucose, which decreases
blood glucose levels
Positive Feedback

• Response enhances or exaggerates

original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events that do
not require continuous adjustment
– Enhancement of labor contractions by
oxytocin
– Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
 1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

3 Released 2 Platelets
chemicals adhere to site and
attract more Positive release chemicals.
platelets. feedback
loop

Feedback cycle ends

when plug is formed.

4 Platelet plug
is fully formed.
Homeostatic Imbalance

• Disturbance of homeostasis
– Increases risk of disease
– Contributes to changes associated with aging
• Control systems less efficient
– If negative feedback mechanisms
overwhelmed
• Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may
take over (e.g., heart failure)
Cells transfer hereditary information in
division

• Hereditary information is stored in DNA

and is transferred from the mother cell to
daughter cells
• In each human cell, ~3.2 billion nucleotide
pairs get copied
• All the cells in a living organism have the
same genetic information
Some universal properties of cells

• Cells proliferate through division

• Hereditary information is transferred between
generations in cell division
• Proteins are synthesized through regulated
gene expression
• Cells are structurally and functionally
organized
• Cells actively interact with their environment
• Cells can process information using their
signaling networks
 Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells
• Cells can be classified into two families:
• Prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells are structurally and functionally more
advanced than prokaryotic cells
• Organisms can be classified:
• Prokaryotes are organisms made of a prokaryotic cell
• Eukaryotes are organisms made of a/an eukaryotic
cell(s)

http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-14023083
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells

• Some advanced features lacking in

prokaryotic cells includes:
• Division of cells into nucleus and cytoplasm, separated
by a nuclear envelope
• Complex chromosomes composed of DNA and
associated proteins
• Complex membranous cytoplasmic organelles
• Specialized organelles for aerobic respiration
(mitochondria) and photosynthesis (chloroplasts)
• Cytoskeletal system and associated proteins
• The ability to form a mitotic spindles for division
• One copy of genes in prokaryotic cells (haploid)
» Two copies of genes in eukaryotic cells (diploid)
• Sexual reproduction
Organization of eukaryotic cells

• A simplified engineering view of structural

and functional organization of cells
• Material: production, recycling,
sorting/packaging/transport/delivery
• Structure: assembly, disassembly
• Energy: production, distribution
• Information: collection, processing
• Motion: generation, control
Organization of eukaryotic cells

• Some examples:
• Structure: cytoskeleton
• Structure: plasma membrane
• Material production: ribosome
• Material sorting: ER and Golgi
• Material degradation: lysosome
• Material transport: cytoskeleton
• Material import: endosomes
• Energy: mitochondria and peroxisome
• Information: receptors, protein messengers, second
messengers
• Information/structure: nucleus
• Individual units often have multiple functions
 Structure scaffold: Cytoskeleton

• Cytoskeleton filaments
• Actin
• Microtubule
• Intermediate filament
• Centrioles and
centrosomes
• Initiate microtubule
growth
• Responsible for
microtubule organization
 Material Transport System: Cytoskeleton and
motility apparatus

• Cytoskeleton
filaments
• Actin
• Microtubules
• Molecular motors:
bind and “walk”
along actin
• Myosin
• Kinesin
• Dynein
 Structure: Plasma membrane
• Separates of cells from their environment
• ~5nm in thickness
• Diffusion of lipids and membrane proteins
• Restricted exchange across the
membrane:
• Pumps
• Carriers
• Compartments
Material production: Ribosomes

• Primary function:
• Protein synthesis
• Location: free in cytoplasm or bound to
endoplasmic reticulum
 Material packaging, sorting and
shipping: Endoplasmic reticulum &
Golgi apparatus
• Rough ER and smooth
ER
• Rough ER function:
• Protein processing and
quality control
• ER membrane is the site
for membrane protein
synthesis
• Coordinate with Golgi for
protein sorting
• Smooth ER function:
• Required for several
metabolic processes
Material packaging, sorting and shipping:
Endoplasmic reticulum & Golgi apparatus
• Golgi:
• Modifying, sorting, and labeling synthesized
proteins from ER
• Post office for the cell
• Packaging proteins into vesicles and sorting
vesicles for transportation
 Material degradation and recycling:
Lysosome
• Lysosomes: digest
macromolecules,
including those from
phagocytosis,
endocytosis,
autophagy
• Contain:
• Proteases (digest
protein)
• Nucleases (digest
nucleic acids)
• Carbohydrases (digest
carbohydrates)
• Lipases (digest lipids)
Energy generation/distribution:
Mitochondria
• Generation and distribution of ATP
• Regulation of many other metabolic
processes, including aging
 Energy generation/distribution:
Peroxisome
• Peroxisome: participates in the oxidation
of fatty acid, amino acid, and other
metabolites
Information: Collection and processing

• Receptors: A protein on the surface of a cell

that receives chemical signals originating
externally from the cell
• Protein messengers: Carry a signal from one
part of the cell to another
• Example: Messengers carry signals from the cytosol to
the nucleus
• Second messengers: Proteins that relay
signals from receptors on the cell surface to
target molecules inside the cytoplasm or
nucleus
Information storage and transcription:
Nucleus
• Provides enclosure to chromosome and genetic
information
• Transcription of DNA into mRNA
• Assembly of ribosome in nucleolus
• Controls material import and export through
nuclear pores
Anatomical Position

• Standard anatomical body position

– Body erect
– Feet slightly apart
– Palms facing forward
• Thumbs point away from body
• Always use directional terms as if body is
in anatomical position
• Right and left refer to body being viewed,
not those of observer
Regional Terms

• Two major divisions of body

– Axial
• Head, neck, and trunk
– Appendicular
• Limbs
• Regional terms designate specific areas
within body divisions
Body Planes and Sections

• Body plane
– Flat surface along which body or structure
may be cut for anatomical study
• Sections
– Cuts or sections made along a body plane
Body Planes

• Three most common

– Lie at right angles to each other
– Sagittal plane
– Frontal (coronal) plane
– Transverse (horizontal) plane
Sagittal Plane

• Sagittal plane
– Divides body vertically into right and left parts
– Produces a sagittal section if cut along this
plane
– Midsagittal (median) plane
• Lies on midline
– Parasagittal plane
• Not on midline
Body Planes

• Frontal (coronal) plane

– Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior
parts
– Produces a frontal or coronal section
• Transverse (horizontal) plane
– Divides body horizontally (90o to vertical plane)
into superior and inferior parts
– Produces a cross section
• Oblique section
– Result of cuts at angle other than 90o to vertical
plane
 Frontal plane

Median (midsagittal) plane

Transverse plane

Frontal section Transverse section Median section

(through torso, (midsagittal)
(through torso)
inferior view)
Pancreas
Aorta

Spleen
Arm

Left and Liver Heart Liver Spinal cord

Body wall Rectum Intestines
right lungs Stomach Subcutaneous fat layer Vertebral column
Body Cavities

• Two sets of internal body cavities

– Closed to environment
• Provide different degrees of protection to
organs
• Dorsal body cavity
• Ventral body cavity
Dorsal Body Cavity

• Protects nervous system

• Two subdivisions:
– Cranial cavity
• Encases brain
– Vertebral cavity
• Encases spinal cord
 Figure 1.9 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.

Cranial
Cranial cavity
cavity
(contains brain)

Vertebral
cavity

Superior
Dorsal Thoracic mediastinum
body cavity Pleural
cavity (contains cavity
heart and
Pericardial
lungs)
cavity within
the mediastinum
Vertebral cavity
Diaphragm Ventral body
(contains spinal
cavity
cord)
Abdominal cavity (thoracic and
(contains digestive Abdomino- abdominopelvic
viscera) pelvic cavities)
cavity
Pelvic cavity
Dorsal body cavity (contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
Ventral body cavity organs, and rectum)

Lateral view Anterior view

Ventral Body Cavity

• Houses internal organs (viscera)

• Two subdivisions (separated by
diaphragm)
– Thoracic cavity
– Abdominopelvic cavity
Ventral Body Cavity

• Thoracic cavity subdivisions

– Two pleural cavities
• Each surrounds a lung
– Mediastinum
• Contains pericardial cavity
• Surrounds thoracic organs
– Pericardial cavity
• Encloses heart
Ventral Body Cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions

– Abdominal cavity
• Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
– Pelvic cavity
• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and
rectum
Abdominopelvic Quadrants

• Divisions used primarily by medical

personnel
Right upper Left upper
quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)
liver, gallbladder pancreas, stomach

Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)
appendix
Other Body Cavities

• Exposed to environment
– Oral and digestive cavities
– Nasal cavity
– Orbital cavities
– Middle ear cavities
• Not exposed to environment
– Synovial cavities