Hand Book Protecciones

BOOK No 6 Global Organization
Innovative
Revision 0 Solutions
Product &
Substation System
Business Business
PROTECTION
APPLICATION HANDBOOK
BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations
LEC Support Programme
Suggestions for improvement of this book

as well as questions shall be addressed to:
BU TS / Global LEC Support Programme
C/o ABB Switchgear AB
SE-721 58 Västerås
Sweden
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Copyright © BU Tansmission Systems and Substations
2 BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

Protection Application
Handbook
Welcome to the Protection Application Handbook in the series of booklets

within the LEC support programme of BA THS BU Transmission Systems
and Substations. We hope you will find it useful in your work. Please note
that this is an advance copy that was used by ABB Substations in Sweden.
The handbook will be modified to better suit into the engineering documen
tation planned to be issued in cooperation with the Global process owner
Engineering.
The booklet covers most aspects of protection application based upon

extensive experience of our protection specialists like:
- Selection of protection relays for different types of objects.
- Dimensioning of current and voltage transformers matching protection
relays requirements.
- Design of protection panels including DC and AC supervision, terminal
numbering etc.
- Setting of protection relays to achieve selectivity.
- Principles for sub-division of the protection system for higher voltages.
The booklet gives a basic introduction to application of protection relays

and the intent is not to fully cover all aspects. However the basic philosophy
and an introduction to the application problems, when designing the protec
tion system for different types of objects, is covered.
The intention is to have the application as hardware independent as possi

ble and not involve the different relay types in the handbook as the protec
tion relays will change but the application problems are still the same.
The different sections are as free standing sections as possible to simplify

the reading of individual sections. Some sections are written specially for
this handbook some are from old informations, lectures etc. to bigger or
smaller extent.
BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme 3

Content
Section
Page No
Network General
5
Fault calculation
23
Network earthing
51
Protection General
83
Protection Line
97
Protection Transformer
163
Protection Reactors
175
Protection Capacitors
185
Protection Bus and Breaker
189
Earth Fault protection
203
Current transformers
235
Voltage transformers
249
Requirement on current transformers 263
Control System structure 275
Protection settings 301
Sub divided systems 341

Network General
1. TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
1.1 GENERAL
For a long power line, symmetrical built and symmetrical loaded

in the three phases, voltage and current variation along the line
can be expressed as shown in fig. 2, with corresponding formu
las. In these formulas the propagation of speed is included as a
variable.
The propagation of speed can be calculated according to:
γ= ( R + jX ) ( G + jB )= ZY
where “R”, “X”, “G” and “B” are the resistance, reactance, con
ductance and susceptance per phase.
Surge impedance is defined as:
R + jX Z
Zv = ----------------- = ----
G + jB Y
For lines without losses the above formulas become:
ϒ= jω LC = j XB = jβ
X L
Zv = ---- = ---
B C
The values of “X” and “B” can approximately be calculated from

the geometrical data of the power line according to the following
formulas:
–4  2H 
L = 2 × 10 ln  -------------- H/km
 R ekv
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

 
 –6 
 10 
C=  --------------------------------  F/km
  2H  
 18 ln  -------------- 
  R ekv 
where:
“H” is the phase conductors height over earth
“Rekv” is the phase conductor equivalent radius. To determine the
equivalent radius see fig. 1.
The surge impedance is accordingly obtained as:
 2H 
Z v = 60 ln  --------------
 R ekv
For single conductors, “Zv” is approximately 360-400 ohm per
phase. For duplex conductors, “Zv” is approximately
300-320 ohm per phase.
Figure 1. Different conductor configurations.
The equivalent radius Rekv will be:
R ekv = n R × d n – 1
mean
where “n” is the number of conductors per phase.

Network General
If the voltage “U2” and the current “I2” at the receiving side is giv
en, the voltage at a distance “s” km from the supplying side (see
fig. 2) is given as:
Figure 2. Voltage distribution along a line.
U = U 2 cos βs + Z v I 2 sin βs
U
I = j ------2- sin βs + I 2 cos βs
Zv
1.2 POWER LINE AT NO LOAD, I2 = 0
Voltage and current along the line are following a cos- respective
ly a sinus curve. The voltage as well as the current have the same
phase angle along the whole line. The phase angle between the
voltage and current is 90°.
1
U 2 ≈ U 1 × -------------------------------------
- at 50Hz
cos (0.06 × l)°
1
U 2 ≈ U 1 × ----------------------------------------- at 60Hz
cos (0.072 × l)°
where “l” is the line length in km.
It must also be considered that “U1” increases when the line is
connected to a network.
Qc
∆U 1 ≈ ---------------
-
S sh.c.

where:
“Qc” is the capacitive power generated by the line and
“Ssh.c.” is the short-circuit power of the network.
The capacitive power generated by the power line can be calcu

lated as:
U2
Q c = -------
Xc
Where “U” is the rated line voltage and “Xc” is the capacitive re
actance of the power line.
1.3 POWER LINE SHORT-CIRCUITED, U2 = 0
For this case the voltage follows a sinus curve and the current fol
lows a cosines curve i. e. opposite to when the power line is at no
load.
1.4 POWER LINE AT LOAD
At “surge impedance” load “U2 = Zv I2” the reactive power pro

duced in the shunt capacitance of the line is same as the reactive
power consumed by the reactance along the line. The following
balance is obtained:
2 L
ωC × U 2 = ωL × I ⇒ U
---- = ---- = Z
v
I C
If the active losses of the line is neglected the following conditions

are obtained for different load conditions:
- If the transferred active power is less than the “surge impedance” load
and no reactive power is taken out at the receiving end, the voltage will
be higher at the receiving end than the voltage at the sending end. If
voltage is kept equal at both ends, the voltage will be higher at the mid
dle of the line.
- If the transferred active power is higher than the ”surge impedance” load
and no reactive power is taken out at the receiving end, the voltage will
be lower at the receiving end than the voltage at the sending end. If the
voltage is kept equal at both ends, the voltage will be lower at the middle
of the line.

Network General
In reality these conditions are modified a little due to the resis

tance of the line. This will give a small voltage drop in the same
direction as the active power flow.
The “surge impedance load” is normally only considered for very

long transmission lines at very high voltages. For these cases the
actual power should not deviate too much from the “surge imped
ance” load considering losses on the line, voltage fluctuation and
the availability of reactive power in the network.
In most cases, technical and economical aspects rules what
power that is to be transmitted over the line.
As a general guidance for “surge impedance load” you can as

sume approximately 120 MW for a 220 kV line with a single con
ductor and 500 MW for a 400 kV line with duplex conductors.
2. VOLTAGE DROP AND LOSSES IN POWER

SYSTEMS.
SHORT LINES (<50 KM)
E1 Z=R+jX
E 2
P 1
P 2
Q 1
I Q 2
E 1
a
Ia E2
Ir I
Figure 3. Load transfer on a short line.
VOLTAGE DROP AND LOSSES IN POWER SYSTEMS.

2.1 VOLTAGE, REACTIVE AND ACTIVE POWER
KNOWN AT THE RECEIVING END
The impedance for short lines can be expressed as “Z=R+jX”,

see fig. 3. The voltage drop can be split into two components, one
in the same direction as “E2”, named “a” and one perpendicular
to “E2”, named “b”.
1 (R × P + X × Q )
a = ------
- 2 2
E2
1 (X × P + R × Q )
b = ------
- 2 2
E2
2 2
E1 = ( E2 + a ) + b
This means that if the voltage, the active and reactive power are
known at the receiving end, the voltage at the sending end can
be easily calculated.
For short lines, “b” will be small compared with the voltage and it
is possible to make the approximation “E1 =E2+ a”.
If “b” is less than 10% of “E2+ a”, the error when calculating “E1”
is less than 0.5%.
The active and reactive losses Pf and Qf on the line can be ex
pressed as:
2 2
2 P2 + Q2
P f = 3R × I = R × ---------------------
2
E2
P1 = P2 + Pf
2 2
2 P2 + Q2
Q f = 3X × I = X × ---------------------
2
E2

Network General
Q1 = Q2 + Qf
2.2 VOLTAGE, REACTIVE AND ACTIVE POWER

KNOWN AT THE SENDING END
If the voltage, the active power and the reactive power are known
at the sending end the following equations are valid:
1 (R × P + X × Q )
a = ------
- 1 1
E1
1 (X × P + R × Q )
b= ------
- 1 1
E1
2 2
E2 = ( E1 – a ) + b
For short lines “b” will be small compared with “E1 - a” and the ap
proximation “E 2 ≈  E 1 – a ” can be done in the same way as
when the voltage, the active and reactive power are known at the
receiving end.
The losses on the line can be expressed as:
2 2
2 P1 + Q1
P f = 3R × I = R × ---------------------
2
E1
2 2
2 P1 + Q1
Q f = 3X × I = X × ---------------------
2
E1
P2 = P1 – Pf
Q2 = Q1 – Qf

2.3 VOLTAGE KNOWN AT SENDING END, REACTIVE
AND ACTIVE POWER KNOWN AT THE RECEIVING
END
The cases when the voltage at the sending end and the reactive
and active power at the receiving end are known is quite com
mon. The calculation will in cases like these be a little more com
plicated and trial calculation is the best way. The voltage at the
receiving end is assumed “E’2” and from this value a voltage
“E’1”, at the sending end is calculated. The calculated value “E’1”
is subtracted from the given value “E1” and the difference is add
ed to the previous guessed “E’2” value to get a new value.
E″ 2 = E′ 2 + E 1 –
E′ 1
The nominal sending end voltage can normally be assumed as

the first guessed value of “E’2”.
2.4 REDUCTION OF THE VOLTAGE DROP
For a power line at a certain load there are some possibilities to

reduce the voltage drop:
- Keeping the service voltage as high as possible.
- Decreasing the reactive power flowing through the line by producing re
active power with shunt capacitors at the load location.
- Reducing the inductive reactance of power lines with series capacitors.
3. REPRESENTATION OF LONG POWER

LINES(>50 KM)
Long power lines are usually represented with a p-link,

see fig. 4.
Rπ X π
Bπ B π
REPRESENTATION OF LONG POWER LINES(>50 KM)

Network General
Figure 4. The equivalent π representation of a line.
where:
Rπ = R  1 – 1
--- XB
 3
X π = X  1 – --1- XB
 6 
B π = --1- B  1 + -----
1-XB
2  12 
This scheme can be used up to 200 km length without long line

correction, which is the second term in the equation above. The
calculation error is then about 1.5% in resistance, 0.75% in reac
tance and 0.4% in susceptance.
If the corrections are used the scheme above can be used up to

800 km line length. The calculation error is then about 1.0% in re
sistance and 0.5% in reactance.
The values of “X” and “B”, can be calculated from the geometrical
data, see formulas for L and C in the beginning of the chapter.
REPRESENTATION OF LONG POWER LINES(>50 KM)

4. SYNCHRONOUS STABILITY
4.1 ONE GENERATOR FEEDING A “STRONG” NET-

WORK
Assume that one generator is feeding a strong network through

a line, see fig. 5.
E 1
E1 E2
M0 X E2 ψ
Figure 5. Generator feeding a “strong” network.
E1 E2
- sin ψ
P = ------------
X
2
d ψ
ωJ ---------
2
- = P 0 – P max × sin ψ
dt
2
d ψ
2 = M 0 – M max × sin ψ
J ---------
-
dt
Where “ω“is the angular frequency, “2πf” and “J” are the angular
momentum.
The differential equation becomes possible to solve if the trans

ferred power, during the fault is zero.
2
d ψ P dψ P0 P0 t2
2 = ------- ⇒ ------- = ------- × t + A ⇒ ψ ( t ) = ------- × 2 + A × t + B
---------
- 0 ----
dt ωJ dt ωJ ωJ
For steady state condition the derivative of the angle is zero i. e.
there is balance between the produced and transmitted power.
This gives “A”=0.
The angle for “t=0” gives “B=ψ 0”.
SYNCHRONOUS STABILITY

Network General
The inertia constant “H” of a generator is defined as:
1
--- ω 2 × J 2 × Sn × H
2
H = ------------------- ⇒ ωJ = --------------------------
Sn ω
Inserting these values gives the following equation:

2
ω × P0 t
ψ ( t ) = -------------------------
- × ---- + ψ 0
2 × Sn × H 2
If the transferred power during the fault is not zero the equal area
criteria has to be used for checking the stability.
4.2 EQUAL AREA CRITERIA FOR STABILITY
A power station feeds power to a strong network through two par

allel lines, see fig. 6.
E2
Xl
E1
Xs
G
mXl (1-m)X l
Figure 6. Line fault on one circuit of a double Overhead line.
When a three phase fault occur on one of the lines, the line will
be disconnected by the line protection.
The question is whether the synchronous stability is maintained

or not.

Before the fault, the maximum transferred power is:
E1 × E2
P max = ---------------------
Xl
X s + -----
2
During the primary fault the reactance between the generator

and the strong network will be:
Xs Xl 1
X s + X l + ------------- = X s  1 + ----- + X l
mX l  m
this is obtained by an “Y-D-transformation” of the system

(see fig. 7).
Xl
Xs
Short-circuit since it is
a strong network
mXl (1-m)Xl This reactance can be igno

red since it is short-circuited
by the strong source
Zero potential bus

Figure 7. Thevenins Fi
theorem applied on the faulty network.
Maximum transferred power during the fault is:

E1 × E2
P′ max = -
----------------------------------------
1
X s 1 + ---- -
m + X l
The power transfer during the fault is therefore limited. Maximum

power can be transmitted when “m”=1, i. e. a fault close to the
strong network. For faults close to the generator “m”=0 and no
power can therefore be transmitted during the fault.
When the faulty line has been disconnected the maximum trans
ferred power will be:
E1 × E2
P″ max = --------------------
-
Xs + Xl

Network General
The maximum transferred power after that the fault has been
cleared will be:
0.5P max < P″ max < P max
In fig. 8 the active power that can be transferred during the differ
ent conditions is shown.
P
Pmax
P"max
Po
P’max
ψ
ψ ψ ψ π
0 1 2
Figure 8. The equal area method shows the stability limit.
The following equation is valid when the two areas in the figure
above are equal:
ψ1 ψ2
∫ ψ 0 P0 – P′max dψ= ∫ψ 1 P″max – P0 dψ
The angle is increasing from “y0” to “y1” during the fault. For the
worst condition when “m”=0 the accelerated power is constantly
equal to “P0” during the fault.
If the area below “P0” (see the dashed area in fig. 8) is smaller
than the maximum area between “P0” and the curve with “P”max”
as maximum the system will remain stable.
In fig. 8 the area above “P0” equal to the area below “P0” is
dashed which shows that the system will remain stable for the
case shown in fig. 8.

5. ACTIONS TO IMPROVE THE STABILITY
This matter could be looked into from two different aspects, either
to increase the stability at a given transferred power or to in
crease the transferred power maintaining the stability.
MORE THAN ONE PHASE CONDUCTOR PER PHASE
decreases the reactance of the line and thus the angle between
the line ends at a given transferred power, or it can increase the
power transferred with maintained stability. If the reactance is
100% with one conductor per phase it will become approximately
80% with 2 conductors, 70% with three conductors and 65% with
four conductors.
Multiple phase conductors reduces the electric field strength at

the surface of the conductors. This makes it possible to have a
higher voltage without getting corona.
SERIES CAPACITORS ON OVERHEAD LINESreduces the reactance

between the stations. The compensation factor “c” is the ratio be
tween the capacitive reactance of the capacitor and the inductive
reactance of the overhead line. The power transfer can be dou
bled if a compensation factor of 30% is used.
SHORT FAULT CLEARING TIME makes the increase of the angle

between the two systems at an occurring primary fault smaller.
The angle increase is proportional to the time in square.
SINGLE POLE AUTORECLOSING allows the two healthy phases to

transfer power even during the dead interval. For lines longer
than approximately 350 km it is then necessary to include four leg
reactors to extinguish the secondary arc due to the capacitive
coupling between the phases.
INCREASED INERTIA CONSTANT IN THE GENERATORS makes the

maximum allowed fault clearance time to increase proportional to
the square root of the inertia constant increase. The allowed pow
er transfer can also be increased with maintained fault clearance
times.
ACTIONS TO IMPROVE THE STABILITY

Network General
6. SHUNT REACTORS
Shunt reactors are used in high voltage systems to compensate

for the capacitive generation from long overhead lines or extend
ed cable networks.
The reasons for using shunt reactors are two. One reason is to
limit the overvoltages, the other reason is to limit the transfer of
reactive power in the network. If the reactive power transfer is
minimized, i.e. a better reactive power balance in the different
part of the networks a higher active power can be transferred in
the network.
Reactors for limiting overvoltages are mostly needed in weak

power systems, i.e. when the network short circuit power is rela
tively low. The voltage increase in a system due to the capacitive
generation is:
Q c × 100
∆U ( % ) = ------------------------
S sh.c.
where
“Qc” is the capacitive input of reactive power to the network and
“Ssh.c” is the short circuit power of the network.
With increasing short circuit power of the network the voltage in
crease will be lower and the need of compensation to limit the ov
ervoltages will be less accentuated.
Reactors included to get a reactive power balance in the different

part of the network are most needed in heavy loaded networks
where new lines can’t be built out of environmental reasons. The
reactors then are mostly thyristor controlled in order to adopt
quickly to the required reactive power.
Four leg reactors can also be used for extinction of the secondary
arc at single-phase reclosing in long transmission lines, see fig.
9. Since there always is a capacitive coupling between the phas-
SHUNT REACTORS

es this will keep the arc burning (secondary arc). By adding one
single-phase reactor in the neutral the secondary arc can be ex
tinguished and the single-phase auto-reclosing successful.
7. REACTORS FOR EXTINCTION OF SECOND-

ARY ARC AT AUTO-RECLOSING
It is a known fact that most of the faults in overhead lines are of

single phase type. It is therefore possible to open and reclose
only the faulty phase and leave the other two phases in service.
The advantage with this is that the stability of the network is im
proved since the two remaining phases can transmit power dur
ing the auto-reclosing cycle. This is of special interest for tie lines
connecting two networks, or part of networks.
Due to the capacitive coupling between the phases the arc at the
faulty point can be maintained and the auto-reclosing conse
quently would be unsuccessful. With a dead interval of 0.5 sec
onds, line lengths up to approximately 180 km can be reclosed
successfully in a 400 kV system. This with the assumption of fully
transposed lines. Should the line be without transposition the line
length with possible successful single-phase auto-reclosing
would be about 90 km. If the dead interval is increased to 1.0 sec
ond the allowed lengths will be approximately doubled.
For successful auto-reclosing of lines longer than above it’s nec

essary to equip the line with Y-connected phase reactors at both
ends, combined with “neutral” reactors connected between the
Y-point and earth. This solution was first proposed in 1962 by pro
fessor Knudsen the reactor are therefore also called Knudsen re
actor but it can also be called teaser reactor.
The teaser reactors inductance is normally about 26% of the in

ductance in the phases. The maximum voltage over the teaser re
actor then becomes approximately 20% of nominal voltage
phase/earth. The current through the teaser reactor during a sin
gle-phase auto-reclosing attempt is about the same as the rated
current of the phase reactors. The duration of the dead interval is
usually 0.5-1 second. In normal service currents through a teaser
REACTORS FOR EXTINCTION OF SECONDARY ARC AT

Network General
reactor is only a few amperes due to possible small unsymmetry
in the phase voltages and differences between the phase reac
tors.
Because of the low powers and voltages in the teaser reactor the
reactor can be made very small compared with the phase reac
tors. The extra cost to include the teaser reactor compared to the
“normal” shunt reactor cost is therefore not so large.
L L L L L L
0.26x 0.26x
L L
Figure 9. Single pole fault clearance on a power line with teaser reactors to
extinguish the arc.


Fault Calculation
1. INTRODUCTION
Fault calculation is the analysis of the electrical behavior in the

power system under fault conditions. The currents and voltages
at different parts of the network for different types of faults, differ
ent positions of the faults and different configurations of the net
work are calculated.
The fault calculations are one of the most important tools when
considering the following:
- Choice of suitable transmission system configuration.
- Load- and short circuit ratings for the high voltage equipment.
- Breaking capacity of CB:s.
- Application and design of control- and protection equipment.
- Service conditions of the system.
- Investigation of unsatisfactory performances of the equipment.
This description will be concentrated on fault calculations used at

application and design of protection equipment.
The major requirements on protection relays are speed, sensitiv

ity and selectivity. Fault calculations are used when checking if
these requirements are fulfilled.
Sensitivity means that the relay will detect a fault also under
such conditions that only a small fault current is achieved This is
e. g. the case for high resistive earth faults. For this purpose fault
calculations for minimum generating conditions are performed to
make sure that the selected relay will detect the fault also during
minimum service conditions.
Selectivity means that only the faulty part of the network is dis
connected when a fault occurs. This can be achieved through ab
solute selectivity protection relays (unit protection) or time
selective relays. In a network, there is always time selective pro
tection relays as back up protection. To be able to make selective
settings of these relays it’s necessary to have a good knowledge
INTRODUCTION

of the fault current.
Speed means that a limited operating time of the relay is re

quired. For many relays the operating time is depending on the
magnitude of the fault current. Thus it is important, when planning
the network to have a good knowledge of the fault current. Here
by it’s possible to predict the operating time of the relay and thus
make sure that maximum allowed fault clearance time is fulfilled
under all circumstances.
2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE FAULT

CALCULATION.
Concerning fault calculations the first thing to do is to decide what

case or cases that shall be studied. The fault current and fault
voltage at different parts of the network will be affected by the fol
lowing:
- Type of fault.
- Position of the fault.
- Configuration of the network.
- Neutral earthing.
The different types of faults that can occur in a network, can be

classified in three major groups:
- Short circuited faults.
- Open circuited faults.
- Simultaneous faults.
The short circuited faults consists of the following types of fault:

- Three phase faults (with or without earth connection).
- Two phase faults (with or without earth connection).
- Single phase to earth faults.
The open circuit faults consists of the following types of fault:

- Single phase open circuit.
- Two phase open circuit.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE FAULT CALCULATION.

Fault Calculation
- Three phase open circuit.
Simultaneous faults are a combination of the two groups de

scribed above, for example, if one conductor, at an overhead line,
is broken and one end of the line falls down. Then there is both
one single phase to earth fault and one single phase open circuit
ed fault in the system.
Deciding what fault and how many locations of the fault, that shall
be studied, depends on the purpose of the study. If the sensitivity
of a differential relay is to be studied, the fault shall be located in
side the protective zone. By this, knowledge of the differential
current at a fault is achieved. If, on the other hand, selectivity be
tween the inverse time delayed over current relays is to be stud
ied, other fault locations must be selected.
The configuration of the network is of greatest importance when

making fault calculations. There will be a big difference, compar
ing the results, if the calculations are performed at minimum or
maximum generating conditions. The result will be affected by
how many parallel lines that are in service and if the busbars are
connected via bus coupler or not etc.
The large number of conditions that affect the fault calculation

makes it practical to have a standard fault condition to refer to,
normally the three phase short circuit faults. This short circuit lev
el may be expressed in amperes, or in three phase MVA corre
sponding to the rated system voltage and the value of the three
phase fault current.
3. BASIC PRINCIPLES
3.1 TIME ASPECT
It is a well known fact that the effects of a fault, changes with the
time that has passed since the fault occurred. The physical rea
son for this transient process is that electromagnetic energy is
stored in the inductances of the circuits. This energy can not be
BASIC PRINCIPLES

altered in a indefinite short time. Therefore some time will pass
while the new electrical field is created. These time intervals are
known as the sub-transient and transient conditions. The duration
of the transient interval is counted in ms. In this case, the fault cal
culations are intended to be used for application and design of re
lay equipment. The fastest protection relays have operating times
of about 10 ms. When time selectivity is to be investigated the
time can vary from 0.3 second up to a few seconds. Therefore
fault calculations are made for conditions when the first transient
condition “sub transient conditions” have come to an end i.e. the
transient reactances of the generators are used.
3.2 TYPE OF FAULT
The task of the protection relays is to protect the high voltage

equipment.This is done by a trip signal, given to the circuit break
ers, when a fault occurs. The most dangerous phenomena is nor
mally the high current that occurs at a short circuit. When making
fault calculations for the purposes here discussed, short circuit
type faults are normally considered. Open circuit faults will not
cause high Overcurrent or high overvoltages and are therefore
normally not dangerous to the network. Open circuit faults will
cause heating in rotating machines, due to the “negative se
quence current” that will flow in the system. The machines are
therefore equipped with negative sequence current protection.
The setting of this relay normally needs no fault calculation and
can be done correctly without knowledge of the problems men
tioned above.
A network is usually protected against phase and earth faults by

protection relays. The magnitude of the fault current is dependent
on what type of fault that occurs. At earth faults the size of the
fault current is depending on the earthing resistance or reactance
(if applicable) and on the resistance in fault. The fault resistance
for a phase fault is much smaller than that for an earth fault. This
shows why fault calculations for earth faults with a specified re
sistance in the fault normally is recommended.
Three phase faults normally gives the highest short circuit cur-
BASIC PRINCIPLES

Fault Calculation
rents. Therefore short circuit calculations for three phase faults
also normally are used.
Two phase faults normally gives lower fault currents than three
phase faults, why normally the need for fault calculations for two
phase faults is limited. However, a two phase fault calculation can
be necessary to check the minimum fault current level to verify
the sensitivity for the back-up protection.
3.3 DEFINITION
Faults can be divided into two groups, symmetrical (balanced)

and unsymmetrical (unbalanced) faults. The symmetrical faults
are only concerning three phase faults, all other faults are seen
as unsymmetrical.
4. BALANCED FAULT CALCULATION
When a balanced fault i.e. a three phase fault occurs, the relation
between the phases is maintained. This means that the fault cur
rents and the fault voltages are equal in the three phases. The
only difference is the phase angle which will be maintained even
during the fault. It is therefore sufficient to use a single phase rep
resentation of the network and calculate the fault currents and
voltages at one phase. The result will be applicable at all three
phases, with the angle (120°) maintained between the phases.
The short circuit calculations are easiest done by using Theve

nin´s theorem which states:
Any network containing driving voltages, as viewed from any two
terminals, can be replaced by a single driving voltage acting in se
ries with a single impedance. The value of this driving voltage is
equal to the open circuit voltage between the two terminals before
the fault occurs, and the series impedance is the impedance of the
network as viewed from the two terminals with all the driving volt
ages short circuited.
The two terminals mentioned in the theorem are located at the

fault. This way of calculating will only give the change in voltage
BALANCED FAULT CALCULATION

and current caused by the short circuit. To get the correct result
the currents and voltages that existed in the system before the
fault must be superimposed geometrically to the calculated
changes.
The two following simplifications are normally made:

- The same voltage is used in the whole network (voltage drops from load
currents are neglected).
- All currents are considered to be zero before the fault occurs, which
means that no load currents are considered.
4.1 STEP BY STEP INSTRUCTIONS - SHORT CIR-

CUIT CALCULATIONS
When making three phase short circuit calculations these four

steps should be followed:
1) Short circuit all E.M.F. s (Electro Motoric Forces) in the network and
represent the synchronous machines with their transient reactances.
2) Decide one base voltage and transform all impedances into that volt
age level.
3) Reduce the network to one equivalent impedance.
4) If “U” is the selected base voltage and “Z” is the resulting impedance
of the network the total short circuit current “Isc” in the fault itself, at a
three phase short circuit, is:
U
I sc = -----------
Z 3
Clause 1 can be commented as follows:

It depends on what part of the network that is of interest, how the
sources are represented. If the voltages and currents of interest
are located not too far from the generator, the synchronous ma
chines should be represented as mentioned. If however the area of
interest is far from the generating plants it´s normally more conve
nient to use the short circuit power closer to the fault point as
source.
The four steps are further developed:

Fault Calculation
Representation of the network components
Overhead lines are represented by their resistance and reac
tance.
The positive sequence values are used for phase faults. For earth
faults, the zero sequence values are used. Negative sequence
components for overhead lines are always equal to the positive
sequence components.
The values mentioned, must be given by the constructor of the
overhead lines. The values depends on the size of the line itself,
as well as on the physical configuration of the lines (both within a
phase and between the phases).
For zero sequence impedance, the earth conditions are also of
greatest importance. When two or more lines are placed at the
same towers, there will be a mutual impedance between the
lines. The mutual impedance is only important at earth faults,
though it, for phase faults, is that small it can be neglected. Con
sideration to the mutual impedance must only be taken when
earth faults are calculated.
Thumb roles concerning overhead lines:
- For line reactance of a HV overhead line the reactance is about

0.3-0.4 ohm/km at 50 Hz.
- The resistance is normally small (0.02-0.05 ohm/km) and of minor
importance to the short circuit calculations.
- The zero sequence reactance is approximately 3-4 times the positive se
quence reactance and the mutual reactance is approximately 55-60%
of the zero sequence reactance.
One way to describe these values is to give them in%, pu. Then
the basic power also will be given.
Example: A 400 kV line “x” = 1.76% and “Sbase”= 100 MVA gives:
2
X = ----------- × ------------ = 28.16Ω
1.76 400
100 100
Cables are represented by the same values as the overhead

lines, i.e. resistance and reactance. Also here the cable manufac-

turer must give the data as the values changes with the type of
cable. Typically a cable impedance angle is around 45 ° and the
zero sequence values are of the same magnitude as the positive
sequence values.
Transformers are represented by their short circuit impedance.

As the transformer is almost entirely inductive, the resistance
normally is neglected.
The impedance of the transformer is:
zk 2
U
- × ------
X = ---------
100 S N
where “zk” is the short circuit impedance. For a three winding
transformer there are short circuit impedances between all of the
three windings.
Figure 1. The Star delta impedance transformation is necessary to calculate

fault currents when three winding transformers are involved.
In this case the star/triangle transformation is useful.

z 12 × z 13
z1 = z + z + z -
------------------------------------
12 13 23
z 12 × z 23
z 2 = ------------------------------------
z 12 + z 13 + z 23
-
z 13 × z 23
z 3 = ------------------------------------
z 12 + z 13 + z 23
-

Fault Calculation
z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1
z 12 = -----------------------------------------------
z3
-
z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1
z 23 = -----------------------------------------------
z1
-
z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1
z 13 = -----------------------------------------------
z2
-
Typical values for “zk” are 4-7% for small transformers (<5MVA)
and 8-15% for larger transformers (these figures must be given
by the transformer manufacturer in every single case as the val
ues can differ within a wide range).
When it comes to the zero sequence impedance of the transform

er, It’s depending on the type of connection. These figures must
be given by the manufacturer in every single case. The following
figures can be a guideline:
Dyn: Z0 = 0.8-1.0 times Zk
Yzn: Z0 = 0.1 times Zk
Yyn+d: Z0 = 2.5 times Zk
Yyn: Z0” = 5-10 times Zk for a three leg transformer without equalizing
winding.
Yyn: Z0” = 1000 times Zk for a five leg transformer or single phase trans
formers.
Zk is the short circuit impedance for three phase faults.
Synchronous machines are represented by the transient reac

tance as described earlier when the time aspect was discussed.
Asynchronous machines only contributes to the fault current,

the motor operates as a generator, for about 100 ms after the
fault occurrence. They are therefore neglected in short circuit cal
culations for protection relay applications.

Impedance transformation
To be able to make the calculations with Thevenin´s theorem,
all impedances must be transformed to the same voltage level
with the following formula:
2
V 
Z 1 =  -----1- × Z 2
 V 2

where index 1, is the primary side and index 2, is the second

ary side of the transformer.
Network reduction
When all network parameters has been transformed into the
same voltage level they can be calculated in the same way as
series and parallel resistance. The total network impedance is
then reduced to one impedance.
Short circuit calculation

Now the phase voltage is connected to the impedances calcu
lated above. The short circuit current is calculated with Ohm´s
law.
4.2 SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS WITH

SHORT CIRCUIT POWER
As an alternative to the impedance calculations described the

short circuit power of the different objects can be used. It´s
then to be observed that:
- The result of short circuit powers in parallel is the series of the indi
vidual short circuit powers.
- The result of short circuit powers in series is the parallel connection
of the individual short circuit powers.
The following examples shows the two methods used and nor
mally a combination of both is used.

Fault Calculation

Example 1. Calculate the fault current IK4 at a three phase
fault.
.
10
2
132  2
X g1 = 0.15 --------- ----------  = 130.7 Ω
20  10 
2
132
X tr1 = 0.05 ------------ = 43.6 Ω
20
X g1 + X tr1 = 174.3 Ω = X k1
10 132 
2 2
X g2 = 0.19 --------- ----------  = 331.1Ω
10  10 
2
132
X tr2 = 0.06 ------------ = 104.5 Ω
10
X g2 + X tr2 = 435.6Ω = X k2
The total short circuit impedance of the 132 kV busbar is:
X k3 = X g1 + X tr1 //X g2 + X tr2 = X k1 //X k2
which gives:
X k3 = 124.5Ω

Fault Calculation
We get the equivalent circuit:
The following result is achieved:
76.2
I k4 = --------------- = 0.46 kA
124.5
Calculation with short circuit power:

20 - × ----------
---------- 20
0.15 0.05-
S k1 = -----------------------------
20 20 = 100MVA
----------- + ----------
0.15 0.05
10 - × ----------
---------- 10
0.06 0.19-
S k2 = -----------------------------
10 - ---------- 10 = 40MVA
---------- +
0.06 0.19
“Sk1+Sk2= Sk3” which gives: “Sk3”= 140 MVA.
The equivalent short circuit power of the line is:

2
132
S L = ------------ = 435.6 MVA
40

Now we get the total short circuit power up to the fault:
(100 + 40) × 435.6
S k4 = -------------------------------------------------
100 + 40 + 435.6 = 105.9 MVA
-
This finally gives the fault current:
105.9
I k4 = ----------------------- = 0.46 kA
3 × 132
5. UNBALANCED FAULT CALCULATION
Unbalanced faults means single phase faults or two phase

faults with or without earth connection.
For a two phase fault without earth connection the fault current
will be:
3
I 2ph = ------- × I 3ph
2
In reality there always is a resistance at the fault. The resis

tance at two phase faults consist mainly of the arc resistance.
In some cases the resistance at the fault can be much higher
than usual. For example when a wooden branch is stuck be
tween the phases. To get a correct calculation of two phase
faults symmetrical components are normally used.
For earth faults the earthing principle is the most important for
the fault current. In an effectively earthed system, the fault cur
rent is of the same size as the three phase fault current. To
make correct calculations of this current symmetrical compo
nents are used.
5.1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
The method of symmetrical components provides a practical

technology for making fault calculations of unsymmetrical
UNBALANCED FAULT CALCULATION

Fault Calculation
faults, both single- and two phase faults. The method was invent
ed by Charles L Fortescue in 1913 and was developed further by
others until its final form was presented in 1943.
The method is a mathematical tool which is used to describe and

calculate the phenomena in a three phase system at unsymmet
rical load or when an unsymmetrical fault occurs. For the three
phase system three distinct sets of components are introduced
for voltages and currents: positive, negative and zero sequence
components.
POSITIVE SEQUENCE SETThe positive sequence components

consist of the balanced three phase currents and lines to neutral
voltages supplied by the system generators. They are always
equal in magnitude though the phases are displaced 120°. The
positive system is rotating counterclockwise at the system fre
quency. To document the angle displacement it’s convenient to in
troduce an unit phasor with an angle displacement of 120°, called
“a”. We get the following relations:
a = 1/120° = -0.5+j0.866
a2 = 1/240° = -0.5-j0.866
a3 = 1/360° = 1.0+j0
CONVENTION IN THIS PAPERThe phase components are

designated “a”, “b”, and “c”. Positive sequence components are
designated “1”, negative “2” and zero sequence components “0”.
For example “Ia1” means the positive sequence component of the
phase current in phase “a”.
Now the positive sequence set of symmetrical components can

be designated:
Ia1 = 1
Ib1 = 2aIa1 = 2aI1 = 1I
/240°
Ic1 = aI
a1 = aI1 = 1I
/120°
V a1 = 1
V b1 = 2aV a1 = 2aV 1 = 1V
/240°

V c1 = aV
a1 = aV
1 = 1
V
/120°
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE SET This is also a balanced set of

quantities with 120° phase displacement. The difference from the
positive sequence components is that the system is rotating
clockwise at power frequency.
The negative sequence set can be designated:

Ia2 = 2
Ib2 = aI
a2 = aI
2 = 2I
/120°
Ic2 = 2aIa2 =a2I2 = 2I
/240°
V a2 = 2
V b2 = aV a2 = aV2 = 2V
/120°
V c2 = 2aV a2 = 2aV 2 = 2V
/240°
ZERO SEQUENCE SET The zero sequence components are al

ways equal in magnitude and phase in all phases.
We get the following equations:

Ia0 = b0
I = c0
I =I
V a0 = b0
V = c0V
=V0
Description of the system

All conditions in the network can be described using the above
defined symmetrical components. Three groups of equations are
used:
BASIC EQUATIONS These equations are valid during all conditions

in the network and is a description of how the system of symmet
rical components is built.
V a = 0V
+V 1+V 2
(1)
+a2V 1+aV2
V b = 0V
(2)
Vc = +aV1+a2V 2
0 (3)
Ia = 0I
+I1+I2
(4)
+a2I1+aI2
Ib = 0I
(5)
Ic = +aI1+a2I2
0I
(6)

Fault Calculation
GENERAL EQUATIONS These equations are valid during all
conditions in the network and give the conditions for the electro
motoric forces in the network. The electromotoric forces only ex
ists when the positive sequence components in a network are
balanced before the fault occurs. The electromotoric forces only
exist in the positive sequence system.
According to the superposition theorem the following statement

is valid:
A network can be replaced by a simple circuit, where the electro
motoric force voltage equals the open circuit voltage of the net
work and the internal impedance equals the impedance of the
network measured from the external side, if the voltage sources in
the network are short circuited. The currents are defined positive
out from the network.
This gives the following equations:
E 1 = 1V
+I1Z 1 (7)
0 = 2V
+I2Z 2 (8)
0 = 0V
+I0Z 0 (9)
Where “Z1” is the positive sequence impedance of the network,

“Z2” is the negative sequence impedance and “Z0” is the zero se
quence impedance of the network. The actual values of these
network impedances are depending on the network and are used
and reduced in the same way as when calculating symmetrical
faults.
SPECIAL EQUATIONS These equations varies from fault to fault.

They will be explained more in detail when the fault types are dis
cussed later on, but can shortly be explained:
Ia = 0 (10)
Ib+Ic = 0 (11)
V b-Vc = I
bZ bc (12)

Impedance between two phases
E1 Z1
E2=0 Z2 b
E0=0
Z0 c
Ib Ic
Zbc
When the impedance “Zbc” is inserted, an unsymmetrical current

is drawn from the network. The following equations are achieved
according to the general, special and basic equations showed
above.
According to equation (4):

I0+I1+I2 = aI
= 0
Ib = -Ic inserted in equation (5) and then taking (5) + (6) give:
2)I+(a2 + a)I
2I0+(a+a 1 2 = 0
which means that:

I0 = 0, since there is no earth-connection in the fault (13)
I1+I2 = 0
(14)
Equation (12) together with (2), (3) and (14) give:

(a2-a)(V1-V2) = Zbc(a2-a)I1
V 1-V2 = bc
Z I1 (15)
Equation (7) and (8) together gives:

E 1 = V1-V2+I1Z 1-I
2Z 2
(16)
Insert (14) and (15) into (16):

E1
I 1 = ----------------------------------- = – I 2 (17)
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc

Fault Calculation
Equations (13) to (17) gives for a two phase fault the following
block diagram:
I1 = 2-I
I0 I1
I2
Z2
Insert 13, 17 into 7, 8 and 9 and you will get:

 Z1 
V 1 = E 1 1 – -----------------------------------  (18)
 Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc 
Z2
V 2 = E 1 ----------------------------------
- (19)
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc
and:
V0 = 0 (20)
The unknown phase currents and voltages can be calculated by

inserting 11,13 and 14 into 17 into the basic equations:
2 E1
I b = –I c = a – a ----------------------------------
- (21)
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc
Before the fault occurred there were only positive sequence volt
age.
E a = 1
E b = 2a
E 1
E c = aE

“Ea“, “Eb” and “Ec” are the voltages, when the system is in a
balanced condition.
This gives:
Eb – Ec
I b = –I c = ----------------------------------- (22)
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc
and:
 Z1 – Z2 
V a = E a 1 – ----------------------------------
- (23)
 Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc 
and:
Eb Z1 – Ec Z2
V b = E b – ----------------------------------
- (24)
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc
Ec Z1 – Eb Z2 (25)
V c = E c – ----------------------------------
-
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z bc
In reality, we have “Z1 = Z2 = Z”. The following network is
achieved:
The following equations are achieved:

Eb – Ec (26)
I b = –I c = -----------------------
2Z + Z bc
V a = a
E (27)

Fault Calculation
V b = bE - ZI
b
(28)
V c = cE - ZI
c
(29)
For a two phase fault without fault resistance “Zbc” is set to 0.
Impedance between phase and earth

E1 Z1 VC
E2 = 0 Z2 VB
E3 = 0 Z0 VA
0
Za
Ia
The general and the basic equations will still be the same as in
“Impedance between two phases” but the following special equa
tions are achieved:
The special equations:

Ib = 0 (30)
Ic = 0 (31)
V a = aI
Za (32)

Transformation of the equations 30, 31, 5, 6, as in ”Impedance
between two phases” gives the following result:
I0 = I1 = I2 (33)
E 1
I 1 = I 2 = I 0 = ------------------------------------------------- (34)
3Z a + Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2
E1 Z1
V 1 = E 1 – ------------------------------------------------
- (35)
3Z a + Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2
E1 Z2
V 2 = ------------------------------------------------- (36)
3Z a + Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2
E1 Z0
V 0 = ------------------------------------------------- (37)
3Z a + Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2
This gives the following figure:
3E a
Ia = ------------------------------------
- (38)
2Z + Z 0 + 3Z a
Ib = Ic = 0 (39)

Fault Calculation
 2Z + Z 0 
V a = E a 1– ------------------------------------
- (40)
 2Z + Z 0 + 3Z a 
Z0 – Z (41)
V b = E b – E a ------------------------------------
-
2Z + Z 0 + 3Z a
Z0 – Z (42)
V c = E c – E a ------------------------------------
-
2Z + Z 0 + 3Z a
This simple network is achieved:

EC Z
VC
EB Z
VB
EA Z
VA
Za
1/3(Z0-Z) 0
Example 1
Generator: Xg = 24.2 Ω/ph, (X1 = X2)

Transformers: Xk1 = 12.1 Ω/ph, Xk2 = 10 Ω/ph
(Zero and positive sequence impedances equal).
Network: Xn = 8.3 Ω/ph
Line: X1 = 40 Ω/ph, X0 = 120 Ω/ph

Calculate the fault current for:
a) Two phase fault with zero fault resistance.
b) Single phase solid earth fault.
a) Two phase short circuit
This scheme is valid when “Z1=Z2=Z”.
In this case “Zbc” is set to 0.

The value of “Z” is calculated:
(X g + X k1 )(X L + X k2 + X n )
Z = --------------------------------------------------------------------
X g + X k1 + X L + X k2 + X n
Then “Z” = 22.4 Ω/ph and “Ib” = 1.23 kA/ph
b) Single phase solid earth fault
This scheme is also valid when “Z1=Z2=Z” and “Z” = 22.4 Ω/ph

Fault Calculation
3E a
I a = -------------------------------------
2Z + Z 0 + 3Z a
X k1 (X 0L + X k2 )
X 0tot = -
----------------------------------------
X k1 + X 0L + X k2
This gives “X0tot” = 11.1 Ω/ph and
55 × 3
I a = ------------------------------------------------- = 1.71 kA
3 ( 11.1+2 × 22.4)
It should be noted that the current at single phase fault is higher

than the fault current at three phase fault.
Example 2:
Transformer: 20MVA, 16/77 kV, xk =8%, Yd11
Generator: 20MVA, 16 kV, x(transient) =25%, X2 = X1

Line: X1 = 84 Ω/ph, X0 = 300 Ω/ph
The line is considered unloaded before the fault and all resis
tance and capacitance is neglected. The voltage at the fault po
sition is 75 kV before the fault.
Calculate the fault current through the earth connection of the

transformer, the phase currents on both sides of the transformer
and the voltages (to earth) in the HV terminals of the transformer.

Calculation of the 77 kV impedances.
Generator:
2  2
16 77
X 1 = X 2 = 0.25 × --------- × ------  = 74Ω/ph
20 16 
Transformer:
77 2 = 23.7Ω/ph
X 1 = X 2 = 0.08 × -----
-
20
Line:
Ω/ph, 0X= 300
X 1 = 2X = 84 Ω/ph

The following block diagram is achieved:
Ω/ph
X 1 = 2X = 181.7
Ω/ph
X 0 = 323.7
75
I 1 = I 2 = I 0 = -----------------------------------------------------------= 0.063 kA/ph
3 ( 2x181, 7 + 323, 7 )
The current through the earth connection of the transformer.
Ig = 3xI0 = 0.189 kA
The component voltages at the HV side:

U 1 = 1E
+dU 1 = 43.3-(j97.7)(-j0.063) = 37.15 kV
U 2 = dU
2 = -j97.7(-j0.063) = -6.15 kV
U 0 = dU
0 = -j23.7(-j0.063) = -1.49 kV
Phase voltages:

U a = U0+U 1+U 2 = 29.5/0° kV
U b = U0+a2U 1+aU2 = 41.3/-114.4° kV
U c = U0+aU1+a2U 2 = 41.3/114.4° kV
Phase currents:
Ia = I
0+I1+I2 = 3x0.063 = 0.19 kA
+a2I1+aI2 = 0.063(1+a
Ib = 0I 2
+a) = 0 kA
+aI1+a2I2 = 0.063(1+a
Ic = 0I 2
+a) = 0 kA
Phase currents on the LV side:

Connection:
Figure 2. The positive sequence current is turned +30°, while the negative
sequence current is turned -30°.
At the 16 kV side there is no zero sequence current as the trans

former is Yd connected “I0”=0.
The phase currents at the 16 kV side:
I a = 77
j30° –j30°
------ (0 + 0.063e + 0.063e )=
16
77
= ------ 3 × 0,063= 0.52 kA
16
I b = 77
j30° 2 – j30°
------ (0 + 0.063e a + 0.063e a)=
16
77 j30° –j120° –j30° j120°

= ------(0.063e e + 0.063e e ) = 0kA
16

j30° – j30° 2
I c = 77
------ (0 + 0.063e a + 0.063e a )=
16
= 77
j30° j120° –j30° –j120°
------ (0.063e e + 0.063e e )
16
77 3 × 0,063= 0.52 kA
= -----
-
16

System Earthing
1. WHAT IS SYSTEM EARTHING
The term “earthing” consists of several functions which only have

“utilizing the earth” in common. Before describing the system
earthing, it can be of interest to know a bit about the different
types of earthing.
Protective earthing is applicable mainly in electronic equipment

to prevent damage or errors at the components. Example of pro
tective earthing is when a screened cable is earthed, or when an
incoming signal conductor is connected to earth through a ca
pacitor or a filter.
Protective earthing can be described as a way of protecting man

from dangerous voltages. Example of protective earthing is,
when the casing of e.g. a washing machine is connected to earth
(green/yellow conductor) or when a row of switchgear cubicles
are connected to an earth conductor, which connects the cover
of the cubicle to earth.
Lightning protection can also be a part of system earthing.
System earthing concern the kind of deliberate measures that

connects a normally live system to earth. It is normally the zero
point of the system that is connected to earth but other solutions
can occur.
Of course, all types of systems can be earthed, and the terminol

ogy “system earthing”, can thus be used. Systems like electronic
systems and battery systems, measuring transformer circuits
etc., are often earthed. In the following text we will only consider
system earthing of alternating current systems for power distribu
tion and transmission, with a voltage over 150 V.
If a point in a system is earthed the whole system will be earthed

as far as the galvanic connection goes. A system earthing on the
contrary does not affect the parts of the network that are connect-
WHAT IS SYSTEM EARTHING

ed magnetically to the earthed part of the network, for example
through transformers. See figure 1.
Figure 1. The earthing of a system is effective for all galvanic connected

parts.
2. WHY USE SYSTEM EARTHING
The main reason for connecting the network to an earth potential,

is of course that both human beings and equipment will be pro
tected. These are only two reasons for system earthing but many
other requirements on operation reliability have to be fulfilled as
well.
Some of the reasons to use system earthing are described in the

following text.
2.1 FIX THE NETWORK TO EARTH POTENTIAL
All alternating current networks are in one way or another cou

pled to earth through leakage capacitances. The capacitances
can be so small that the network at some occasions can reach a
dangerously high potential.
WHY USE SYSTEM EARTHING

System Earthing
If a connection between the conductors in two networks with dif

ferent voltage occurs, the network with the lowest voltage would
get a dangerously increased voltage to earth. This can be pre
vented by a suitable earthing of the network with the lowest volt
age.
Even if there is no direct connection a dangerous voltage can oc

cur due to the capacitive coupling between the two networks.
2.2 REDUCE THE FAULT CURRENT AT EARTH

FAULT.
In an unearthed network a capacitive current will appear when an

earth fault occurs. This derives basically from the leakage capac
itance in cables and overhead lines but also generators, motors
and transformers contributes. Depending on the voltage level and
the distribution of the network this current can reach values from
a few, up to hundreds of Amperes in big cable networks. The ca
bles will give the highest capacitive current.
A formula for the capacitive current IC of cables is normally stated

as IC = UH/10x3 A/km, where UH is the line voltage.
If the capacitance of the network is compensated with a reactor

connected to the neutral point, the current through the fault point
can be drastically reduced, See figure 2. This is advantages since
the damage caused by the fault current through the fault location
is limited.

L1
L2
L3
IL Ic Ic
Ij
L1U
Ictot
L2Ic
L1Ic UN
L3U L2U
IL
Figure 2. Reduction of earth fault current with a neutral-point impedance.

Resulting earth fault current Ij is very small if IL= ICTot
2.3 REDUCE OVERVOLTAGES
The overvoltages that can be reduced through system earthing
are those who depend on transient earth faults, increased neu
tral-point voltage and transients due to switching or lightning.
Transient earth faults
At occurring earth faults, especially in systems with small earth
fault current, the conditions are such that the arc will be extin
guished at the zero passage of the current. Afterwards it will be
re-ignited when the voltage increases over the fault point again.
This phenomenon is in USA, called “arcing grounds”.
If the current and the voltage at the fault point not are zero simul
taneously the transient fault can throughout repeated extinctions
and reignitions create a high overvoltage in the whole network.
The overvoltage will be particularly high if the system is com-

System Earthing
pletely unearthed and the earth fault current is only dependent of
the leakage capacitance of the system, this is shown in Figure 3.
Xco/R
Xco/XL
Xc0 is the total network reactance to earth 1/ωC.

R0 is the neutral resistor resistance at resistance earthing
XL is the neutral reactor reactance ωC
Figure 3. The influence of earthing, in the maximum overvoltage, due to tran
sient earth faults.The transient overvoltage in the figure, is written in percent
of the phase voltage top value. The upper curve shows the overvoltage for
a neutral reactor earthing.
“XC” is the leakage capacitive reactance to earth which is depen

dent of the total capacitance (1/wC) of the network and “R” is the
resistance of the neutral resistor.
The figure above shows that an earthing should be performed in

such a way that the earthing resistance is less or equal to the ca
pacitive reactance to earth. If the system is earthed through a re
actor its reactance should be almost equal to, or a lot less, than
the total capacitive reactance to earth.
The figure shows the overvoltages that can occur during unfavor
able circumstances but normally overvoltages are less. As can
be seen the overvoltages in unearthed systems can be of the
size, or higher than, the test voltage for new generators and mo
tors. The risk of damaging these apparatuses will therefore be
very high. Surge arresters won’t give a reliable protection, since
they will be destroyed at repeated overvoltages. A system which

contains generators or motors should therefore always be
earthed in some way.
Increased neutral-point voltage

In case of an earth fault in one phase in an unearthed network a
phase-ground voltage will appear in the neutral-point and the oth
er two phases will thus have their phase-phase voltage to earth.
By using an effective earthing (see section 3.2) the voltage can
be reduced to 80% of the phase-phase voltage. It’s then possible
to choose apparatuses with lower insulating level which means
considerable cost reducing at high voltage networks. A trans
former with a direct earthed neutral-point can furthermore be
equipped with graded insulation. This means that the insulation
level is lower close to the neutral-point than at the line terminals
which give considerable savings for big power transformers.
Coupling and lightning overvoltages

Operating of switching apparatuses can create overvoltages
which usually are higher than three times the nominal voltage but
of short duration. The overvoltages are created through transient
oscillation in the capacitance and the inductance of the circuit.
Neutral point earthing will probably not reduce the overvoltages

created by switching waves or lightning. They can though distrib
ute the voltage between the phases and reduce the possibility of
a high voltage stress on the insulation between one phase and
earth.
2.4 SIMPLIFY LOCATION OF EARTH FAULTS
In an unearthed network it’s often difficult to detect and clear an

earth fault. Through a suitable earthing it’s possible to create an
earth fault current that can be measured and also form a base for
the locating of the earth faults.

System Earthing
2.5 AVOID FERRO-RESONANCE
Voltage transformers connected to an unearthed network can un

der particular circumstances create abnormal neutral-point volt
ages. The voltage transformer can then be regarded as an
non-linear inductance, which goes into self-oscillation with the
capacitance of the network. This phenomenon is called “fer
ro-resonance”.
The abnormal neutral point voltage can damage the voltage

transformers and create unwanted earth fault indications. If the
network is earthed the phenomenon will not appear. In an un
earthed network the oscillation can be prevented by connecting
a resistor either to the “delta” winding in a three phase voltage
transformer or to a zero-point voltage transformer. Note that such
a resistor gives the same result as a resistor with a very high re
sistance connected directly between the zero-point and earth
(See figure 4).
Figure 4. Three equal methods to prevent ferro resonance.

3. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYSTEM EARTHING
In Swedish Standards (following IEC) the following earthing alter

natives are given:
a) Systems with an isolated neutral-point
b) Coil earthed systems.
c) Earthed system:
-Effectively earthed system
-Not effectively earthed system.
In american literature, “Electrical power distribution for Industrial

Plants” (ANSI/IEEE 141 1986), the following alternatives are
mentioned:
a) Solidly earthed (without deliberate earthing impedance)
b) Reactance earthed
c) Resistance earthed by low- or high resistance.
d) Unearthed
With these alternatives as a base it’s possible to distinguish the

types of earthing that are explained in the following sections:
3.1 DIRECT EARTHING
Direct earthing means that the neutral-point of the network is

earthed in at least one point without deliberately inserting any im
pedance. Observe that this not quantifies how effective the earth
ing is since the neutral point impedance still can be high. This can
happen if i.e. the neutral-point in a transformer, that is small com
pared to the short circuit effective output of the network, is
earthed. It can also happen if the earth resistance is high.
Direct earthing describes how the earthing is done not the result
achieved. However, normally it’s understood that the direct
earthed system should be effectively earthed.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYSTEM EARTHING

System Earthing
3.2 EFFECTIVE EARTHING
An effectively earthed network follows the requirements given in

ANSI and SS (Cenelec). A system, or a part of a system, is con
sidered effectively earthed, when the following statements are
valid in all points of the system:
ANSI & SS (Cenelec) gives “X0≤3X1” and “R0≤X1”, where “X0” is

the zero sequence reactance, “R0” is zero sequence resistance
and “X1” is the positive sequence reactance.
The requirements leads to a maximum voltage of 80% of nominal

line voltage between a phase and earth, called the earthing fac
tor. Therefore lower insulation requirements can be accepted and
surge arresters with lower extinction voltages can be used.
3.3 REACTANCE EARTHING
The concept reactance earthing occurs basically in american lit

erature and relates to earthings where “X0≤10X1”. The factor “10”
is required to drastically reduce the overvoltages due to transient
earth faults. Reactance earthing is used mainly when a direct
earthing of a generator’s neutral point is not desired.
3.4 LOW RESISTANCE EARTHING
Resistance earthing is an earthing where “R0≤2X0” but “R0”, still

is so small that a big earth fault current is obtained. The resis
tance earthing is normally done in such a way that, when a fully
developed earth fault occurs, an earth fault current between 200
and 2000 A is achieved. The advantage with this way of earthing
is that normal relays can be used for detection of earth faults.
Resistance earthing is one out of two methods recommended by

the english standard CP 1013:1965. The proposed current value

is 300 A. The other method is earthing through a voltage trans
former i. e. a unearthed networks.

System Earthing
3.5 HIGH RESISTIVE EARTHING
High resistive earthing concerns the cases where the factor

“3R0≤Xco”, where “Xco” is the total capacitance of the network
per phase against earth, is obtained by using the biggest possi
ble resistance R0 to earth.
If the capacitive current in a network at a fully developed earth

fault is less than 30 A it’s possible, up to voltages of 25 kV, to pro
vide the system with a neutral-point resistance for currents of at
least the same size as the capacitive current of the network.
At transient earth faults the voltage in the network stays within

reasonable limits (see figure 3) and the current to earth increas
es with only 50% compared to the unearthed system. The neu
tral-point resistance can, if desired, relatively easy be installed to
withstand the phase voltage. Therefore it’s not necessary to have
a tripping earth fault relay at locations where it would create ma
jor disadvantages for the operation. This can e. g. be the case for
industrial plants where tripping can cause a big disturbance for
the service.
When high resistive earthing is mentioned, basically in American

literature, an earthing through an one-phase transformer loaded
with a resistor secondary is intended. This is electrically equiva
lent to a resistor directly connected between the neutral-point
and earth. See figure 5.
G G
Figure 5. Two equivalent methods for high resistance earthing.

3.6 RESONANCE EARTHING (EARTHING WITH PE-
TERSÉN-COIL)
For resonance earthing an inductance calibrated to the capaci

tance of the network at rated frequency is chosen. This leads to
a small resulting operating frequency earth fault current and it is
only caused by the current due to insulation leakage and corona
effect. An arc in the fault point can therefore easily be extin
guished since current and voltage are in phase and the current is
small. Observe that a strike through a solid material like paper,
PVC, cambric or rubber isn’t self-healing why they don’t benefit
from the resonance earthing.
The resonance coil should be calibrated to the network for all

connection alternatives. Therefore the setting must be changed
every time parts of the network are connected or disconnected.
There however exists equipment, e. g. in Sweden, Germany and
Austria, that will do this automatically.
At a resonance earthing it is often difficult to obtain selective

earth fault relays. Therefore the resonance coil is connected in
parallel with a suitable resistor giving a current of 5 to 50 A at full
zero-point voltage, i. e. a solid fault. The resistor should be
equipped with a breaker for connecting and disconnecting at
earth faults. The breaker should be used for the In-Out automatic
and for the thermal release of the resistor, if the fault is not auto
matically cleared by the protection relays, as these normally are
not designed to allow continues connecting.
The theories about resonance earthing are very old and were de
veloped at the time when only overhead transmission lines exist
ed. In cable networks, high harmonic currents are generated
through the fault point. Even if the network is exactly calibrated
it’s possible that currents up to several hundred amperes ap
pears. This of course leads to difficulties for an earth fault to self
extinguish.

System Earthing
Resonance earthing can also be a way to fulfil the requirements
concerning the standards for maximum voltage in earthed parts.
Through resonance earthing a smaller earth leakage current is

obtained and consequently a higher earthing grid resistance can
be accepted.
In an unearthed or voltage transformer earthed system the risks

for overvoltages at transient faults are not considered.
Generally it is recommendable to avoid unearthed systems. In
the British standards this is explicitly stated.

4. TO OBTAIN A NEUTRAL-POINT
In a three phase network the neutral-point often is available in a

“Y” connected transformer or in a generator neutral. This should
then be utilized at system earthing.
If the transformer is connected “Y0/D” or “Y-0/Y-0” with delta

equalizing winding, the “Y-winding” can be utilized even for direct
earthing. An “Y/Y” connected transformer without such an equal
izing winding shall not be directly earthed but can under some cir
cumstances be utilized for high resistance or resonance earthing.
4.1 Y0/Y-CONNECTED TRANSFORMER
If one side of a “Y/Y” connected transformer is earthed, theoreti
cally there wouldn’t flow any current through the earth connection
since it is impossible to create a magnetic balance in the wind
ings for this kind of currents. However, the flow is closed through
leakage fields from yoke to yoke through insulation material and
plates. This can create a local heating that will damage the trans
former.
If the transformer has a magnetic return conductor as e. g. a five
leg transformer or three one phase units the earth current leads
to a flow in the return conductor.
The zero sequence impedance for an “Y0/Y” transformer is al
ways high but varies, depending on the design, from 3 to 40 times
the short circuit current impedance.
If you are aware of the high zero sequence impedance and if the
transformer construction accepts the heating problems a “Y0/Y”
connected direct earthed transformer limiting the earth fault cur
rent to about the transformers rated current can be utilized in the
power system.
4.2 Z/0-CONNECTED EARTHING TRANSFORMER
In the “Z/0” connected transformer, see figure 7, a magnetic bal

ance for zero sequence current leading to a low zero sequence
TO OBTAIN A NEUTRAL-POINT

System Earthing
impedance is created. The neutral point of the transformer can ei
ther be connected directly to earth or through another neutral
point apparatus such as a resistor or reactor. In the first case the
thermal consequences must be cleared in advance as the
“Z/0”.transformer often has limited thermal capability. The earth
ing “Z/0” transformer is thus often specified for 10 or 30 sec ther
mal rating.
Figure 6. Z/0-connected earthing transformer.
TO OBTAIN A NEUTRAL-POINT

5. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH FAULT CURRENT
In calculating earth fault currents it’s advantageous, but not nec

essary, to use symmetrical components to check the flow of the
earth fault currents.
A very simple way of checking, where only peripherally the theory

of symmetrical components is used, could be utilized. According
to this theory a current “3I0” (three times the zero sequence cur
rent), flows through the neutral-point. This can be used in letting
the fault be represented by three “current arrows” and then exam
ine how these can be distributed in the system maintaining the
magnetic balance. Possible positive and negative sequence cur
rents are then not considered. Some examples of these calcula
tions are shown in the text that follows but first an explanation of
the “zero sequence impedance”.
5.1 ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE
In the previous discussion the name “zero sequence impedance”

has been used at several occasions. The easiest way to under
stand this term is to indicate how to measure it in practice.
The measurement of zero sequence impedance is done by short

circuiting the three phases with preserved earthing of the net
work. Each phase has then a zero sequence impedance which is
three times the impedance measured between the three phases
and earth.
5.2 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION AT AN EARTH FAULT

WITH A Z/O EARTHING TRANSFORMER.
Whether the network has been earthed in the neutral-point, or

with a Z/O connected transformer on the generator’s line termi
nals, the result of the earthing will be the same. This is illustrated
in figures 8 and 9.
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH FAULT CURRENT

System Earthing
Figure7. Figure 8.
Figure 7. The earth fault current distribution, with a resistance in the gener
ator neutral-point.
Figure 8. The earth fault current distribution, with a neutral-point resistance,
connected to a Z/O-connected earthing transformer.
The figures above shows that the earthings are equal from the
networks point of view.
In the first case a zero sequence current goes through the gen
erator.
In the second case the current does not contain any zero se
quence component since the sum of the currents in the three
phases is zero.
The generator current contains only one positive and one nega
tive sequence component.
5.3 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION AT AN EARTH FAULT

IN A TRANSMISSION NETWORK.
To show that the earth fault current not necessarily need to come
from the same direction as the power an earth fault, in a directly

earthed transmission network, where the receiving transformer is
earthed but unloaded is chosen, see figure 10.
G1 T1 T2
Figure 9. Current distribution in a transmission network.
It is possible to see in the figure, that neither the generator nor the
transformer “T1” has a zero sequence current since the sum of
the currents in all phases is zero. It is however easy to realize that
a negative sequence current exist. An earth current protection
measuring negative sequence current at “T2:s” HV line terminal,
would thus operate despite the fact that “T2” is unloaded.

System Earthing
6. TO CHOOSE SYSTEM’S EARTHING POINT
Normally in directly earthed and effectively earthed systems ev

ery available neutral point is earthed. Deviations from this occurs
when the transformers neutral points are left unearthed. This is
done to limit the maximum earth fault current which can arise to
reasonable values. In these cases the neutral-point is equipped
with surge arresters. This is only acceptable if the network at all
operation modes still can be considered as effectively earthed
(X0≤3X1).
For the other earthing methods it is somewhat more complicated.

For example the wish to keep the earth fault current more or less
constant, at the same time as the network always must be
earthed independently of the operation mode, gives contradic
tions and difficult choices.
6.1 INDIVIDUAL EARTHING IN EVERY NEUTRAL

POINT OF THE POWER SOURCES
G G
Figure 10. Earthing individual neutral-point with impedances.
When there only are a few generators or transformers in a sta

tion, individual neutral-point impedances are often used. Hereby
the neutral-point connection is fixed without intervening connec-
TO CHOOSE SYSTEM’S EARTHING POINT

tion devices. When just two power sources are used individual
neutral-point impedances are preferred to a common earthing
impedance. When several power sources are used the earth fault
current is increased every time a power source is connected and
can reach unwanted values. At resistance earthing every resistor
must be dimensioned for a current high enough to satisfy the op
eration of the relay equipment, when this is working alone. Con
sequently the total earth fault current at several aggregates,
becomes several times the value required for a satisfying relay
function. A disconnector is thus often provided to enable discon
nection of resistors when system is in parallel service condition.
The method with individual earthing is normally utilized at resis

tance and reactance earthing, but it can also be utilized at high
resistive earthing. For resonance earthing the method is very un
suitable.
Together with generators or motors, multiple earthing can be un

suitable due to the danger of circulating third harmonic currents.
6.2 COMMON EARTHING THROUGH A NEUTRAL

BUSBAR.
When there are more than two generators, or transformers, in a

station it can be preferable to use just one neutral-point appara
tus. The neutral-point of every power source is then connected
through a coupling device, breaker or disconnector, to a common
neutral busbar which is earthed through a resistor or a reactor.
This arrangement keeps the earth fault current at optimal size,
since it never has to be higher than what is needed to avoid ov
ervoltages or to give a safe relay protection operation. There is al
ways the same earth fault current independent of the service
condition.
Two different connections with neutral-point busbars are shown

in figures 12 and 13.

System Earthing
Figure 11. Resistance earthing, of the generator neutral-point, with a neutral

busbar and individual neutral-point breakers.
Figure 12. Resonance earthing, of transformer neutral-point, with a neutral
busbar and individual disconnectors.
Due to the third harmonic problem only one of the breakers in fig
ure 12 resp. 13 should be closed at a time.
When one of the generators is taken out of service it’s important

that the corresponding neutral point breaker (or disconnector) is
opened. This since the neutral busbar will be current carrying at
an earth fault and achieve the phase voltage to earth.
6.3 COMMON EARTHING THROUGH A EARTHING

TRANSFORMER ON THE BUSBAR.
An effective and often cheap way to make sure that the system
always is correctly earthed is to connect any earthing transform
er, according to section 4, to the busbar. See figure 13 which
shows the same network as in figure 10 but with an alternative
method of earthing.

Z-0
G G
Figure 13. Earthing, with a Z/O-connected transformer on the busbar.

System Earthing
7. PRACTICE OF EARTHING
The practice of earthing differs very much from country to coun

try. It is however possible to distinguish countries as Germany,
Netherlands and Sweden etc., where the main direction has
been to protect the telephone networks and people. It is also pos
sible to distinguish countries as USA, Canada and England,
where the power network protection has been considered first.
The first mentioned countries has focused on limiting the earth
faults currents to low values, while the latter countries has ac
cepted the higher earth faults currents to prevent overvoltages in
the power system and simplify fault clearance.
A summation of the practices in different countries would unfor

tunately be very extensive, especially as the networks differs
even within the countries. However, a simplified summary follows
below.
7.1 VOLTAGES OVER 100 KV
At high voltages there is an economic advantage in earthing the

network directly (effectively). By doing so transformers and insu
lators etc. can be built with a lower test voltage at neutral and a
graded insulation, which gives considerable cost savings.
In most countries it’s normal with a direct earthing at voltages

over 100 kV. In e. g. Germany, Netherlands and Norway, however
there are 130kV networks with resonance earthing.
7.2 VOLTAGES BETWEEN 25 AND 100 KV
USA Most parts of the country are directly earthed but resistance
and reactance earthing occur.
ENGLAND Most parts of the country are resistance earthed in the

neutral-point of the power source. The resistance gives an earth
PRACTICE OF EARTHING

fault current of the same size as the rated current in the trans
former. Some 33 kV networks can however be resonance
earthed.
GERMANY, SWITZERLAND, AUSTRIA, NETHERLANDS, BELGIUM,
Uses reso
SPAIN, IRELAND, NORWAY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, JAPAN.
nance earthing.
FRANCE, SOUTH AFRICA.

Most parts of the countries are resistance earthed (reactance
earthing occur). France is investigating the possibilities of a
change over into resonance earthing (with transient measuring
earth fault protection).
AUSTRALIA Uses direct earthing and resonance earthing. Some

33 kV networks can however be resistance earthed.
NEW ZEALAND Uses direct earthing
INDIA, MALAYSIAResonance earthing is the most common earth

ing but also resistance earthing occurs. And in India also direct
earthing can occur.
7.3 VOLTAGES BETWEEN 1 AND 25 KV FOR DISTRI-

BUTION WITH OR WITHOUT DIRECT CONNECTED
GENERATORS
In most countries varying types of earthing can occur but the res
onance earthing is the most common. However unearthed net
work as well as high resistance earthings can occur.
Resistance earthing is most common in USA and England.
Direct earthing is most common in Australia and Canada but can

also occur in USA and Finland.
The earthing in Sweden, is mainly decided by §73 in Kommer

skollegi standards, which says it’s practically impossible to use di
rect, or reactance earthing concerning these voltage levels. This
is due to high requirements on detection of fault resistances at

System Earthing
earth faults. Fault resistance values of 3000 resp. 5000 Ω are
mentioned depending of type of feeder.
7.4 GENERATOR NETWORK
Generator networks, are the type of limited networks that consist

of one or several generators connected to a primary transformer,
but without direct connection to the distribution lines.
These limited networks are almost always high resistance

earthed. However at new constructions unearthed networks rare
ly occurs.
7.5 VOLTAGES UNDER 1 KV
These networks are normally direct earthed. In industries with

pure motor networks, unearthed or high resistance earthed net
works are mainly used.
A special type of earthing, is used by the Swedish state power

board in their “unearthed” motor network. The high resistance
network has been replaced with a voltage dependent resistor. At
earth faults a small current is created through the resistor and the
network can be considered as unearthed. At flash-over from the
network, at the primary side of the transformer (normally a high
resistance earthed 10 kV network) the resistance in the resistor
will be so low that the overvoltage in the low voltage network will
be limited to 2 kV. See figure 15.
< 2 kV

Figure 14. Earthing with a voltage dependent resistor, to limit the overvolt
age, at a break-down of a high voltage network.

System Earthing
7.6 CHOICE OF EARTHING METHOD
It’s rarely possible to change an already established earthing

practice. At new deliveries or extensions it’s therefore necessary
to adapt to the already existing practice. Depending on the qual
ities considered important, the earthing that will give the most ad
vantages and the lowest total cost solution, regarding the
methods described in the following section is chosen.
7.7 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT EARTHING PRIN-

CIPLES
A comparison between different system earthing principles, can,

based on the different parts according to table 1, be done. In the
table resistance earthing is divided into low resistance and high
resistance earthing depending on the effects regarding the dam
ages from the current.
Tabell 1:
Type of
Solidly/ Low High
earthing/ Reactance Resonance Unearthed
Effectively resistance Resistance
Feature
Damage of --- -- - ++ +++ ++

equipment
Damage of -- -- - ++ +++ ++
property
Person inju
--- --- --- + + -
ries
Arcing faults +++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ---
Overvoltage +++ ++ ++ + + ---
Ferro reso +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ---
nance
Req on --- -- - + ++ ++
earthing grid
Apparatus +++ - - - - ---
insulation

Tabell 1:
Type of
Solidly/ Low High
earthing/ Reactance Resonance Unearthed
Effectively resistance Resistance
Feature
Selective ++ +++ +++ + - -

protection
DAMAGES ON EQUIPMENT Damages on the electrical equipment
are normally pure quadrilateral dependent on the current and the
fault time. Since “I2t” measures the energy, a lower current is a
big advantage in limiting the damages. This is of major impor
tance when rotating machines are included in the network.
DAMAGES ON PROPERTY Damages on property are depending on
the current but normally in steps since damages on equipment
(for example the telephone network) occur, when its durability is
surpassed. The risk for fire due to an earth fault, follows the “I2t”
relation. Note that for higher voltages there are such big distanc
es to earth and between phases that a good protection exist in
the physical construction. On distribution level the risk for damag
es on property is however of greater importance.
INJURIES ON PERSONSAs mentioned earlier, some countries have
chosen to keep the current low to protect people and property.
Other countries have considered it as more important to optimize
the system and ensure simple and fast fault clearance.
The risk for injuries on persons can be divided into occuring step
and touch voltages at primary faults of the power system.
Figure 16 shows the risk for injuries of people in an electrical ac
cident and how contact and step voltages arises. The injuries
consists partly of the risk for heart stop due to heart oscillation
which occurs at 30 mA and the burn injuries in the skin layers at
which the contact was made. The type of burn injuries are of
course completely dependent on the current level.

System Earthing
Step voltage
Touch
voltage
Figure 15. How the step and touch voltages, arises in a direct earthed net
work.
TRANSIENT EARTH FAULTS These consist of increased voltage at

healthy phases during a reignition of the earth fault current after
a zero crossing. A connection of the network to earth limits the
overvoltages according to the previous discussion (See figure 3).
FERRO RESONANCE (See section 2.5). A system earthing limits

the risk of ferro resonance in the voltage transformers. The un
earthed system, or systems who risks to be unearthed under cer
tain operation circumstances, have a big disadvantage regarding
the risk of ferro resonance.
REQUIREMENTS ON THE EARTHING GRID A limit set to the earth

fault current reduces the requirements on the earthing grid since
these are constructed to limit arisen step, and touch voltages,
which in their turn are totally dependent of the fault current.

SELECTIVE EARTH FAULT PROTECTION With the relay technique of
today selective earth fault protection relays can be used in most
networks (independent of system earthing). Directional protec
tion relays, with sensitivities of a few Ampere primary operates on
the transient and detects the earth fault even with high fault resis
tance. Modern Protection relays which measures fundamental or
high frequency can sucessfully be used at earth fault protection.
Historically the using of selective earth faults was an important

reason to choose a high earth fault current. In directly earthed
transmission network that generates earth fault current from
many points, the using of selective earth fault protection will be
more complicated and require direction, inverse time character
istics and calculations on current distribution in all possible fault
situations, to select settings which will give selectivity.
APPARATUSES INSULATION TO EARTH In an effectively (direct)

earthed network a graded insulation can be utilized. This gives
cost savings of 10-15% for voltages of type 130 kV. Regarding
the apparatus prices at higher voltage levels a fully insulated ze
ro-point and the requirements on the insulation becomes impor
tant. At voltages above 130-170 kV, nothing else but direct
earthing is used.
8. DESIGN OF EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

RELAYS
An earth fault protection relay should be constructed to interact

well with the system earthing method chosen for the network.
The system earthing shouldn’t be negatively affected by the re
quirements on the earth fault protection relays. In some cases,
the system earthing can be chosen to make relays work more
safely.
A few of these cases will be penetrated below and Earth fault pro
tection is further discussed in a separate section.
8.1 PARALLEL RESISTORS FOR THE RESONANCE
DESIGN OF EARTH FAULT PROTECTION RELAYS

System Earthing
EARTHING
The existence of the parallel resistor is only for making the use of
selective earth fault protection relays possible. Since the resistor
is disconnected during the time the resonance will work to distin
guish the fault arc, the disadvantage with resistors is eliminated.
Today, this solution is used together with a quick auto-reclose in

stead of a previously used disconnection automatics and self-ex
tinguisher. Tests have shown that self extinction of the short
current wasn’t possible since it was difficult to obtain a satisfacto
ry calibration of the reactor to the capacitance in the network.
The resistor gives a possibility to instantaneous detection of the

fault. This is done by a quick disconnection of the line and it can
be connected again within 0,4 seconds with the fault point deion
ized. This solution has begun to dominate.
8.2 INCREASED CURRENT THROUGH THE RESIS-

TOR AT HIGH RESISTANCE EARTHING.
In many cases the formula “3R0≤XC0” for high resistance earthing

gives a resistance which at full zero-point voltage only gives a few
Amperes. To be able to install selective earth current protection
the current must at least exceed 5 A. This normally gives no se
rious disadvantages as the current still is low and can therefor be
accepted.
The highly sensitive earth current protection that is used in e. g.

Sweden and Germany seems to be rather unknown in countries
where low resistance earthing is of majority e.g. USA and En
gland. This has resulted in that high currents in the resistance
earthed networks have been chosen to make Normal inverse
time relays (IMDTL) functional.


Protection General
1. THE TASK OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEM
The protection system shall, together with the circuit breakers,

disconnect faulty parts of the power system to:
- Protect the primary equipment against unnecessary damages.
- Save people in the vicinity of the electrical plant from injuries.
- Enable continued service in the undamaged parts of the network.
At an occurring fault in a power network the faulty part, and all

other sections where the fault current is distributed to the fault,
are exposed to abnormal forces and thermal stresses. Rotating
machines can be thermally damaged at unsymmetrical faults due
to occurring negative sequence currents.
The protection of the primary equipment must involve not only the
faulty parts but also the other equipment in the network.
At electrical faults damages in the electrical environment can be

caused by heat radiation, induction, rise of the ground potential
etc. The protection of people and plants must satisfy the mini
mum requirements decided by the authorities.
In a power plant a strong electrical coupling of the different parts

is often desired to minimize losses and voltage drops. A “strong”
coupling like this may lead to major effects on the whole, or at
least big parts, of the plant by a single failure. If not disconnected
the fault will adventure the whole plant directly or by a domino-ef
fect. A number of electrical faults are inevitable in a power plant.
These faults can, only in exceptional cases, be allowed to adven
ture the operation of the whole plant, eventually also with other
damages on apparatuses as a consequence. A satisfying fault
clearance is therefor a necessary condition for an operative pow
er plant.
THE TASK OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEM

2. OPERATING CONDITIONS OF POWER SYS-
TEM
From the protection relays point of view the most important oper
ation conditions can be classified and connected according to
Figure 1.
Abnormal,
but secure,
condition
Fault
Normal
condition
service
condition
Abnormal
service
condition
not controlled sequence
initiated by protection
manual or automatic operation
Figure 1. The power system´s operation conditions.
Under normal operation condition the power plant fulfil its duties
and all consumers will receive both nominal voltage and frequen
cy.
Under abnormal operation condition all consumers will be fed

with voltage and/or frequency which can be abnormal. Equip
ment parts of the plant can also be stressed out of limit values.
These operation condition will after a short time lead to a fault
condition if not corrected.
OPERATING CONDITIONS OF POWER SYSTEM

Protection General
The correcting measures can be initiation of regulation interfer
ence, disconnection of some parts of the load, connection of
back-up capacity or, as a last possibility, disconnection of the crit
ical apparatus. Mostly these precautions are initiated by protec
tion relays which supervises the conditions in the electrical
equipment. All these measures are preventive in the sense that
they will be executed before a fault is created and before damag
es in the apparatuses occurs. However the apparatus is not total
ly uninfluenced. A cooling time may be required before the
reconnection but reparation or exchange is not necessary. Ef
fects like increased aging can still occur.
Under fault conditions the power plant is usually not able to fulfil
it’s functions as supplier of energy of acceptable quality to the
consumers. At some faults the power plant can fulfil its functions
but due to abnormal values the equipment will be stressed in
such a way that sequential faults will occur and the power system
will collapse. Even at faults where the consumers are not con
cerned the system will be stressed to a collapse if precaution not
will be taken.
Faults can be of varying types (see fig 2).
Shunt faults L1
L2
Series faults
L1
L2
I
L3
I
Figure 2. Different fault types in a power system.

SHUNT FAULTS A fault current has developed due to insulation
breakdown in one or several phases. These faults are called
shunt faults and can be single phase to earth, two phase with or
without earth connection, or three phase.
SERIES FAULTS A primary current loop has been broken into one
or two phases. Such faults are called series faults.
The power system can not be allowed to be in service with a

shunt, or a series fault under an unlimited time. The only practical
operation is to disconnect the faulty part of the plant, so the sys
tem is put back at a abnormal, but safe, condition.
Theoretically at a series fault, a parallel link can be connected.

This is not practically possible because such a link doesn’t exist.
A high impedance earthed cable network can be allowed to stay
in service, during a limited time and under certain conditions, at
a permanent earth fault. In these networks manual clearance of
permanent earth faults is allowed. This will be initiated at an ap
propriate time for the operation.
In the “safe” condition, that will occur after faulty or abnormal ser
vice conditions, the consumer can get voltage of poor quality, or
no voltage at all. In meshed networks the power system still can
carry out its primary tasks even if the preparedness for interfer
ences will be reduced. In case of a second fault the system can
often no longer fulfil its duties.
The system must consequently as soon as possible return from

the “safe” condition, to a normal service condition. To be able to
reconnect the system parts, manually or automatically, knowl
edge about the cause of the fault is required to not increase the
damages on the apparatuses or stress the system further. The
protection relays must consequently, not only disconnect the
faulty parts, but also diagnose the fault by indicating of which type
it is.
The power system can be stressed by abnormal service condi

tions. Such abnormal conditions can be thermal overload, abnor-

Protection General
mal frequency or abnormal voltage. The power transfer is, under
such conditions, maintained but the abnormal condition will, if
maintained, develop to a primary fault.
Protection against abnormal service is therefor required in order

to prevent unnecessary damage to the primary equipment.
3. REQUIREMENT ON PROTECTION SYSTEM
A basic requirement on the protection equipment is that it will

clear the fault with sufficient speed to limit the consequential
damages in the plant. Further the fault clearance must be quick
enough to avoid a total, or partial, power network collapse.
At a primary fault speed is not of main importance, as the fault po

sition has already been damaged and will require repairing. How
ever, the consequential damages of other parts must be avoided.
These damages are often of thermal nature as gas development,
heat radiation and heating of conductor material.
A type of stress which can’t be limited by the protection relays is

the mutual forces between conductors leading fault currents. This
stress will be fully developed at the first current peak. Since pro
tection relays and the belonging breakers can’t give a fault clear
ance time less than 2 cycles, the first current peak always will
develop. These dynamic mechanical stresses can only be limited
by fuses or special short circuit limiters which limits the progress
of the current.
One requirement is insurance of a sufficient sensitivity to detect

all possible shunt- and series faults. This also includes possible
high resistive faults occurring at earth faults. An other require
ment is that the high resistive faults should be detected after a
limited time from when the fault is developed.
The protection relays today have a basically satisfying detection

capability with the exception of overhead lines, where the detec
tion of highly resistive earth faults isn’t always considered com-
REQUIREMENT ON PROTECTION SYSTEM

pletely satisfying without special measures.
The function of the protection relays to initiate the disconnection,

is of outmost importance for the function of the whole power sys
tem. Therefore the protection relays must have a very high reli
ability.
A incorrect initiated trip of the circuit breaker will affect the power
system negatively. Therefor a very high security against unnec
essary clearances from the protection relays is required. The un
necessary clearances can be spontaneous or unselectable. The
latter are functions due to a wrongly initiated operation for a fault
outside the detection zone of the protection relay, executed by the
protection relay. Consequently there are high requirements on
the selectivity and reliability of the protection relays.
The operation capability of the protection system is summarized

in “reliability”, which includes both the security in fault clearance
and the security against undesired clearances. The security in
fault clearance is called dependability and the security against
undesired clearances is called security.
The reliability of the system depends on a lot of factors and gen

erally the reliability of the total system is not better than the weak
est component.
Example of factors which influences the reliability:
THE PROTECTION SYSTEM The engineer responsible must do a

multitude of choices when a plant is projected. The protection
system is chosen after voltage level, the weight of the plant, the
possibility to have back-up functions, distribution of current faults
and system earthing etc. The choices are also affected by the
customs, the authorities and the economical situation. The sys
tem is chosen to fulfil the requirements on the plant and to give
the lowest possible “Life Cycle Cost”.
THE PRINCIPLES OF MEASURING Different principles of measuring

are used to protect the electrical plants. Every principle has its
advantages and disadvantages and a choice of principle must be
done based on access to measuring transformers, communica-
REQUIREMENT ON PROTECTION SYSTEM

Protection General
tion channels and demands on fault coverage at high resistive
earth faults etc.
ENVIRONMENT Of course, the environment has affect on the reli

ability location in switchgear rooms, tropical and cold climate,
heavy polluted environment etc., gives a lower reliability).
THE SETTING OF THE PROTECTION RELAYSA properly chosen

measuring principle can evidently be totally ruined by an incor
rect setting. A protection relay which, under back-up load condi
tions, operates unnecessary due to a too low setting can
disconnect parts of the net
THE MAINTENANCE Independently of the quality of the protection

system, a periodic maintenance must be executed. This includes
test of relays and trip schemes. Bad design or construction solu
tions gives a difficult maintenance and thus a lower reliability.
FLEXIBILITY UNDER DIFFERENT SERVICE CONDITIONS AND EXTEN-

SION OF THE NETWORK Since all network changes during its life
time it’s important that the protection equipment is chosen after a
measuring principle, and has settings, to allow development of
network and the varying service conditions.
4. CHOICE OF PROTECTION EQUIPMENT
The protection equipment is chosen to secure fault clearance in

the power network. The base upon which the choices are made
is the generally accepted “Single Failure Criteria” that says that
a clearance must be executed even in case of a single fault in the
clearance chain.
The fault clearance chain contains several components accord

ing to Figure 3 and failure of each component can prevent a trip
function. It is therefore important that no part of the clearance
chain will be executed with a lower reliability. A failure can never
be totally excluded.
CHOICE OF PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

Requirement in safe clearance imply, that there must be a
back-up clearance function.
Figure 3. The different parts of the fault clearance chain.
This function can be executed either as a remote back-up or as a

local back-up. The intention is that, even at a back-up tripping, an
as small part of the plant as possible will be disconnected.
The single failure criteria can be fulfilled with a protection system

including back-up protection. The back-up protection must be
able to detect all primary faults, detected by the primary protec
tion primarily intended to clear the fault. There are two different
ways of arranging back-up protection:
Remote back-up is the most common way of arranging back-up

in a distribution network. This means that the back-up protection
is available at a separate breaker. Remote back-up is normally
achieved through a time grading where the back-up protection is
given a longer operation time than the primary protection.
Local back-up is used when remote back-up is difficult to

achieve or when time grading for selectivity is not acceptable due
to thermal limits or network stability reasons. Local back-up
means that at the breaker location a second protection relay that

Protection General
detects the same faults as the primary relay shall be provided.
The two systems are operating in parallel on the same breaker.
Selectivity is necessary for the back-up functions. There are two

types of selectivity.
- Time selectivity, means that the protection relays, at the circuit breakers,
have a graded time scale proportioned to each other.
- Absolute selectivity, which means that the relay can determine in what
part, of the plant, the fault is located.
Remote back-up with time selectivity is most common at medi

um, and low voltage networks, where there is pure distribution
and where two different relays, which opens two different break
ers, relatively easy can detect all types of fault.
Figure 4 shows the primary and secondary zones in a distribution

network. The protection zones are decided by the location of the
current transformers.
Primary protection measuring zone

Back-up protection measuring zone
Figure 4. Primary and back-up protection zones
The back-up protection function, is arranged by time grading

where the back-up protection relay has a longer fault clearance
time than the primary protection relay (see fig 5).
In these cases it is necessary to consider even the battery sys

tem design, so that the protection equipment which gives a
back-up for other protection equipment is not fed from the same

DC supply. This is sometimes forgotten and can increase the
consequences of a fault drastically.
t1 t1 t1
G
t1
Figure 5. Back-up protection with time grading.
Take for example a fault at a distribution line. If this fault is cleared

by the primary protection the damages will be limited. If the
back-up function at the transformer clears the fault the damages
has increased due to the increased clearance time. The increase
will not be dramatically because the clearance time is within the
thermal capacity of the transformer and the switchgear.
The next big step in the consequence stage occurs if the protec
tion of the transformer fails. This can for example happen if both
the line protection and the transformer protection are fed from the
same DC supply which, for example, has disappeared due to a
broken fuse
The relays further up in the system are not expected to recognize

the fault (and normally they don’t) so the fault will remain and
thermally overload both the transformer and the switchgear. The
clearance is obtained only when the transformer collapses and
the fault is cleared by the relays further up in the system. The con
sequences have then increased drastically.
In cases where a remote back-up can’t be arranged for example

when there are difficulties in detecting the fault at an object from

Protection General
an adjoining object, a local back-up must be arranged. This can
be the case at long distribution lines where a fault in the remote
part never can be detected by the relay at the feeding transform
er, due to the small increase of current which appear at the trans
former. A parallel overcurrent relay can be inserted and trip on
another trip coil.
In the meshed transmission network where fault currents are fed

from all directions normally a local back-up must be used. The lo
cal back-up can be delayed, with a local relay at the object which
detects fault within the same, or a wider zone than the primary re
lay but takes a longer time to trip.
The most common at high voltages, is to use double identical re
lays called redundant relays. The redundant protection system
gives an improved reliability.
A normal practice at using redundant protection systems is to:
- Separate measuring cores used in measuring transformers (of econom

ical reasons it is very rare to use double measuring transformers).
- The circuit breaker is not doubled, due to economical reasons, but pro
vided with double independent trip coils.
- The DC distribution will be separated as far as possible. At higher volt
age levels, double battery systems will normally be provided.
- The protection systems are placed physically separated and often also
separate cable ways are used.

In Figure 6 the fault clearance chain with redundant protection
system is shown.
Figure 6. The fault clearance chain at redundant protection systems.
Due to the cost of the breaker this will not be doubled but it will
be provided with double trip coils. However, a small risk for break
er failure still exist according to statistics. To ensure fault clear
ance in case of breaker failure, and secure a short fault clearance
time, a breaker failure function is included (see fig 7).
The breaker failure function will trip surrounding breakers if one
breaker would fail.
Figure 7. The principle of a breaker failure protection.

Protection General
Due to the big impact for the operation of the network that a
breaker failure trip causes, very high requirements are set on a
breaker failure relay security against unwanted functions.
A breaker failure is designed with high internal security. The cur

rent through the breaker will be controlled after a trip attempt and
if it don’t disappear in a reasonable time (less than 60 ms), a
breaker failure exists and the surrounding breakers will be
tripped. Often a “2 out of 2" connection of the current and time is
sometimes used to obtain highest possible security against un
necessary operations. For new numerical products the same risk
of failures of a current detection relay or a time-lag relay do not
exist and the “2 out of 2” is not any more required.
A duplication of the breaker fault function gives a higher reliability

but at the same time a lower security which is a disadvantage.
Due to the minimal risk of a breaker failure, and the negligible risk
that the breaker failure relay fails at the same time, only one
breaker failure relay is used.
The most important in the choice of protection equipment is that

desired trip security is obtained. After that the cost for the differ
ent alternatives must be considered where the guiding principle
is the Life Cycle Cost.
The cost for operation and maintenance must be considered. Re

dundant protection systems cost more to install as well as under
its life time. However big savings can be made in the primary sys
tem by securing the short fault clearance time. The primary ap
paratuses can then, for example, be dimensioned for 0.5 seconds
thermal capability instead of 1.0 second. Furthermore a later re
building can be avoided when the network is to be extended to a
more meshed configuration with higher fault levels.

5. DISTURBANCE REGISTRATION AND FAULT
SIGNALLING
The fact that the operation personnel will be informed of all fault
signals is as important as all other parts in the fault clearance
chain. If the design is well designed with alarms for problems in
the DC system, but that alarm wont reach the responsible per
sonnel, the alarm is of no use. This means that the design of the
DC supply distribution for the alarm system is very important.
Alarms must not be attached to the same group as the distribu
tion and the alarm voltage must always be supervised.
To be able to follow a protection systems behavior when the net

work changes and to make sure that a fault really will be cleared,
a disturbance recorder and an event recorder can be used.
These two devices registers all important signals in case of a dis
turbance. The analysis of the print-out is an excellent comple
ment to the maintenance. These analysis is made from print-outs
from both the line in question and the surrounding lines, which
gives a possibility to discover inoperative relays as well as incor
rect settings and badly chosen measuring principle.
These global analysis has a great value in changing the network

world.
DISTURBANCE REGISTRATION AND FAULT SIGNALLING

Line protection
1. INTRODUCTION
The transmission lines are the most widely spread part of the
power system and the overhead lines are the, from environmen
tal influences, least protected part of the system. The number of
line faults will thus be very high compared with the total number
of faults in the whole power system. Therefore the line protection
are one of the most important protection systems in the whole
power system.
Another aspect is that the power lines are the part of the system
that is most likely to cause injuries to people and also to cause
damages to equipment and structures not part of the power sys
tem. Therefor the line fault clearing is subject to authority regula
tions.
In the voltage range above 170 kV, practically all systems are sol
idly earthed. In the range 50-170 kV some systems are earthed
over Petersén reactors. These systems are seldom equipped
with earth fault protection relays. Earth faults are then cleared
manually or with special transient measuring protection relays.
The clearing of multi-phase faults will basically not be different in
these systems than in solidly earthed systems. Systems with Pe
tersén reactors will therefor not be discussed separately.
Overhead lines in the voltage range of 170 kV will have a length
from a few up to approximately 400 km. Cable lines are limited to
a maximum length of about 20 km.
Some lines are mixed and consist of both cable and overhead
lines. Cable and overhead lines have different phase angles and
“Z0/Z1” ratio. These differences complicates the impedance dia
gram for the mixed lines where the cable impedance can’t be ig
nored in relation to the overhead line impedance. Mostly the
cable is short and the mixed line can be handled, from protection
point of view, as an overhead line.
INTRODUCTION

1.1 FAULT STATISTICS
The probability of line faults, caused by lightnings, are 0,2-3 faults

per 100 km and year. To this have to be added faults caused by
pollution, salt spray, swinging conductors, lifting devices touching
the conductors. In most cases lightning faults are much dominat
ing.
About 80% of the line faults are single phase to earth, 10% are
two phase to earth faults, 5% are isolated two phase faults and
5% are three phase faults. At lower voltages the multi phase fault
will be more common due to the lower basic insulation level. The
number of faults also increases due to the lower distances.
Simultaneous
faults Earth
Arc RN faults
R S
Two phase
faults
S T
Three phase
Interline faults
faults T R
Figure 1. Faults occurring on a transmission line tower are of different types.
1.2 FAULT TYPES
Transient faults are common on transmission lines. They will

disappear after a short “dead interval” and self distinguish. Light
ning is the most common reason for transient faults. The by light
ning induced overvoltages will cause flash-over in an insulator
chain.
INTRODUCTION

Line protection
The fault must be cleared to clear the arc. After a short interval,
to allow deionisation, the voltage can be restored without causing
a new fault.
Transient faults can also, further to lightnings, be caused by fac

tors such as swinging lines, falling trees and birds.
Approximately 80-85% of faults at HV lines are transient. The fig

ures appearing at lower voltages are less.
Persistent faults can be caused by a broken conductor, a falling

tree, a mechanically damaged insulator etc. These faults must be
localized and the damage repaired before the normal service can
be reestablished. The system is during the reparation in an ab
normal but safe condition.
1.3 SPECIAL FAULT TYPES
In double circuit lines (two lines at the same tower) simultaneous

and inter-line faults can occur.
Simultaneous fault are most likely to be two single phase to

earth faults that will occur on different phases on the two lines on
the same transmission line tower. Both faults will though then be
in the same tower. The common footing resistance will compli
cate the detection of this type of fault.
The Inter-line fault is a connection between two phases of the

parallel lines on the same transmission line tower with the arc.
The probability for simultaneous fault and interline fault is low.
The fault resistance at a multi-phase fault consists only of arc re

sistance and can practically be ignored. At cross country faults,
an earth resistance is added to the arc resistance and the fault
resistance will then be significant. The probability for this type of
fault is very small in a solidly earthed system and is mostly ig
nored. In systems earthed over Petersén reactors where fault is
not immediately disconnected this type of fault can’t be ignored.
INTRODUCTION

The fault resistance can’t be ignored in case of an earth fault.
When the fault occurs at a tower the footing resistance is added
to the arc resistance. The footing resistance depends on the line
design and is almost always less than ten ohms but the resis
tance can be tens of ohms in extreme cases. When earth faults
between the towers, called mid-span faults, occurs the footing re
sistance is beyond control and can in extreme cases be up to
tens of kiloohms. Mid-span faults can be caused by growing
trees, bush fire or objects touching the phase conductors.
One very serious type of mid-span faults are caused by mobile

cranes. The mid-span faults have to be payed special attention
due to the risk of injuries to people if they not are cleared proper
ly.
2. REQUIREMENTS ON LINE PROTECTION
The choice of protection relays for a specific application, depends

on the network configuration, type of line (single or parallel, long
or short, series compensated or not), load current level, and ex
pected tower foot resistances etc. A choice must be done individ
ually for each application and the future expansion of the network
must be kept in mind.
The most important features of the line protection relays are:
Speed
Speed i. e. short operating time for severe faults.
As mentioned above a very short clearance time is required for
severe faults, sometimes down to a few milliseconds. One exam
ple is a three-phase fault in a 400 kV system having 20 kA in
short-circuit current and 13000 MVA in short circuit power. The
thermal and mechanical stresses at such a fault are very high.
Speed is thus important to:
- limit the damages on the high voltage apparatus as well as limit the ther
mal and mechanical stresses.
REQUIREMENTS ON LINE PROTECTION

Line protection
- limit the ionization at the fault which will increase the chances of a suc
cessful Auto reclosing and thus shorten the dead interval.
- increase the power transmission capability of the network without de
creasing the safety margin for the network stability.
REQUIREMENT ON SPEED The maximum fault clearance time is

important i. e. including the back-up protection function and the
possibility of a breaker failure. The network must be stable under
maximal conditions. Times from 250 ms up to several seconds
can occur depending on line type, location in the network, sourc
es etc.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity means the capability to detect all types of fault.
It is important to detect all faults even if the fault current is smaller

than the load current. Equipment damages due to induction in
low voltage equipment, or person injuries due to rise in earth po
tential, can occur also for low magnitude faults. High resistive
earth faults are quite likely to occur at long transmission lines and
the relay system must be able to detect such faults before the
faults developes further or people will get seriously injured. Sen
sitivity is therefore the second important aspect in the perfor
mance of line protection relays.
REQUIREMENT ON SENSITIVITY The requirement on the line pro

tection systems sensitivity at earth faults is often discussed and
varies between utilities. The mid-span fault often requires higher
sensitivity than what can be achieved by the primary protection
relay used. A maximum sensitivity of approximately “RF<50 Ω”
can be achieved by the primary protection.
An acceptable sensitivity can only be achieved utilizing zero se

quence components in overcurrent, directional overcurrent or di
rectional comparison schemes. These relays can only detect
earth faults.
Selectivity
Selectivity i. e. the capability to determine the fault location and
only disconnect the faulty object.

The consequences of a fault must be limited and the power sup
ply to the consumers secured. The protection system must there
for be capable of distinguish between an external and an internal
faults also for low magnitude faults on a heavy loaded object, or
for parallel objects where close to similar parameters exist for
both healthy and faulty object.
Requirement on selectivity
In order to fulfil these requirements the protection relays has to
be able to distinguish between the normal operating condition of
the protected object and an electrical fault i.e. give a reliable fault
detection unaffected by normal operating conditions such as
load, inrush currents etc. In some cases it is also required that
the protection relay must be able to detect also other abnormal
operating conditions such as overexcitation, overload, broken
conductor etc. These aren’t electrical faults but may still damage
the protected object or other apparatus in the network. Since
power apparatus in many applications have to operate near their
rated limits it is important that this part of the protection system
exactly can distinguish between permissible and none permissi
ble operating conditions.
Electrical faults are normally required to be cleared instanta

neously. Other abnormal operating conditions, can be accepted
to result in time delayed action.
Dependability and security are contradictory to each other but

have to be evaluated together due to the linking of the two quali
ties. In redundant protection schemes the whole scheme has to
be evaluated not only the individual relays.
To achieve maximum dependability combined with maximum se

curity the communication demands shall be at minimum. Wide
band transmission is not only expensive it will also be more ex
posed to interference. The latter is apparent when power line car
rier is used. The communication demand is therefore linked with
dependability and security.

Line protection
Operate time, sensitivity and dependability are contradictory to
security, therefore none of the first qualities have to be exagger
ated.
3. MEASURING PRINCIPLES
The basic type of measuring principles can be used for line pro
tection relays. One, or combinations, of the measuring principles
below can be used to create the total line protection scheme.
Overcurrent protection relays are undirectional, or directional,

current measuring relays with a back-up feature due to the cur
rent measuring principle.
Pilot wire, optical line differential and phase comparison

measuring principles gives exclusive unit protection without
any back-up feature. New types of Optical line differential relays
with Distance back-up functions do now exist on the market
which solves the back-up function problem.
Distance and directional impedance measuring principles

basically gives time/distance selective protection with a back-up
function. By using communication an unit protection function can
be achieved together with the time/distance function with
back-up.
Travelling vawe protection is a unit protection where the two

line ends are communicating through a fast channel in a permis
sive or blocking scheme.
3.1 OVERCURRENT RELAYS
Overcurrent relays are normally used in networks with system

voltage below 70 kV where fault infeed is from one direction only
and where relatively long operating time is acceptable. At higher
voltage levels in the transmission lines the directional, or undirec
tional, overcurrent relays are used as back-up protection to the
instantaneous primary protection relays. The overcurrent protec-
MEASURING PRINCIPLES

tion will then operate as a back-up to the primary protection and
for special types of faults e. g. high resistance earth faults which
cannot be detected by the primary protection.
3.2 PILOT WIRE, OPTICAL LINE DIFFERENTIAL AND

PHASE COMPARISON RELAYS
Introduction
Pilot wire and phase comparison relays are unit protection relays,
which only detects faults in the zone between the relays. No
back-up function is included, so a separate back-up relay is nor
mally required.
Optical line differential relays are also unit protection normally
without back-up function. However there exists now such relays
with a built-in back-up Distance protection function.
Communication between line ends is required and can be ac
complished with any of the following:
- Pilot wires
- Power line carrier

- Radio link
- Optical fibre
Pilot wires can be placed in soil or at towers. The resistance will

limit the possibility to use pilot wires. The use is mostly restricted
to distances less than 10km.
Power line carrier (PLC) equipment is based on a capacitive

connection of signals, with a frequency of 50-500 kHz, in the
power line. A frequency keying is normally used to transmit a trip,
block or phase angle signals to the remote end.
PLC equipment can also be used in very long lines and for re
mote control.

Line protection
Figure 2. Communication through a high frequency signal, interposed at the

high voltage line (PLC).
Radio links are reliable, but expensive, communication links and

are therefor rarely used.
Optical fibres have two big advantages, the insensitivity to noise

and its possibility to transmit huge amount of information. An in
crease in the use of optical links have been noticed during the
last number of years. Cost has decreased and new Optical line
differential relays utilizing the transmitting capability has been de
veloped giving improved protection capability. See separate sec
tion below.
Principle design of pilot wire differential relay

Pilot wire differential schemes gives an absolute selectivity and a
short operating time. It can use wires of metal or, with recent de
veloped relays, optical fibres. The use of optical fibres in trans
mission tower top lines will increase during the forthcoming
years, and several new products using optical fibres will be avail
able. Probably also combined products where a single phase dif
ferential relay is combined with back-up functions, the lack of
which up to now have been a draw-back for the pilot wire differ
ential relays.
A short description of the pilot wire differential relay princi

ple:
The measuring principle is based on a comparison of amplitude

and phase angle at the two line ends according to the differential

current principle (Kirchhoffs first law). A relay is of practical rea
sons, provided at each line end to detect the faults and to trip the
circuit breakers.
A summation transformer is often used to transform three phase

systems into single phase form enabling the use of one pair of pi
lot wires only. With the voltage balance principle, the current un
balance is changed into a voltage balance. The principle of a
voltage balance differential relay is shown in fig 3.
A relay with a matching current ratio is connected to the current

transformer at the line ends (1 A can be used at one end and 5 A
at the other but the same primary current is required). The pilot
wires resistance “Rp” and the settable resistor “Rp/2” are con
nected to the secondary of the summation transformer. A relay is
connected between the pilot wire terminal and the mid-point of
the summation transformers secondary winding. These points
will with the used dimensioning of the pilot resistance and the
built in resistor have the same potential at normal service condi
tions (see fig 3a).

Line protection
A B
E E
Rp/2 Rp Rp/2
EA EB
EA EB
E 2EA
2EB
E
a) Normal operating conditions
2EAmax
E
2EBmax
E
b) External fault ideal transformers
E E
2EAmax 2EBmax
c) Internal fault, double end infeed
Figure 3. A voltage balance current differential relay
At high through fault currents the voltage across the relay will be
zero although the voltages “2EA” respectively “2EB” will increase
to the maximum value “EAmax” respectively “2EBmax”, dependent
of the two regulating diodes. The relay operating voltage is select
ed to prevent maloperation due to small differences e. g. caused
by saturation of current transformers cores (see fig 3b).
If a fault, fed from both directions, occurs within the protected

area the summation transformers outputs will be in phase oppo
sition. No currents can therefor circulate in the pilot wires. The
secondary voltages will be limited by the regulating diodes to
“2EAmax” resp. “2EBmax”. Operating voltages will occur across

the relays and the differential relays at both end will trip (see fig
3c).
Also at an internal fault fed from only one line end, voltages will
occur across the relays and both relays will operate (see fig 3d).
Principle design of Optical line differential functions

The optical line differential functions have been introduced on the
market during the last number of years together with the start of
provision of optical fibres between the two stations, giving a
broad band connection enable direct differential measurement
on a phase per phase basis.
The differential current principle is shown in figure 4. One relay is
provided at each line end. The communication can be through
separate dedicated fibre, through a MUX’ed 54/64 kbit/s channel
complying to CCIT and EIA standards or even through separate
pilot wires in special cases.
3Id 3Id
Communication
channel
Interface to MUX
dedicated fibre etc.
Figure 4. The principle for an optical line differential relay with one protection
relay at each line end communicating through a communication channel.
The differential measurement is stabilized with the current scalar
form as per below figure 5. The degree of stabilization for through
faults and the minimum operating current is settable. Modern re
lays also normally have a CT supervision detector to lower the re
quirement on current transformer cores.
An advantage with these modern optical relays based on numer
ical principles is the possibility to set the CT ratio adaption. Dif
ferent CT ratios can then be used at the two line ends.

Line protection
An intertrip channel for direct intertrip from e. g. Breaker failure
protection is normally also available in the relays.
In some types of relays the differential functions can be comple
mented with an back-up protection in form of a Distance protec
tion or a simple short circuit and earth fault protection. This
function can then operate in parallel with the differential function
or only as a back up when the communication channel is missing.
Idiff
Stabilization at
CT saturation
IDiffLVL2
Stabilization at
normal faults
IMinOp
Ibias
IMinSat ILVL1/2Cross
Figure 5. The stabilization characteristic.
Principle design of phase comparison relay

Phase comparison relays is used in some countries. However the
relays haven’t been able to take big market shares mostly be
cause of the fact that they provide only unit protection not includ
ing any back-up functions, but also due to the high requirement
on a fast communication between ends which mostly means a
separate PLC equipment for this protection relay only.
The “phase comparison principle” indicates that the phase angle
of the current at the two line ends are compared each cycle as
shown in figure 6.

ILoad
I1 I2
Ø> Ø>
e2
e1-e2
α
e1
I2
Operating Ø
I1
area Ø
I2
Figure 6. Measuring principle of a phase comparison relay. The angle differ

ence, between the currents at the two line ends, is compared.
The measured time for the zero crossing is transmitted to the oth
er end with a short, and well defined, channel time.
At normal load, or through faults, the phase angle at the two ends
is rather alike. A small difference will though occur due to the ca
pacitive generation of the line. An amplitude requirement is often
added to the phase angle requirement.
To limit the transmission of signals to fault conditions a start cri
teria is normally added. Overcurrent, Overcurrent/Undervoltage,

Line protection
Impedance or combinations of all above can be used as start el
ements.
3.3 DISTANCE AND DIRECTIONAL IMPEDANCE

PROTECTION
Principle design
Distance protection relays are the most common relays on trans
mission lines. The reason for this is the simple measuring princi
ple, the built-in back-up and the low requirement on
communication with remote end.
The Distance protection relay is a directional underimpedance

relay. Normally two to four measuring zones are available.
Basically the Distance protection relays measures the quotient

“U/I”, considering also the phase angle between the voltage “U”
and the current “I”. The measured “U/I” is then compared with the
set value. The relay will trip when the measured value is less than
the value set. The vector “ZL” in figure 7 shows the location of a
metallic fault on a power line in the impedance plane. Power lines
normally have impedances of 0,3-0,4 Ω/km at 50 Hz and the an
gle normally is 80-85°.
X [Ω]
ZL
Rf
ZL=R+jX
Rf
Rf
Z< Z<
Load
R [R [Ω]
Figure 7. The principle of a Distance protection relay.
However, metallic faults are relatively rare. Most faults are

caused by a flashover between phase and earth or between
phases.

A small arc resistance “Rf ” exists in the fault. The arc resistance
Rarc can according to Warrington be calculated as:
Rarc = 28700 * a / I1.4
where:
a is the length of the arc in m i. e. the length of the insulator for
earth fault and the phase distance at phase faults.
I is the fault current through the fault resistance in A.
During earth faults, the tower foot resistance also will occur in the
fault loop. The Distance protection relays must therefor cover an
area of the line impedance, plus the fault resistance as indicated
in the figure. Tower foot resistances should normally be kept be
low 10 Ω. Top lines connecting towers together will give parallel
path and lower the tower foot resistance.
In some areas as high values as 50 Ω can exist and special pre
cautions to protect against earth faults can then be necessary.
The vector “Zb” shows the location of the load impedance. Nor
mally the load impedance is close to “cos Ø=1”. The Distance
protection relays must be able to distinguish between fault and
load conditions even if the impedances are of the same size.
The detection of the forward direction is an important function for

a Distance protection. The directional sensitivity must be abso
lute and serve down to zero voltage.
The back-up function is simply achieved, by an extension of the

impedance reach with time steps (see figure 8).
For normal lines with a distance longer than approximately 15 km

the first step of impedance, is underreaching the line end with ab
solute selectivity covering about 80% of the line. The 80% reach
is selected due to errors in distance measurement due to Current
and Voltage transformer errors, relay accuracy and influence
from the system as described further below.
A fault at “F1” will be tripped instantaneously from both protection
“A” and “B”. Normal operating time in modern Distance protec
tion relays is 15-30ms. Operating time will be dependent on
source to impedance ratio, setting, fault resistance, fault position,
CVT filter and the point of wave at which the fault occurs.

Line protection
A fault at “F2” is tripped instantaneously by relay “B” and by relay

“A”, after the time “t2”.
A fault at “F3” is normally tripped instantaneously by relay “C” and

“D”. If the relay at “C” or the breaker fails, relay “A” will trip.
t3
t2
t1
l
A C
ZA F1 F2 ZB ZC F3 ZD
t3
t2
t1
l
B A
Figure 8. The principle of line protection, with Distance protection relays at

both line ends.
Distance protection relay -Design

The design of a Distance protection is much dependent of the
technic used. Today there are products of electromechanical and
static, as well as numerical, design. However the numerical
schemes have clearly started to take over.
The two main types of Distance protection relays are “switched

scheme” and “full scheme”. The switched scheme relays consists
of a start relay selecting the correct measuring loop to the single
measuring relay. The start relays are in their simplest form cur-

rent relays at all three phases and in the neutral. In more expen
sive solutions, the start relays are underimpedance relays.
A full scheme relay has a measuring element for each measuring

loop and for each zone. All measuring elements then does the
measuring in parallel which this leads to shorter operating times.
The cost advantages with a switched scheme compared to a full

scheme have been minimized with the introduction of numerical
relays where all calculations are made by a processor.
The design of a numerical distance protection is shown in Figure
9. Input transformers provides the disturbance barrier and trans
forms the analogue signals into a suitable voltage, for the elec
tronic circuits. Passive analogue filters prevents anti-aliazing. The
analogue values for all voltages and currents are in an A/D con
verter transformed into digital values and are after a digital filter
ing sent in series to the measuring unit.
Figure 9. The design of a Numerical distance protection relay.
In the measuring unit a Fourier analyze and an impedance calcu

lation are performed. A Directional check also is made. The direc
tional check includes a positive sequence memory polarizing to
secure correct function even with a completely collapsed voltage
at a close-up fault.

Line protection
Impedance and direction criteria are checked in a logic and to
gether with the time elements the full scheme protection relay is
built up.
Impedance measurement
The measure impedance at a certain fault position must not be
dependent of the fault type. The correct voltages and currents
must therefor be measured for each fault loop and the evaluation
of loop impedance and the phase impedance to the fault must be
done. The Distance protection relays settings are always based
on the phase impedance to the fault. The measuring loops for dif
ferent fault types are shown in figure 10.
Earth faults
Zs IR RL XL
URN
RN XN
Two-phase faults
Zs RL XL
IR
URS
IS
Three-phase faults
Zs IR RL XL
URN
IS
USN
IT
UTN
Figure 10. The impedance measuring loops for different fault types.

For two and three phase faults the phase voltage and the differ
ence between line currents are used. With this principle the mea
sured impedance is equal to the positive sequence impedance at
the fault location.
The earth fault measurement is more complicated. Using of

phase currents and phase voltages gives an impedance as a
function of the positive and the zero sequence impedance:
U = I1 Z1 + I0 Z0 + I2 Z2
Z1 = Z2
U = Z 1 (I 0 + I 1 + I 2 ) + I 0 Z 0 – I 0 Z 1
I = I0 + I1 + I2
 Z0 
U = IZ1 + I0Z1  -----

- – 1
 Z1 
IN  Z0 
U = IZ1 + ---- Z1  -----

- – 1
3  Z1 
The current used is the phase current plus the neutral current
times a factor KN.
The zero sequence compensation factor is “KN” = “(Z0-Z1)/3Z1”.
The factor “KN” is a transmission line constant and “Z0/Z1” is pre

sumed to be identical throughout the whole line length.
The total loop impedance for the earth fault loop can be de
scribed “(1+KN)Z1”.
Measuring principle
Modern static Distance protection relays can be made with Am
plitude- or Phase angle comparators. Both principles gives iden
tical result.
An Amplitude comparison “|IxZK|>|U|” gives in a R-X diagram a

circular characteristic which is the simplest principle for a Dis-

Line protection
tance protection. “ZK” is the model impedance of the relay i.e. the
set impedance. “I” and “U” are the measured voltages and cur
rents. The relay will give operation when the measured imped
ance “|Z|<|ZK|”.
The same characteristic is achieved by comparing the signals
“IxZK-U”, and “IxZK+U”, with operation for “-π/2 <Ø <-π/2 ”.
The comparators can be instantaneous, integrating or a combi
nation of both.
The selected principle is decided by factors like circuit costs,
speed requirements, immunity to disturbances etc.
Integration will make the relay slower but more resistant against
disturbances. However, in modern numerical and static relays the
immunity is achieved by an improved filtering technic. Instanta
neous comparators can therefor be used with improved operating
times as a result.
In numerical Distance protection relays the impedance is calcu
lated for each measuring loop and is then compared with the set
impedance.
Varying algorithms are used by different manufacturers depen
dent of the relay. In some new numerical relay of type RELZ
100/REL 521 from ABB Network Partner, the impedance measure
ment is based on:
The resistive component is calculated:
UV × DIH – UH × DIV
R = ---------------------------------------------------------
DIH × IV – DIV × IH -
The reactive component is calculated:
UH × IV – UV × IH
X = ω × dt × ----------------------------------------------------
DIX × IV – DIV × IH

The values above are based on the voltage “U”, the current “I”,
and the current change between the samples “DI”, sent through
the Fourier filter. The Fourier filter creates two ortogonal values,
each related to the loop impedance of each measuring loop.
X
UH = R × IH + ------------------- × DIH
ω0 × dt
X
UV = R × IV + ------------------- × DIV
ω0 × dt
Where “H” is the horizontal (active part), and “V” is the vertical
(imaginary part).
DIRECTIONAL MEASUREMENT At fault close to the relay location

the voltage can drop to a value, where directional measurement
cannot be performed. Modern Distance protection relays will in
stead use a cross-polarization where the healthy voltage e. g. for
a “R” fault the voltage “UST = US-UT” with a 90° phase shift com
pared to “URN”. Different degrees of cross-polarization between
the healthy and faulty phases exists in different products.
For three-phase faults the cross polarization does not enable

measurement as all phases are low. A voltage memory circuit is
then used to secure correct directional discrimination even at
close-up faults with zero voltage in all three phases.
In new relays the memory is based on the positive sequence volt

age. The memory is held for about 100 ms after the voltage drop.
After 100 ms the most common principle is to seal-in the direction
measured until the current disappears.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS The measurement of impedance

and direction is done by signals from the current- and voltage
transformers. Conventional current transformers may saturate
due to the DC component in the short-circuit current. The best so
lution is to do the measurement before the CT-saturation. This re
quires a high speed performance of the relay.

Line protection
For distance measurement another solution is to measure the
zero crossings. Even during a transient saturation of a CT core
one zero crossing per cycle will be correctly reproduced.
CVT-transient is a big problem for the directional measurement in

relays of Distance relay type. For these relays the CVT- transient
has to be filtered out. The CVT transient is defined in IEC 186 and
the transient voltage shall at a solid fault with zero voltage be
<10% after one cycle. It is obvious that quick operating relays will
be much disturbed by a CVT transient.
If the change in voltage is used instead of the voltage itself, the

problem can be completely avoided.
True secondary current

Secondary current of TPX CT core
Fault inception
point
10% t
1 cycle
Figure 11. Output signals from a DC saturated current transformer and from
a CVT at a close-up fault.
Communication principle
In most Distance protection scheme applications, at least at volt
ages ≥130kV, communication channels between the two ends
are utilized to improve the protection system behavior.
The most common communication links are PLC equipment.

Communication schemes
The Distance protection relays can communicate in “Permissive”
or “Blocking” schemes.
In Permissive schemes an acceleration signal “CS” is sent to the

remote end, when the fault is detected “forward”. Tripping is
achieved when the acceleration signal “CS” is received if the local
relay has detected a forward fault as well.
Two main types of permissive schemes exist, see figure 12:

1) Underreaching schemes, where the acceleration signal is sent from
a zone underreaching the remote end, usually zone 1, “Z1”.
2) Overreaching schemes, where the acceleration signals are sent from
one overreaching zone, usually zone 1 “Z1” or zone 2 “Z2“overreaching
the remote end A directional start can also be used.
The overreaching schemes are normally used for short lines (<15
km) to improve the resistive coverage.
Receiving the carrier signal will, dependent of the selected

scheme mean a time acceleration of Zone 1 (at Z1 overreach), or
Zone 2 or Zone 3.

Line protection
Permissive system
A B
Z< Z<
Carrier send CS = Z< Forward, under or overreach
Trip = Z< Forward Z1, Z2 or Z3 & Carrier received
Blocking system
Z< Z<
Carrier send CS = Z< Reverse zone

_____________
Trip = Z< Forward Z1, Z2 or Z3 & Carrier received &T0
Figure 12. Communication with remote end, in Permissive schemes or
Blocking schemes. CS from Underreaching zone or Overreaching zone.
In Blocking schemes a blocking signal “CS”, is sent to the remote

end when the fault is detected to be reverse. Tripping is achieved
when the acceleration signal “CS” is not received within a time of
T0 and if the local relay has detected a forward fault as well. A
time margin T0 of 20-40ms to check if the signal is received is al
ways needed in a blocking scheme.
The accelerated tripping after “T0” are from “Z2” or “Z3”.
If different types, or manufacturer, of Distance protection relays

are used at the two line ends blocking schemes should be used
only after checking that the relays will operate together. A relay

where a blocking signal is sent for “start” but not “forward” should,
as a general principle, never be used together with a relay with a
true reverse directional element sending the blocking signal.
The using of Permissive schemes or Blocking schemes in the

system depends on the preference for Security or Dependability.
A Blocking scheme will be Dependable, i. e. it will operate for an
internal fault also with a failing communication link, but it has a
lower security as it can maloperate for an external fault due to a
failing communication link. The Permissive scheme has the op
posite behavior. The advantage with the blocking scheme is that
communication signals are sent on healthy lines whereas on per
missive scheme the communication signals are sent over a faulty
line.
Reasons for incorrect impedance measurement

To enable a correct impedance measurement the measured volt
age must be a function of only the locally measured current “IA”
and the impedance at the fault. This is naturally not always the
case in double-end infeed and meshed transmission networks.
REMOTE FAULTS If a fault occurs on an outgoing line in the re

mote substation where the own line will feed fault current “If1”,
see fig 13, the other lines in the remote station will also contribute
with the fault currents “If2” and “If3”. The measured impedance at
the local station will then be as in the figure and the measured im
pedance at the fault will seem much higher than the “true” imped
ance to the fault. The relays will thus get an apparent underreach.
This means that, in practice the possibility to get a “remote
back-up” in a transmission network is limited. A local back-up
must therefor normally be provided.

Line protection
If1 ZL
If1
Um
Z< If2
If3 If1+If2+If3
Measured voltage
Um=If1*ZL+(If1+If2+If3)*ZF ZF
Measured impedance If
Zm=Um/Im
X [Ω]
[ ]
ZL
Load
R [Ω]
[ ]
Figure 13. The Distance protection underreach at a remote fault.
At high resistive line faults on a

HIGH RESISTIVE LINE FAULTS
transmission line with double-end infeed a similar situation will

occur. In normal service a load current “Ib” flows through the line.
The current level is expressed:

E A – E B
I b = ----------------------
Z L
-

“UA” and “UB” must have a phase difference to allow the current
to flow. This, if the voltage amplitude is the same, which is a “nor
mal case” in the transmission network. When a fault occurs, the
currents “IA” and “IB”, are lagging “EA” respectively “EB”, and
have therefor also a phase difference compared to each other.
The resistance “R” at the fault will be seen as a resistance plus a
reactance reduction (at export) and a reactance addition (at im
port).
UB
Figure 14. Measuring error at a high resistive earth fault in a line with
double side infeed.
The measuring error will be:
IA
------- R sin Θ
–I B f
–IB
------- R sin Θ
IA f
At the two line ends (see fig), “Θ” is the phase angle difference
between “A” and “B” stations. The exporting end will thus over
reach i. e. a fault at the line end can be seen as an internal fault,

Line protection
and the import end will underreach i. e. a fault will seem further
off than it is in reality.
If the power direction always is the same a compensation can be

made when setting the relays. The earth fault loop setting must
especially be considered as the high resistive faults normally only
occur at earth faults only.
PARALLEL POWER LINES When parallel lines at the same tower

are used there will be a mutual impedance, normally only of in
terest when an earth fault occurs. Normal values of the mutual
impedance at earth faults for transmission line towers are “Zm” =
“0,5-0,6xZ0”.
The mutual impedance will for earth faults mean over- respective
ly underreach for the two line ends. The over- or underreach is
dependent on the fault position and the zero sequence sources
at the two line ends. The level of overreach resp underreach in
the measurement is in the range up to 16%.
Different situations will occur when:

- Parallel lines are in service.
- Parallel lines are out of service and earthed.
- Parallel lines are out of service (floating).
Compensation have to be done for the different cases when set

ting the relay earth fault reach. The “KN” factor is adjusted to
achieve a suitable setting. Normally the worst case is selected
and the “KN” is set to prevent overreaching, and thus unneces
sary operation. The overreach is caused by the parallel line out of
service and earthed at both ends and the factor KN should be set
as:
2 2
X 0 – X m0 – X 0 X 1
K N
= -----------------------------------------------
3X 0 X 1

When the parallel line is out of service but ungrounded the reach
will be reduced with a factor k1. This factor should be checked
and the overlapping of zone 1 from both end at underreaching
schemes should be verified.
( 1 + K N1) 3X 1
k 1 = ---------------------------------------
2X 1 + X 0
The setting of KN factor for zones 2 and up should always be as

the normal setting with an extended factor of 1,25 to cover a
worst case which occurs when no fault current is fed in at the re
mote terminal.
Note that the change of reach for parallel lines with compensated
KN is only valid for single phase faults. For multi phase faults the
reaches are not influenced.
Figure 15 shows the principle of the mutual impedance.
A B
ZL
Z0M
ZL
<
U0
A B
Z0M I0 Z0-Z0M
1/ 1
I0 Z0-Z0M
Figure 15. Influence of mutual impedance, at parallel lines, at the same

tower.

Line protection
Special functions
Some special functions are of interest with Distance protection
relays and should be mentioned.
SWITCH ONTO FAULT (SOTF)At energizing a power line onto a for

gotten earthing, portable or fixed, no measuring voltage will be
available and the directional measuring can thus for three phase
faults not operate correctly. A special SOTF function is thus pro
vided in Distance protection relays. Different principles can be
utilized, from an one phase current/one low voltage measure
ment to an undirectional impedance measuring as per figure 16.
The SOTF function is connected for some second/s only when
energizing. The criteria that there is a SOTF condition can either
be taken from the manual closing signal (called DC SOTF) acti
vating an input in the relay, or can be detected internally by the
relay (AC SOTF) where a no voltage-no current condition for a
certain time is taken as confirmation that the line is dead.
X [[Ω]
If
U=0 V ZL
Z<
R [[Ω]]
Figure 16. Switch Onto Fault function ensures fast tripping when energizing
a line onto a forgotten earthing.

POWER SWING BLOCKING (PSB) FUNCTION
Power swings can occur at double end in-feed networks. A Power

swing can be started by a sudden load change, due to e. g. man
ual switching, or at a fault somewhere in the network.
Close to the centre of the power swing low voltages and thus low
impedances will occur. A Distance protection relay can thus op
erate at a power swing and this is in most countries not accepted.
A Power Swing Blocking device is available for all schemes. The
most used principle used is to “measure the speed of the imped
ance locus”. This is done by two impedance circles, or rectan
gles, and a measuring of the time between passing the outer and
the inner line. Normally the time used is 35-40ms.
Exceeded time will make an alarm telling that a Power swing has
occurred. A blocking of the Distance protection zones will then be
made. Normal power swings in networks have a swing cycle of
0.5-10 seconds.
X [[Ω]
ZL
Rf
Power swing
Rf locus
Rf
Load
R [[Ω]
Figure 17. Power Swing Blocking function. Two rectangles can be provided
and the time between passing the outer and inner rectangle is measured.
STUB PROTECTION FUNCTION In one and a half and ring busbar

arrangements the voltage transformer will be located outside the

Line protection
line disconnector but the bays can be in full service with the
breaker closed even if the line disconnector is opened e. g. due
to make maintenance on the power line.
A fault in the line bay section, will not be possible to detect by the
distance protection. It’s also a risk of incorrect directional mea
surements due to induced voltages or back-feed of voltage from
the remote end. The Distance protection directional impedance
measuring is blocked and a so called Stub protection is intro
duced. The Stub protection is a simple current relay activated
only when line disconnector is open.
Figure 18. Stub protection function protects the line exit when the line
disconnector is open.

3.4 APPLICATION PROBLEMS
A number of interesting application problems occurs in a trans

mission line. Among them should be mentioned: Current reversal
In the quite common “parallel line applications” current reversal
can occur. The principal problem is shown in figure 17 and an ex
ample of the logic used to ensure correct operation is shown in
figure 18
110ms 80ms
RN
G G
Z< Z<
A B
Z< CS Z<
ZMrev ZMforw
Figure 19. Fault current reversal occurring, with parallel lines, at the same
tower.
ZM2
CR
& Trip
60
ZM3R &
40
Carrier
&
send
Figure 20. Fault current reversal logic for overreaching scheme in RELZ
100/REL 511/521./531 “ZM2” is measuring zone 2, “ZM3R” is Zone 3 re
verse and “CR” is carrier receive.
When a fault occurs at a line, on a parallel connection, the fault
will always be cleared from one line end first. When the first
breaker opens, the fault current in the parallel line will have a
change of direction and if nothing is done in the logic for commu
nication, maloperation can occur on the parallel healthy line. It
should be noted that the problem occurs for overreaching
schemes only.

Line protection
SIMULTANEOUS FAULTS In the quite common “parallel line appli
cations” simultaneous faults can occur. A fault can occur between
“L1” and “L2” but the phases are at different lines. A full scheme
relay is a must to give correct operation for simultaneous faults as
the measuring loops for earth faults must detect one forward- and
one reverse fault in different phases and a logic must be provided
in the relay to get the correct operation. Many Distance protection
relays (even of new types), will risk maloperation at these faults
and care must also be taken when the relay zones and the phase
selection are set.
Switched schemes can due to the starter function not operate

correctly for simultaneous faults. The starter will select both in
volved phases to the measuring element on both involved lines
distance protection relay. The measurement will then naturally be
incorrect.
Figure 21 shows the principle for simultaneous faults. The new

Distance protection relays from ABB Network Partner provides a
logic to cover the problem.
A RN/SN RN Forw
Forw SN Rev B
RN
Z< Z<
SN
Z< Z<
RN/SN SN Forw
Forw RN Rev
Figure 21. Simultaneous faults, in parallel lines, at the same tower.
SERIES CAPACITORSThe use of forward impedance measurement

using the reactive characteristic of the transmission lines, implies
that Distance protection relays can’t be used in series compen
sated lines without special care. Experts must be consulted for
such applications. This is also valid for surrounding lines in the
same station.

3.5 TRAVELLING WAVE PROTECTION RELAYS
The travelling wave detector, was a revolution in relay technology,

when first developed at the end of the seventies.
A fault in the power network, moves with the speed of light and
causes changes in the transmission network.
By detection of the transient changes in the current “∆i”, and in

the voltage “∆u”, and by comparing the signs of the two, the di
rection to the fault can be determined. The fault detection can be
done very quickly. In the total trip time the communication time for
the communication with the remote end also must be included as
the protection forms a directional comparison scheme.
The travelling wave protection schemes are only used in EHV

networks and are very suitable to be used in series compensated
lines where a distance protection scheme has a draw-back.
Due to the rather limited use for EHV lines the protection will not
be discussed further in this document.
4. AUTO RECLOSING
4.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF AN AUTO RECLOSING DE-

VICE
For restoration of the normal service after a line fault an Auto re
closing attempt is mostly made for Overhead lines. From fault sta
tistics it has become accepted that as high as 95% of the faults
are of transient nature i.e. an Auto reclosing can be successful.
The three phase quick Auto reclosing attempt is mostly carried

out after a synchro check where the voltages on both sides of the
circuit breaker are checked and it is verified that they are not out
of phase due to e. g. a heavy power swing.
AUTO RECLOSING

Line protection
For single phase Auto reclosing an identification of the faulty
phase is necessary. This phase selection can not be achieved at
high resistive earth fault, when “RF>50-200 Ω”. Faults with higher
“RF” can be detected by zero sequence current protections but
can’t be single phase Auto-reclosed as the discrimination of the
faulty phase is difficult. Special schemes have however been de
veloped for cases where there is a definite need to disconnect
only one phase due to a very weak network.
4.2 GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR AUTO RECLOSING
The Auto reclosing shall be coordinated with various equipment

as indicated in Figure 22.
AR - Auto-recloser
BFR - Breaker failure relay
COM - Communication
COND - CB condition
DLC SC - Dead line check and synchronism check
LP - Line protection
MAN - Manual CB control
PD - Pole discordance relay
COM
BFR
LP2
LP1
AR SC
PD
M
Man COND
Close
Figure 22. The Auto recloser and communicating equipment in a line bay.
Line protection relays.

There may be a single distance relay or duplicated protection. A
delayed back-up function is normally included. The Auto recloser
AUTO RECLOSING

is started at relay tripping. At delayed tripping the recloser is nor
mally blocked.
Communication.
Communication between the line relays is used to ensure quick
and simultaneous tripping at both ends. With relay cooperation in
the permissive mode there is a risk for delayed tripping at one
end if the communication is not working when a line fault occurs.
Dead time at quick Auto reclosing must be increased or recloser
start should be blocked at loss of communication.
Circuit breaker operating gear.

Energy is stored for close and trip operations. If there is insuffi
cient energy stored for a close-trip sequence, recloser start shall
be prevented.
Circuit breaker failure relays. Circuit-breaker trouble detected by
breaker failure relay or pole discordance relay should block Auto
reclosing.
Dead-line check and synchronism check.

Depending on the power grid configuration it may be necessary
to use a synchro-check relay to prevent Auto reclosing at loss of
synchronism. Dead line check is then made at one line end and
synchronism check at the other. In power grids with several reli
able parallel circuits high-speed Auto reclosing is, however, often
arranged to work without any synchro-check function.
Manual CB operation.
At manual CB closing the recloser is blocked. Should there be a
fault on the line it is then tripped but not reclosed. At manual CB
tripping the recloser is not started.
Status of recloser.
The recloser status shall influence the tripping. In the recloser for
single-pole or three-pole reclosing there is a programming for se
lection of reclosing mode. If the program is set to the position for
three-phase reclosing or reclosing off, or the recloser is blocked
by external conditions, all trippings shall be made as three-pole
operations. Sometimes, when investment in communication be
tween distance relays is not made, the relays are set with a zone
1 overreach and thus cover more than the whole line at the first
AUTO RECLOSING

Line protection
tripping. At reclosing the zone 1 reach is shortened to ensure se
lective clearance of persistent faults. When the recloser is
blocked or switched off, the zone 1 reach shall also be reduced
to give selective fault clearance already at the first tripping.
The principle for an Auto reclose cycle

The principle of an auto reclosing cycle is shown in figure 23.
Figure 23. The operating principle of an Auto reclosing device.
The Auto reclosing device is providing a reclosing attempt, after

a dead interval with sufficient length, to ensure that deionisation
of the fault area has taken place. The dead, and blocking time
must match the breaker capability. Normally the circuit breakers
fulfil the IEC duty cycle for circuit breakers O - 0.3 seconds CO
3 min CO
FAULT TIMES AND DEIONISATIONThe time to achieve deionisa

tion after the fault is dependent of several factors such as time to
fault clearance, fault current, wind, air humidity, capacitive cou
pling to live parts etc.
The dead interval must be selected to give sufficient time, to

deionisate the fault area. For instantaneously cleared faults
(<100ms), a dead time of 300-400ms can be sufficient.
AUTO RECLOSING

If the fault clearance is delayed, say fault clearance times of 0.5-1
second, the dead interval must be longer e.g. 1 second.
When single phase Auto reclosing is used the dead time must
also be longer. Normally times of 0.8-1.2 seconds are used. The
reason for this is the capacitive coupling to live phases which will
maintain the arc. For long lines (>150km) it may even be neces
sary to introduce a neutral reactor to the line (teaser reactor). The
teaser reactor shall have an inductance matching the line capac
itive reactance to enable single phase auto reclose with reason
able long dead time.
Auto reclosing schemes

There is a number of different practices, the most common ones
are:
- Three phase auto-reclosing at all type of faults.
- Three phase auto-reclosing only at single phase faults.
- Single phase auto-reclosing at single phase faults together with three
phase auto-reclosing at multi phase faults.
- Single phase auto-reclosing at single phase faults only.
Three types of dead interval are used:

- Quick Auto reclosing, with a dead interval less than 0.8 seconds. A quick
Auto reclosing requires communication between the line ends and an in
stantaneous fault clearance at both ends.
- Quick auto-reclosing with a dead interval longer than 0.8-2 seconds can
be used when no communication exist and the fault clearance will or can
be made from the Distance protection second zone at one of the line
ends. The dead interval must then be increased.
- Delayed auto-reclosing, with a dead interval from 6 seconds up to sev
eral minutes is mostly used in distribution networks but are also used at
transmission voltages in some countries.
4.3 BLOCKING
The Auto recloser must be blocked under the following condi

tions:
AUTO RECLOSING

Line protection
- Energizing of a line onto a fault. When a line is closed onto a fault the
Auto recloser is blocked to prevent unnecessary disturbances in the
power network. The chance of a persistent fault is high as the line has
not been carrying load and is therefor not a part of “normal conditions”.
- Auto-reclosing onto a persistent fault. An unsucessful auto reclosing
means that the fault probably is persistent. The auto-recloser is then
blocked to prevent new attempts. Solutions with several attempts how
ever exists but the breaker duty cycle must then be carefully checked.
- “Breaker not ready” is used to block the auto-recloser. The breaker is
then not ready to perform any attempt and the breaker can not be auto
matic reclosed.
- PLC (or communication channel) out of service must be connected to
block the Auto recloser if a quick auto reclose attempt is used. The fault
has not surely been cleared from the remote end and an auto reclose
might therefor not be successful.
5. AUTO RECLOSE FOR ONE-AND A HALF

BREAKER OR RING BUSBAR SCHEMES.
Auto reclosing of transmission line circuit-breakers is somewhat

more complicated in One- and a half breaker, 2–breaker and
Ring busbar stations than in simpler stations with a One line -
One breaker arrangement. At a line fault two CB’s shall be tripped
and reclosed at each end of the line and some coordination is re
quired. In addition one circuit breaker (tie breaker) is shared by
two circuits in One- and a half breaker and Ring busbar stations.
A standardized Auto reclosing scheme designed by ABB com
bines flexibility with some particular features:
- High-speed or delayed Auto reclosing.
- Single-pole an/or three-pole Auto reclosing with independent setting of
dead times.
- Synchronism check feature as an option. It can be combined with de
layed or high-speed three pole Auto reclosing.
- Cooperation with single- or duplicate line relays.
- Adapted to communicating line relays or Distance relays with overreach
of zone 1 before Auto reclosing.
AUTO RECLOSE FOR ONE-AND A HALF BREAKER OR

- Suitable for various station arrangements including One- and a half
breaker and ring busbar stations. The two line CB:s in a station can be
reclosed successively with a priority circuit.
- Only those CB:s which were closed before the line fault are reclosed.
- The dead line time is not influenced if one of the two line CB:s in a station
is out of service when the fault occurs.
- Correct behavior also for interline faults when parallel lines are used.
A
CB3
AR
CB2 AR
AR
AR
CB1
Figure 24. Auto reclosing of transmission line CB:s.

Line protection
INFLUENCE OF THE STATION ARRANGEMENT ON THE
AUTO RECLOSING
The type of switchgear arrangement will influence the introduc

tion of Auto recloser and Synchro check devices. A number of
possible different arrangements are shown in below figure.

Figure 25. Examples of multi breaker switchgear arrangements
MULTI BREAKER ARRANGEMENT

Application of Auto reclosing in an One- and a half breaker, Two
-breaker or a ring busbar station requires some particular atten
tion. After a line fault two CB’s at each end of the line shall be re
closed and need to be coordinated. One CB can be taken out of

Line protection
service independently of the line and that CB shall in such a case
not be Auto-reclosed if a line fault occurs.
In a One- and a half-CB station each centre CB is shared by two
circuits, for instance a line and a transformer as in Fig. 25c, or two
lines as in Fig. 25d. In a ring busbar station all CB’s serve two cir
cuits in the same way. Interconnecting circuits are necessary be
tween the line oriented equipment, CB equipment and Auto
recloser. It is important to arrange these circuits in a manner that
the correct and reliable function is obtained and that the arrange
ment can be simple understood, checked and maintained.
A standard scheme with options for different requirements is thus
preferable.
Following special problems should be considered.
Priority circuit.
When one line is controlled by two circuit breaker both must be
opened when a fault occurs and should consequently also be re
closed. To limit the consequences if the fault is persistent the two
breakers are reclosed in sequence and a priority circuit is built-up
to manage the priority. The common way is to reclose the bus
breaker first in a one- and a half breaker scheme. In other ar
rangements one CB must be given the higher priority.
The priority circuit is based on the start of the AR devices where
the start of the highest priority CB AR device puts the low priority
CB AR on a “wait” condition until the first CB has successfully re
closed and the AR device has reset. The dead time for the sec
ond CB is then started and the second CB reclosed. The
advantage is that the low priority CB need not to be stressed if
the fault is persistent.
Should the first breaker fail to reclose due to a persistent fault a
circuit is arranged to reset the second recloser also when the new
trip is achieved.

AR out of service.
Of course the circuit breaker shall not be single phase trip is the
Auto recloser is in “OFF” position, in the “3 phase” position or out
of service due to e. g. AR device Auxiliary voltage supply failure.
CB not ready should also be included in this circuit. It is then es
sential that a prepare three phase trip circuit is designed and for
multi breaker schemes this must be done on the trip unit for each
circuit breaker as the choice can be made independently for each
breaker. It must be remembered to use a fail safe connection in
dependent of the voltage supply of the AR device. The circuit is
shown in below figure. The circuit must include preparation of
three phase tripping in both of the redundant trip systems. Prin
ciples for exchange of information between sub systems should
then be considered, see a separate section in this book.
Figure 26. The principle circuit for arrangement of prepare three phase trip
at a multi breaker arrangement.

Line protection
In Fig. 27 some examples are illustrated. In the following, Auto re
closing of a line in an One- and a half-breaker bay for two lines
will be used as an example. It is a representative complicated
case.
A
CB3
CB2
D
E
Line fault
CB1
Figure 27. Some Auto reclosing sequences in multi breaker systems.
5.1 AN AUTO RECLOSING SCHEME
An Auto reclosing scheme in a multi breaker bay can include:

- One Auto recloser for each line CB.
- Coordination between auto-reclosers.
- Dead line/synchro-check circuits and relays for CB conditions and inter
connection with CB pole discordance relay.
- Adaptation of the trip relay circuits.
- Interconnection and interfacing with line protection relays and commu
nication equipment.
The equipment in a bay of a One- and a half-breaker station is
shown in Fig. 28 and in Appendix 3.

Man
COM
Cl.
COND AR CB1
LP2
DLC
PD
SC
Man
LP1 Cl. CB2

COND AR
LP2 DLC
PD
SC
Man
Cl.
LP1 COND AR CB3
PD DLC
SC
COM
Figure 28. Auto-reclosers (AR) and cooperating equipment in a One- and a

half-breaker bay
The line protection relays are normally Distance protection relays
which are designed to cooperate with the auto-reclosers.
Duplicate, redundant Distance relays are often used for impor
tant transmission lines. The reclosers must thus cooperate with
two such protection systems.
The auxiliary supply circuits are essential for the reliability. The
Auto reclosing scheme can be combined with duplicate DC sys
tems. The primary protection relays, the Auto-reclosers, the syn
chro-check relays etc. are then supplied from one DC-system.
The secondary redundant protection relays and trip circuits are
connected to the second DC system.
Each CB has an independent Auto recloser so each line protec
tion has cooperation with two Auto reclosers and the line can be
Auto-reclosed even if one CB or one recloser is out of service or
switched off when the fault occurs.
In order to gain maximum flexibility the auxiliary DC sub-distribu
tion is normally made with individual fusing (by MCB or fuses) for
each CB section and each line. The auxiliary supply can thus be
switched off when maintenance is made on one CB or on the line
equipment.
Auxiliary and time-lag relays are used for various purposes, trip
ping, interfacing, galvanic separation etc.

Line protection
5.2 AUTO RECLOSING SEQUENCES.
Some Auto reclosing sequences obtained by use of ABB stan
dardized Auto reclosing scheme in a One- and a half-breaker bay
are described below. The arrangement is shown in Appendix 3.
Assumptions:
All CB’s and disconnectors are closed. The lines are in normal
service. All protection relays with power line carrier (PLC) com
munication are in operation.
The reclosers are set for 1- and/or 3-pole tripping and Auto re
closing. The dead times are 1.0 and 0.4 seconds respectively.
CB 1 shall reclose before CB 2. CB1 is selected to energize the
line and the Voltage check VC is released. CB 2 is selected to
Synchro check SC and no VC is allowed.
The line shall be reenergized from this station with CB 1 as first
priority.
A Three-pole Auto reclosing with VC resp. SC

Approximate time plan.
0.0 s A multi-phase fault occurs on line 1. The line relays operate
instantaneously and the trip relays in all three phases operate.
The conditions for auto-recloser start are fulfilled. The reclosers
for CB 1 and CB 2 are started for a three-pole reclosing.
The priority circuit from the CB 1 recloser keeps the CB 2 recloser
waiting.
CB 1 and CB 2 and remote end CB’s clear the fault. The line re
lays and the trip relays resets.
0.2 s The VC/SC device detects a dead line condition.
0.4 s The CB 1 recloser timer for 3-pole dead time operates.
The VC/SC condition is fulfilled and CB 1 is given a reclosing
pulse. The CB 1 recloser is put in a blocking state for a certain
Reclaim time, e.g. 180 sec.The CB 2 recloser is released.
0.5 s CB 1 recloses and energizes the line.
0.7 s The dead line condition has disappeared but the VC/SC
relay operates for synchronous conditions.
0.8 s The CB 2 recloser operates and gives CB 2 a closing
command. The recloser is then blocked for the Reclaim time.
0.9 s CB 2 has closed.

180 s The reclosers reset when reclaim time expires. They are
then ready for a new operation.
Above a high-speed Auto reclosing is described but the reclosers

can of course also be set for delayed reclosing.
Single-pole reclosing
Approximate time plan.
0.0 s. A single-phase fault occurs on the line. Single-pole tripping
of CB 1 and CB 2. The CB 1 and CB 2 reclosers are started. The
CB 2 recloser is kept waiting by the priority circuit. The reclosers
block the pole discordance relays and in applicable cases Earth
fault current relays are blocked during the single-pole dead inter
val.
1.0 s. The CB1 recloser operates. VC or SC is not necessary at
single-pole reclosing. CB 1gets a closing pulse. The CB 1 reclos
er is blocked for the Reclaim time and the CB 2 recloser released.
1.1 s. CB 1 recloses the open pole.
2.0 s. The CB 2 recloser operates.
2.1 s. CB 2 recloses the open pole.
e.g. 180 seconds. The reclosers reset after the Reclaim time
Influence on the Auto reclosing by various conditions.
1) Delayed tripping. At tripping by delayed steps of Distance re
lay, or at other back-up relay tripping the reclosers are blocked.
2) The recloser selector switch of one recloser, e.g. CB 1, is set
in OFF position. The CB 1 trip relays are then interconnected. At
a single-phase fault on Line 1, CB 1 will trip three-pole. CB 2 will
trip single-pole and reclose.
3) Communication trouble at Distance relay cooperation in a per
missive scheme.
The relay trips instantaneously, but lacking communication (e.g.
by power line carrier, PLC) there is a risk that the remote end Dis
tance relay trips with a zone 2 delay. Start recloser is blocked
since the line dead time may be too short for fault deionisation.
Alternatively an additional time is added to the 3 phase dead
time.
4) One CB was open before the line fault.
Assume that CB 1 is open. The CB 1 conditions for Auto reclosing
are not met. At a fault the CB 1 reclosing will not be started and

Line protection
it will not delay the CB 2 recloser. CB 2 will reclose without pro
longing the dead line time.
5) CB operating gear not charged.
The CB conditions for reclosing are not fulfilled. See point 4
above!
6. SYNCHRO CHECK DEVICE
By use of a quick-acting synchronism check functions,

high-speed reclosing with synchronism check can be employed
and can be a valuable tool to improve operational reliability of a
power system. With synchronism check is meant the check of a
dead line condition with a Voltage check and the check of the par
alleling condition with a check of phase angle and voltage differ
ence with frequency difference within a set limit. Single-pole
reclosing does not require any synchronism check.
In the following only three-pole reclosing with Synchro check will
be discussed.
Three-pole reclosing can be performed when the two parts of the

grid are in synchronism. Synchronism can be secured by circuits
in parallel to the tripped line. The possibility that a parallel line
could, for instance, is affected by a fault or can temporarily be out
of service, must be considered when the need for Synchro check
is discussed.
In some cases, for instance with one single line between two
parts of the power system, three-pole auto-reclosing cannot be
used. It is very unlikely that the two parts maintain synchronism
after a three-pole tripping. In such cases one has to refrain from
three pole auto-reclosing or limit the use to single-pole tripping
and auto-reclosing at single-phase faults. After a three-pole trip
ping the two parts must be synchronized together.
Figure 29 illustrates power grids with varying degree of meshing.

In the systems of fig. 29b, 29c and 29d three-pole reclosing can
SYNCHRO CHECK DEVICE

be utilized. Synchronism check at reclosing is particularly inter
esting in the cases fig. 29b and 29c.
Figure 29. Power grid with different degree of meshing between A and B

Line protection
6.1 SYNCHRO CHECK AT HIGH-SPEED AUTO RE-
CLOSING
Direct three-pole high-speed Auto reclosing is applied in power
grids similar to fig. 29d. It is simple and uncomplicated and gives
a short disturbance time.
The fault clearing is made as quick and as simultaneous as pos
sible at the two ends. The Automatic reclosing is performed with
out any intentional time difference between the ends. Has the
fault disappeared at reclosing, the line can immediately pick-up
load. The dead line time, and the time the circuit is open, are al
most the same.
A certain power system swing is caused by the fault and the
switching of the line in and out. After automatic reconnection the
system swings back to pre-fault conditions. The amplitudes of the
swing depends upon the load transfer before the fault, the fault
type, the fault location, the fault clearance time, number and
length of parallel lines and other power system parameters.
Care shall be taken not to apply direct Auto-reclosing close to
power stations, especially close to thermal plants with turbo gen
erators. A reclosing into a close-up persistent fault would for such
applications result in a considerable strain of the generators.
6.2 DELAYED AUTO RECLOSING WITH SYNCHRO

CHECK
The fault clearance is made simultaneously or with a small

non-intentional time difference between the line ends. Delayed
auto-reclosing is normally combined with synchronism check.
The C. B. reclosing at one end is then preceded by a live-bus and
dead-line check. Once the line is energized, the synchronism can
be checked at the other end of the line before completing the au
to-reclosing sequence.
The completion of the reclosing is somewhat delayed by the syn
chronism check. To the dead time is added the time required for
the synchronism check and the C. B. closing. This extra time is
less important at delayed reclosing. Typical times can be: Dead

time 10 seconds, synchro-check time 0.2 seconds, C.B. closing
0.1 seconds, giving 0.3 seconds to be added to the dead time.
As in the case of high-speed reclosing, a swing occurs after the
fault and the fault clearance. A sufficiently stable power system
swings to a new state and is relatively stable at the instant of de
layed reclosing. The synchro-check device checks the voltage
levels at both side of the circuit breaker, the voltage level differ
ence, phase angle shift and frequency difference before the Auto
reclosing attempt is made.
The difference in voltage and the phase shift, together with line
and source impedances, determine the shock at reconnection. At
short lines and strong power systems the voltage difference and
phase shift are generally small and the synchronism check de
vice should be set in accordance with those conditions.
At long lines on the other hand, the phase shift due to high load
through long and weak parallel circuits, may be considerable. The
setting must then be at least equally high and it can well be re
quired to be up to 60°. The shock at reclosing will still be moder
ate due to the high line impedance.
A frequency difference between the two parts of the power sys
tem may exist due to a system swing or lost synchronism.
Consider a case according to fig. 29b. The line from B to C is as

sumed to be open at B. Only little power is transferred between A
and B, when a fault occurs on that line. The power system is then
split into two parts and can loose synchronism. The two parts
may however have just a small difference in frequency. A reclos
ing of the interconnecting line could fail if the two non-synchro
nous parts are strong and heavy and the line is incapable of
reestablishing synchronism. The synchronism check devices
should therefore have a high sensitivity to frequency difference in
this kind of application. A sufficiently high sensitivity for frequency
difference is not a disadvantage at delayed reclosing as the sys
tem is given sufficient time to stabilize before reclosing.
To conclude: A synchronism check device for delayed auto-re

closing shall have the following features:
- a check of voltage level and/or voltage level difference,
- a phase shift sensitivity settable within wide limits,
- a sensitive frequency difference check and

Line protection
- a moderate operation time, typically less than 0.2-0.5 seconds.
6.3 HIGH-SPEED AUTO RECLOSING WITH SYN-

CHRONISM CHECK
In power systems where the stability is strained under periods of
high load, one would like to reclose quickly in order to improve the
stability. If the parallel interconnection is unreliable, for instance
in a system like fig. 29b or 29c, it can be risky to perform a
high-speed reclosing without synchronism check. One can then
be forced to refrain from reclosing, rely on single pole auto-re
closing at single-phase faults or take a chance with delayed au
to-reclosing.
In the latter case the Auto reclosing may be blocked at high loads,
which is unfortunate, especially if a high-speed reclosing could
have saved the stability. In such cases it would be preferable to
adopt high-speed reclosing with dead line check and synchro
nism check.
When a parallel line is in service Auto-reclosing can then be per
formed. On the other hand, when the parallel circuit is out of ser
vice, the reclosing will be blocked as the synchronism is most
likely lost during the dead time.
Auto-reclosing with dead line and synchronism check can in
many cases be applied also for lines near a power station.
By choosing to energize the line from the remote end the strain
at reclosing into a persistent fault will be moderate. Because the
remote end is retripped at a persistent fault, the end near the
power station will not be reclosed. Only after a successful line re
energizing the synchronism check conditions will be met and the
line reclosing completed.
At a controlled high-speed Auto reclosing the dead line check is
made during the dead interval of 0.4-1.0 seconds and a time for
dead-line check of 0.2 seconds can be allowed. The synchronism
check is made after line reenergizing and the check should be
quick to avoid unnecessary delay of the reclosing. It must howev
er wait about 0.1 seconds for a possible retripping of the remote
end. Assuming a dead interval of 0.4 seconds, a synchronism
check time of 0.2 seconds and time for circuit-breaker closing of

0.1 seconds the open-circuit time will be 0. 4 + 0. 2 + 0.1 seconds
= 0.7 seconds.
One must expect a considerable power system swing at

high-speed reclosing of long transmission lines in a system with
threatened stability. Therefore, the synchronism check device
must not be too sensitive, but allow fairly high values of phase
shift and frequency difference. Values of 70° and 200 mHz are re
alistic. The synchronism check shall be supplemented by a timer
to interrupt the auto-reclosing if the check conditions are not met
within a short time, e.g. 1 seconds

Line protection
6.4 ARRANGEMENT OF SYNCHRO-CHECK UNITS
FOR AUTO RECLOSING
In Fig. 30 is indicated Auto reclosing with dead line check at one

end and synchronism-check at the other end. It would thus be
sufficient with a live-bus/dead-line check unit in the first and a
synchronism check device in the other end. Complete syn
chro-check devices with live bus/dead-line check facility are how
ever usually installed at both ends. In this way the direction of line
reenergizing can easily be changed by change of settings.
Figure 30. Dead line check (DLC) and synchronism check (SC) at auto-re
closing. 25 = DLC/SCdevice
Normally there are several lines connected to a substation. It is

practical to install a synchro-check device for each line cir
cuit-breaker. In case of a simultaneous tripping of two lines the
Auto reclosers can then operate independent of each other. Si
multaneous faults could occur at lightning strokes in towers com
monly used for two lines. Furthermore, by use of one
synchro-check device per line breaker there will not be any need
for complicated selection in the voltage and trip circuits.
In stations of breaker- and -a-half, double breaker or ring busbar
type, two circuit-breakers per line end are tripped at line faults
and shall be reclosed.
The line is energized by one circuit-breaker and if the fault has

disappeared, then the other breaker is also reclosed. The order
is determined by a priority circuit between the reclosers. In Fig.
31 is shown successive reclosing with dead line check of the first

CB closing (Al) and synchronism check of the second CB (A2).
Should however the first CB be out of service at the fault, no re
closing is made with this CB.
In that case the second CB shall energize the line and the syn
chro-check device shall be arranged to permit dead line charging.
In the other station sequential Auto reclosing of the CB’s is also
used but combined with synchronism check as indicated in
Fig. 31.
The four synchro-check devices are set in such manner, that A1
and A2 permit reclosing at dead line or at synchronism condi
tions, but devices B1 and B2 require synchronism at reclosing.
Figure 31. Dead line check and synchronism check at auto-reclosing in a

One- and a half-breaker station and a Ring busbar station
6.5 SYNCHRO-CHECK RELAY/FUNCTION.
The synchro-check relay measures in a single phase mode the

voltage on both sides of the open circuit breaker and it checks:
- Voltage levels
- Difference in voltage level
- Phase angle difference
- Frequency difference

Line protection
When a voltage check function is used it can be set to allow en
ergizing in one or the other, or both directions, or be blocked. To
suit different applications there are wide range of application se
lections or/and settings, which differ with respect to speed and
frequency difference sensitivity.
The functions are made to suit the conditions at Quick and De
layed Auto-reclosing as discussed above. It is then set for contin
uous output signal as long as the conditions are fulfilled and it
releases the auto-recloser.
The main characteristics for a suitable Synchro check function
are as follows:
Synchro check unit (paralleling check):
Limit for normal voltage UH: 45-80% of Un
Max voltage difference, ∆U = 5-75% of Un.
Max phase angle difference, ∆Ø=5 -75°.
Max frequency difference, ∆f = 20-200 mHz
Operation time: t = 0.2-0.5 seconds
Voltage check unit (dead line check):
Limit for dead equipment, UL=30-80% of Un
Limit for live equipment, UH = 80% of Un

Operation time: t = 0.1-0.2 seconds.
6.6 7. EXAMPLE OF SYNCHRO CHECK FUNCTION

SETTINGS
Reference is made to Users Guide for the different functions/
relays.
Application: High-speed auto-reclosing.
On all four SC/VC functions in Fig. 29 above are set:
Nominal voltage U1, U2: Un =110/63.5 V
- Voltage difference ∆U: e.g. 15% of Un
- Phase angle difference ∆Ø: e.g. 45 °
The Synchro check function is set for continuous output signal
when conditions are fulfilled.
Unit A1 is set for line energizing: Dead Line - Live Bus DLLB

Continuous output
No delay.
Dead line voltage:
The unit A2 can be set at energizing “BOTH” i. e. allowing ener
gizing of one or the other direction. The other settings are as for
A1.
The B1 and B2 units are set with Dead line energizing blocked.
The other settings are as for A1.
7. LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM
7.1 GENERAL DESIGN
A block diagram for a EHV/HV line protection system is shown in

Appendix 1.
A redundant protection scheme with two Distance protection re

lays is provided. The high resistive earth faults are detected by a
Directional earth fault relay (DEF), including communication with
remote end in a permissive or blocking scheme. The DEF is pro
vided in one of the systems only as the consequences for the
power network are smaller due to the lower magnitude of fault
current and as the fault is in one phase only. These high ohmic
faults will also develop to a low ohmic fault if not cleared within a
reasonable time and fault clearance is thus secured in both sub
systems.
An Auto-Reclosing device is provided to restore the normal oper

ation as quick as possible. To verify that Auto-Reclosing can take
place at multi-phase faults a Synchro check function is provided.
To measure the distance to the fault, thus simplifying the localiza

tion, a Fault locator is supplied as an option to the Distance pro
tection. This will much improve the time to repair for a fault on a
long transmission line.
A Fault recorder is included to register the analogue signal at the

faults, enabling a post fault analyze to check the behavior of the
protection system and by that improve the total reliability.
LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM

Line protection
A Breaker failure relay is provided to transfer the trip to the sur

rounding breakers. This is only used for the case where the line
breaker fails to trip.
In Appendix 2 a MV/HV cable line protection based on a Differen

tial relay and a back-up protection with directional short circuit
and Earth fault protection.
Appendix 1
The protection system Block diagram for a EHV/HV Line.


Line protection
Appendix 2
The protection system Block diagram for a HV/MV Cable.


Line protection
Appendix 3
The Auto Reclosers and Line protection for a One- and a Half
Breaker Bay section.


Transformer Protection
1. INTRODUCTION
A power transformer is an important and expensive part of a pow

er network. High availability of the power transformer is therefore
very important in order to prevent disturbances in the power net
works transfer of power.
A high quality power transformer, correctly designed and with

suitable protection relays and supervision is very reliable. Less
than one fault per 100 transformer and year can be expected.
When a fault occurs in a power transformer this will normally

cause severe damage. The power transformer has to be trans
ported to a workshop for reparation, which takes considerable
time. Operation of a power network, when the power transformer
is out of service is always difficult. A power transformer fault
therefore often is a more severe disturbance for the network, than
an overhead line fault which usually can be repaired rather quick
ly.
2. CONDITIONS LEADING TO FAULTS
Insulation breakdown
Insulation breakdown of the windings will cause short-circuits
and/or earth-faults. These faults causes severe damage on the
windings and the transformer core. In addition to that an over
pressure may develop damaging the transformer tank.
Insulation breakdown, between windings or between winding and

core can be caused by:
- Ageing of insulation due to overtemperature during a long time.
- Contaminated oil.
- Corona discharges in the insulation.
- Transient overvoltages, due to lightning or switching, in the network.
INTRODUCTION

- Current forces on the windings due to high currents at external faults or
the inrush currents when a transformer is energized.
3. RELAY PROTECTION
3.1 GENERAL
When a fault occur in a power transformer, the damage will be

proportional to the fault clearance time. The power transformer
therefore must be disconnected, as quick as possible. It is of out
most importance that quick and reliable protection relays are
used to detect faults and initiate tripping.
Monitors at the power transformer can also be used for detecting

of abnormal conditions which may develop into a fault.
The power transformers size and voltage level influences the ex
tent the choice of monitors and the protection relays used to limit
the damage at an possible fault. The cost for these is small com
pared both to the total cost of the power transformer and the cost
due to a transformer fault.
There are often different opinions about the extent of transformer

protection. However, transformers with oil conservators usually
are equipped with the following protection and monitoring:
Transformers larger than 5MVA

- Pressure guard (Buchholz-relay).
- Overload protection (normally winding temperature supervision within

the transformer).
- Overcurrent protection.
- Earth fault protection.
- Differential protection.
- Pressure relay for tap changer compartment.
- Oil level monitor.
Transformers smaller than 5MVA
RELAY PROTECTION

- Pressure guard (Buchholz-relay).
- Overload protection (normally winding temperature supervision within

the transformer).
- Overcurrent protection.
- Earth fault protection.
- Oil level monitor.
3.2 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF LOW IMPED-

ANCE TYPE
A differential protection compares the currents flowing into and

out from the transformer. Auxiliary current transformer “aux.ct:s”,
for adjusting the phase angle and ratio are necessary. Ratio cor
rection is normally calculated for tap changer at middle position.
In new numerical protection relays aux.ct:s are not necessary.

Phase shift, voltage levels and CT-ratios are then programmed
into the protection and compensated for at differential current
measurement. Further zero sequence current filtering is also
made in software whereas in older static relays this was made by
including delta windings in the auxiliary current transformers.
A differential protection must operate quickly, when the differen

tial current exceeds the settings of the relay and only operate for
a fault within its zone. The protection therefore must be stable
concerning:
- Inrush currents.
- Through fault currents.
- Overfluxing of the transformer.
This must be ensured, even with a tap-changer in the end posi

tion.
Inrush current
Inrush current develop, when the transformer is connected to the
network. The magnitude and duration are dependent on:
RELAY PROTECTION

- Transformer size and design.
- Source impedance.
- Remanence of the core.
- Point of the sinus wave at which the transformer is switched on.
Inrush currents can develop in all phases and in an earthed neu

tral. Currents of magnitude 5-10 times the transformers rated cur
rent can be obtained.
Inrush current can have the shape shown in fig. 1. Maximum in
rush is achieved when the transformer is switched in at zero volt
age and the magnetic flux, from the inrush current, have the
same direction as the remanence flux of the core. The two fluxes
are added and the core can saturate. When the transformer core
saturates the inrush current is only limited by the network source
impedance and transformer residual impedance.
Figure 1. Recorded inrush current for a 60MVA transformer 140/40/6,6kV,

connected YNyd
When the new flux at the swithing in have the opposite direction
of the remanence flux, no saturation of the core will be obtained
and the inrush current will be comparatively small. The size of the
inrush current therefore is dependent of where on the wave the
transformer is switched in.
RELAY PROTECTION

The inrush current also have a large DC-component and is rich

of harmonics. The fundamental frequency and the second har
monic are dominating. Damping of the inrush current is depen
dent on the total resistance of the feeding network. Duration can
vary from less than 1 second, up to minutes in extreme cases,
when a transformer is switched in, in parallel with another, al
ready energized, transformer.
In order to prevent unwanted functions at switching in the trans
former the differential protection is supplied with a second har
monic restraint measuring the content of second harmonic
compared with the fundamental frequency. The second harmonic
restraint will block unwanted tripping by increasing the stabiliza
tion if the second harmonic content is large. A normal content is
>13-20% depending on the manufacture and type. For modern
numerical relays the stabilization level can be set for each appli
cation.
Normal service
At normal service there will be a small differential (unbalanced)
current flow due to mismatch of ratio (aux.ct:s normally have a
limited number of taps and will not get exact adjustment), power
transformer magnetizing current and the position of the
tap-changer. The position of the tap changer is the factor that
gives the dominating differential current.
External faults
The “normal” differential current in service increases at an exter
nal fault. A through fault of 10 times the rated current (with a tap
changer at end position) can cause a differential current of 1-2
times the power transformer rated current.
In order not to maloperate under these conditions the differential
protection is provided with a percentage, through fault, restraint
circuit. The percentage restraint ensures that the function only is
obtained if the differential current reaches a certain percentage
of the total through fault current (see fig. 2).
The current (I1+I2)/2 is the measured through fault current and
the differential current required for operation will increase with in-
RELAY PROTECTION

creasing through fault current and a stabilization for the differen
tial current achieved due to tap changer in offset position is then
achieved.
Figure 2. Through fault restraint gives an increased required differential cur

rent when the through fault current is increasing.
Overexcitation
Overexcitation of a transformer means that the magnetic flux in
the core is increased above the normal design level. This will
cause an increase of the magnetizing current and the transform
er can be damaged if this situation isn’t taken care of.
Overexcitation of transformers in transmission and distribution

networks is caused by overvoltages in the network.
For step-up transformers connected to generators during
start-up, overexcitation can occur since the flux is dependent of
the factor voltage/frequency. This means that the voltage must be
gradually increased, with increasing frequency, in order not to
overexcite the transformer.
The overexcitation is not an internal transformer fault, although

can lead to one. The differential protection must therefore be sta
bilized under these conditions as tripping of transformers and
thus load will only mean that the overvoltage condition in the net
work is becoming worse.
RELAY PROTECTION

The current during overexcitation has a lot of fifth harmonic, see
fig. 3. This fact is utilized in modern transformer protection to sta
bilize the transformer against unwanted functions during these
kind of conditions.
Figure 3. Magnetizing current at Overexcitation where“I1” is the fundamen

tal frequency current, “I5” is the fifth harmonic current, “Im ” is the total mag
netizing current and “In” is the nominal current.
If overexcitation of the transformer due to overvoltage or under

frequency is likely to happen, a separate overexcitation protec
tion should be supplied. This protection has inverse
characteristics according to the transformers capability to re
strain overexcitation “V/Hz”. This protection must be connected to
a transformer winding with fixed number of turns. If the transform
er is supplied with tap changer the protection must be connected
to a side without tap changer. The side with the tap changer can
withstand different voltages depending on the tap changer posi
tion and is therefore not suitable for overexcitation protection.
3.3 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION FOR
RELAY PROTECTION

AUTO-TRANSFORMERS
For auto-transformers a high impedance type of differential pro

tection can be used. CT:s with the same ratio and no turn correc
tion are then supplied at both high and low voltage side of the
transformer as well as in each phase of the neutral.
With this type of protection a higher sensitivity, 5-10% of rated

current, and a faster tripping (10-15ms) compared with the low
impedance type can be obtained.
Drawbacks with this type of protection can be:

- If the transformer is delivered separately, it can be difficult to ge
each phase, at the neutral side of the winding.
- Delta winding of the transformer has to be protected separately.
3.4 BACK-UP PROTECTION RELAYS
A transformer is always supplied with a number of back-up pro

tection relays, e.g. back-up for short circuits or earth faults in the
low side system. These protection relays are definite or inverse
time delayed and connected to high- and low voltage side as well
as on the neutral side/sides for the earth fault functions.
They will provide system back-up rather than being back-up for
internal system faults, e. g. the short circuit protection on the HV
side of the transformer provides back-up to the short circuit pro
tection on the outgoing feeders when these fails to clear the fault.
UN protection in the LV bay or a IN protection in the transformer
neutral will provide back-up protection for earth fault protection
relays on the outgoing feeders.
Monitoring on the transformer

The monitoring devices on the transformer are often the main
protection. They detect abnormal service conditions, which can
lead to a fault. They can also quickly detect internal faults e. g. the
Buchholz relay. Typical location of monitors is shown in fig. 4.
RELAY PROTECTION

EXPANSION
ROOM
DRYER
ALARM TRIP
COMPENSATED
BUCHHOLZ THERMOMETER
TOP OIL DEVICE

ROOM
TOP OIL
THERMOMETER
Figure 4. Location of buchholz, top oil thermometer and winding tempera

ture indication
Gas detector relay (Buchholz)

At a fault in an oil immersed transformer the arc will cause the oil
to decompose and gas will be released. The gas will pass
through the pipe between the main tank and the conservator and
can be detected by a gas detector relay.
The gas detector have an alarm unit collecting the gas, and one
unit for tripping responding to the high flow of gas at a serious in
ternal fault.
The collected gas can be analyzed and give information about

what caused the gas.
It should be noted that the trip signal from the Buchholz some
times can be very short at a serious internal fault due to that the
relay will be destroyed (blown away). Receiving of this signal in
the relay system therefore must have a seal-in feature to ensure
that a sufficient length of the tripping signal is given to the CB and
to indication relays.
RELAY PROTECTION

Temperature monitoring
A too high temperature in a transformer can be caused by over
loading or by problems in the cooling equipment. Overfluxing can
also cause a temperature raise.
Oil immersed transformers are supervised with thermometers.

These are included in the power transformer standard equip
ment. There are two types to choose between, oil-, or winding
temperature measuring devices and both are normally supplied
on transformers bigger than a few MVA.
Both types are overloading sensors for the transformer. There is

normally one alarm and one trip level at each type of measuring
devices.
4. PROTECTION BLOCK DIAGRAM
The protection system for a typical HV/MV power transformer is

shown in figure 5. It should be noted the mix between protection
for internal transformer faults and the back-up protection provid
ed for external faults mainly in the low voltage system.
PROTECTION BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 5. A typical protection system for a HV/MV power transformer.

The protection system for a typical EHV/HV power transformer is
shown in figure 6. For such big system transformers a sub-divid
ed protection system is normally required and provided. Further
back-up protection are often of impedance type to allow setting
matching the line protection on the outgoing lines.
Figure 6. A typical protection system for a EHV/HV system power

transformer.

Reactor Protection
1. NEED FOR SHUNT REACTORS
Shunt reactors are used in high voltage systems to compensate
for the capacitive generation of long overhead lines or extended
cable networks.
The reasons for using shunt reactors are mainly two. The first
reason is to limit the overvoltages and the second reason is to
limit the transfer of reactive power in the network.
If the reactive power transfer is minimized i. e. the reactive power
is balanced in the different part of the networks, a higher level of
active power can be transferred in the network.
Reactors to limit overvoltages are most needed in weak power
systems, i.e. when network short-circuit power is relatively low.
Voltage increase in a system due to the capacitive generation is:
Q C × 100
∆U ( % ) = -----------------------
S sh˙c
-
where “Qc” is the capacitive input of reactive power to the network

and “Ssh.c” is the short circuit power of the network.
With increasing short circuit power of the network the voltage in
crease will be lower and the need of compensation to limit over
voltages will be less accentuated.
Reactors to achieve reactive power balance in the different part

of the network are most needed in heavy loaded networks where
new lines cannot be built because of environmental reasons.
Reactors for this purpose mostly are thyristor controlled in order
to adapt fast to the reactive power required.
Especially in industrial areas with arc furnaces the reactive power

demand is fluctuating between each half cycle. In such applica
tions there are usually combinations of thyristor controlled reac
tors (TCR) and thyristor switched capacitor banks (TSC). These
together makes it possible to both absorb, and generate reactive
power according to the momentary demand.
NEED FOR SHUNT REACTORS

Four leg reactors also can be used for extinction of the secondary
arc at single-phase reclosing in long transmission lines. Since
there always is a capacitive coupling between phases, this ca
pacitance will give a current keeping the arc burning, a second
ary arc. By adding one single-phase reactor in the neutral the
secondary arc can be extinguished and the single-phase auto-re
closing successful.
2. CONNECTIONS IN THE SUBSTATION
The reactors can be connected to the busbar, a transformer ter

tiary winding or directly to the line, with or without a circuit-break
er (see figure 1).
Figure 1. Different locations of shunt reactors.
Tertiary connected reactors will have the lowest cost but extra
losses will be obtained in the transformer. The rated voltage of
the reactor must be taken into account as well as the large volt
age drop at the power transformers.
A voltage drop in the tertiary, equal to the power transformer im

pedance, will be obtained when the reactor is connected. Lets
assume that the transformer have an impedance voltage of 15%
and a rated voltage in the tertiary of 20 kV. Also assume that the
CONNECTIONS IN THE SUBSTATION

Reactor Protection
auxiliary power to the station is taken from the tertiary through a
20/0.4 kV transformer.
When a reactor with rated power equal to the rated power of the
tertiary winding, is connected, the voltage in the tertiary will de
crease to 0.85x20 = 17 kV. This will also mean that the auxiliary
power voltage will decrease with 15% and some kind of voltage
stabilization regulation is therefore necessary to keep the 0.4 kV
voltage level within required limits.
If the reactors are to be used for secondary arc extinction at sin

gle-pole reclosing, they must be connected directly to the line.
This also have to be done if the reactors are supposed to keep
down the voltage at the open end of a long transmission line.
Busbar connected reactors can be used for voltage regulation

and reactive power balance.
Line Reactors can either be connected continuously together

with its line, or be connected to the network at low load condi
tions.
3. SYNCHRONOUS SWITCHING OF SHUNT

REACTOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
Synchronized closing, and opening of shunt reactors CB:s, is

possible by using the Switchsync relay. This will give the closing
impulse at the correct instance to achieve pole closing at maxi-
SYNCHRONOUS SWITCHING OF SHUNT REACTOR CIR

mum phase voltages. Closing at voltage maximum gives the min
imum possible disturbances in the network (see fig. 2).
Synch Man Close

close
Closing impulse
is sent.
+6.66 ms (50 Hz)
+3.33 ms (50 Hz)
CB closing time
L1 L2 L3
Figure 2. Synchronized closing of Shunt Reactor Circuit Breakers.
Shunt reactors CB:s should be closed at voltage maximum. CB:s

with Switchsync relay to control the closing instance don’t require
any pre-insertion resistors, which mean a less mechanical com
plex CB, and of course, a less expensive CB.
Switchsync can also be equipped with an adaptive control which

automatically will adjust to changes in the CB:s operating time.
4.THYRISTOR (PHASE-ANGLE) CONTROLLED

REACTORS (TCR)
In order to get a continuous control of the reactive power and to

damp power swings in the network, thyristor controlled reactors
THYRISTOR (PHASE-ANGLE) CONTROLLED REACTORS

Reactor Protection
can be installed. These can respond within only half a cycle delay
to the required amount of reactive power needed.
The current is controlled in such a way, that the firing pulses to

the thyristors are delayed so that they wont disturb the natural
zero crossings of the current. This regulating can be done contin
uously and reactive power can therefor be steplessly adjusted to
the required value (see fig. 3).
Ir
Firing pulses
Figure 3. Voltage and current wave form and thyristor firing control.
This control is practically transient free but causes harmonics,

that have to be taken care of by harmonic filters. The harmonics
generated, are “n x f±1”, where “n” is an integer. The harmonics of
the lowest order are the largest and the level decrease with high
er orders. Filters therefore normally only are needed for 5’th, and
7’th harmonics.
TCR reactors are always both connected to the network through

a power transformer, and delta connected (see fig. 4). The volt
age level is chosen to get a current suitable for the rated currents
of the thyristors selected.
THYRISTOR (PHASE-ANGLE) CONTROLLED REACTORS

5TH 7TH
Figure 4. Thyristor controlled reactors (TCR).
5. SINGLE, AND THREE-PHASE REACTORS
Three-phase reactors are manufactured for system voltages up

to 400 kV. At higher voltages the reactors usually are of sin
gle-phase type and more or less necessary for the operation of
the system. Using single-phase units makes it easier with spares,
as only one single phase unit have to be kept in the substation.
Sizes can either be standardized by the customer or individually

optimized for each case.
6. RELAY PROTECTION FOR DIRECT

EARTHED SR:S
A differential relay, of high impedance type should be used as

main protection. CT:s should be specified at both the phase and
the neutral side of each phase and a three phase protection
should be used as a three phase protection gives a higher sensi
tivity for internal faults.
SINGLE, AND THREE-PHASE REACTORS

Reactor Protection
If the reactor has its own CB, the CT:s at the phase side could be
located together with the CB. If the reactor is connected without
CB a bushing CT:s should be used.
CT:s on the neutral side of the winding should be integrated in the

reactor (bushing CT:s). If it isn’t possible to get one CT at each
phase on the neutral side a common CT at the earth connection,
must be supplied. In this case a single-phase high impedance
protection should be supplied.
A three-phase overcurrent protection should be used as back-up

protection. Earth fault current is normally not supplied since the
residual current will be equal to the load current during internal,
as well as external faults. In addition to this the inrush current in
the neutral is both high and long lasting. This means that setting
of an included earth fault current protection would in principle be
the same as the overcurrent protection and any increase of the
sensitivity can not be obtained by earth fault current protection
and it is thus not required.
7. DESIGN OF HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFEREN-

TIAL PROTECTION RADHA
7.1 RELAY SETTING
The general requirement on the function values of the high im

pedance differential protection is that at maximum through fault
current for an external faults the relay wont maloperate even with
one CT fully saturated.
For a reactor the dimensioning criteria will be for the inrush cur
rent, since a reactor only will give a through fault current equal to
rated current, at an external earth-fault.
DESIGN OF HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL PROTEC

The maximum inrush current for a reactor is approximately two
times the rated current. If no specific requirement concerning at
what current the relay should be stable exists, five times the rated
current is used when operating voltage is selected.
This rather high value is set in order not to get problem at reactor
breaker openings. As the CB is chopping the current at opening,
a high frequency current (1-12 kHz) will oscillate between the re
actor reactance and the circuits leakage capacitance. This oscil
lating current could lead to maloperation of the Differential relay.
If there are maloperation problems at opening of the CB, the rem
edy for this is to connect a capacitor in the relay circuit.
The function value of the relay should be chosen:
U function ≥ 5I n (R ct + 2R I )
where “In” is the reactors rated current at the secondary side of

the CT, “Rct” is CT secondary resistance at 75 °C and “Rl” is the
lead resistance, from the CT to the summation point. The princi
pal connection for one phase is shown in fig. 5.
Figure 5. Connection principle for a high impedance differential protection.
In order to protect RADHA, from overvoltages at internal faults,

non-linear resistors are connected, in parallel with the relay, at
each phase (see fig. 5).

Reactor Protection
7.2 CURRENT TRANSFORMER DESIGN
CT:s for High impedance type Differential protection must have a

saturation, or knee-point voltage, of at least twice the selected
operation value of the relay. CT:s must not be equipped with turn
correction since this could lead to maloperation of the protection.
If possible the CT:s on the phase and neutral side should be

made with similar magnetizing characteristic.
The ratio of the CT:s should be chosen corresponding to approx

imately twice the rated current. This is done in order to not getting
too few secondary turns. Secondary rated currents should be se
lected to 1 A, since the primary rated current usually is quite low,
and 5 A will give too few secondary turns.

7.3 PRIMARY SENSITIVITY
Primary sensitivity of approximately 10-15% of the reactors rated

current normally can be obtained.
The primary sensitivity can be calculated as:
I p = n ( I r + I res + I m )
where
“Ip” is the protection primary operation current
“n” is the current transformer ratio
“Ir” is the current through the relay at function
“Ires” is the current through the voltage dependent resistor
“Im” is the sum of the magnetizing currents.
For this calculation the actual angles for the different currents
must be considered.
“Ir” angle is given in relay catalogues and for RADHA and RADHD
angle is +20-40 degrees depending on function value and fre
quency.
“Ires” is purely resistive and have an angle of 0 degrees.
“Im” angle vary depending on applied voltage but -60 degrees is a
good approximation that can be used for this calculation.

Capacitor Protection
1. GENERAL ABOUT CAPACITOR BANKS
Capacitor banks are normally used in medium voltage networks

to generate reactive power to industries etc. Capacitor banks are,
almost always, equipped with a series reactors to limit the inrush
current (see fig. 1).
INDUSTRIAL
LOAD
Figure 1. Capacitor banks with series reactors.
Harmonic filters, for thyristor controlled reactors, are also varia
tions of capacitor banks having the reactor inductance together
with the capacitor capacitance tuned for series resonance at a
certain frequency. The tuning are purposely a little bit incorrect,
in order not to get a too low impedance for the harmonic, to which
it is tuned.
The capacitor banks usually are connected in double Y-connec
tion with the neutral of the halves connected. The current be
tween the two neutrals are supervised by an overcurrent
(unbalance) relay.
GENERAL ABOUT CAPACITOR BANKS

2. CAPACITOR BANK PROTECTION
2.1 UNBALANCE RELAY
This overcurrent relay detects an asymmetry in the capacitor

bank caused by blown internal fuses, short-circuits across bush
ings, or between capacitor units and the racks in which they are
mounted.
Each capacitor unit consist of a number of elements protected by

internal fuses. Faulty elements in a capacitor unit are disconnect
ed by the internal fuses. This causes overvoltages across the
healthy capacitor units.
The capacitor units are designed to withstand 110% of the rated

voltage continuously. If this level is exceeded, or if the faulty units
capacitance have decreased below 5/6 of the nominal value, the
capacitor bank must be taken out of service.
In normal service when all capacitor units are healthy the unbal
ance current is very small. With increasing number of blown inter
nal fuses the unbalance current increases and the unbalance
relay will give an alarm. The alarm level is normally set to 50% of
the maximum permitted level. The capacitor bank then should be
taken out of service to replace the faulty units. If not the capacitor
bank will be tripped when the maximum allowed unbalance cur
rent level is exceeded.
2.2 CAPACITOR BANK OVERLOAD RELAY
Capacitors of today have very small losses and are therefore not
subject to overload due to heating caused by overcurrent in the
circuit.
Overload of capacitors are today mainly caused by overvoltages.

It is the total peak voltage, the fundamental and the harmonic
voltages together, that can cause overload of the capacitors. The
capacitor can withstand 110% of rated voltage continuously. The
CAPACITOR BANK PROTECTION

Capacitor Protection
capability curve then follows an inverse time characteristic where
withstand is approximately 1 second -180%, 10 cycles -210%.
Since the capacitors mostly are connected in series with a reac

tor it is not possible to detect overload by measuring the busbar
voltage. This is because there is a voltage increase across the re
actor and the harmonic currents causing overvoltages will not in
fluence the busbar voltage.
ABB Transmit Oy have designed a relay that measures the cur

rent in the capacitor bank and transforms this into a voltage that
corresponds to the voltage across the elements in the capacitor
bank.
This relay is called SPAJ 160C and includes unbalance protec

tion, overload protection and undercurrent relay. The undercur
rent function is used to prevent the charged capacitor bank to be
reconnected when a short loss of supply voltage occurs.
The connection of the relay is shown in fig. 2.
Figure 2. A SPAJ 160 connected to a capacitor bank.

2.3 SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION
In addition to the relay functions described above the capacitor

banks needs to be protected against short circuits and earth
faults. This is done with an ordinary two- or three-phase short cir
cuit protection combined with an earth overcurrent relay.

Bus&Breaker Protection
1. GENERAL ABOUT BUSBAR PROTECTION
A Busbar protection is a protection to protect Busbars at

short-circuits and earth-faults. In the “childhood” of electricity no
separate protection was used for the busbars. Nearby line protec
tion were used as back-up for busbar protection.
With increasing short-circuit power in the network separate bus

bar protections have to be installed to limit the damage at primary
faults. A delayed tripping for busbar faults can also lead to insta
bility in nearby generators and total system collapse.
1.1 BUSBAR PROTECTION - REQUIREMENTS
Following requirements must be fulfilled. The Busbar protection:

- Must have as short tripping time as possible.
- Must be able to detect internal faults.

- Must be absolutely stable at external faults. External faults are much
more common than internal faults. The magnitude of external faults can
be equal to the stations maximum breaking capacity, while the function
currents can go down to approximately 2% of the same. The stability
factor therefor needs to be at least 50 times i. e. 20. CT-saturation at ex
ternal faults must not lead to maloperation of the busbar protection.
- Must be able to detect and trip only the faulty part of the busbar system.
- Must be secure against maloperation due to auxiliary contact failure, hu
man mistakes and faults in the secondary circuits etc.
1.2 TYPES OF BUSBAR PROTECTION
The busbar protections are mostly of differential type measuring

the sum of current to all objects connected to the busbar, Kirch
hoffs law.
GENERAL ABOUT BUSBAR PROTECTION

Differential type of busbar protections can be divided into three
different groups:
- low impedance.
- medium impedance.
- high impedance.
For metal enclosed distribution busbars, arc detectors also can

be used as busbar protection. For systems that are only radial fed
blockable overcurrent relays in the incoming bays can be used as
busbar protection.
2. PRINCIPLES OF DIFFERENTIAL BUSBAR

CONFIGURATIONS
The simplest form of busbar protection is a 1-zone protection for
single busbar configuration, see fig. 1. If the main CT:s have
equal ratio auxiliary CT:s are not necessary.
If the busbar protection is of the high impedance type the main
CT:s must have the same ratio and auxiliary CT:s may then not
be used. Separate CT-core/s must also be supplied for the bus
bar protection.
Other protection relays must be connected to other CT-cores.
PRINCIPLES OF DIFFERENTIAL BUSBAR CONFIGURA

For single busbar arrangement no switching is done in the CT-cir
cuits and a check zone is therefore not necessary.
Figure 1. A one zone differential relay for a single busbar.
At 1 1/2-breakers system arrangements a 2-zone protection must

be used se fig. 2.

If the main CT:s have equal ratio, which is normally the case, aux
iliary CT:s are not necessary.
Figure 2. A two-zone busbar differential relay for 1 1/2-breaker switchgear
At double busbar switchgear a 2-zone protection shall be used,

see fig. 3. If the main CT:s have equal ratio auxiliary CT:s are not
necessary.
CT-circuits are switched depending on the position of the busbar

disconnectors. The current is either connected to busbar A or
busbar B:s differential protection. Switching is easiest performed
by using repeat relays (RXMVB 2), controlled via two auxiliary
contacts at each busbar disconnector, see fig. 5.

Figure 3. 2-zone busbar differential protection, for double busbar switchgear.
Many cases when switching in CT-circuit is done requires a check

zone for the busbar protection, see fig. 4. The check zone is
fixed and has no switching of CT:s in all outgoing circuits and is
not connected at busbar sections and busbar couplers. Check
zone, will detect faults anywhere in the substation but can not dis
tinguish in what part of the substation the fault is located. When
the check zone detects a fault it gives a release signal to the bus
bar protection relays in all individual, discriminating zones. The
busbar protection discriminating zones will then trip the part of
the substation that is faulty.
The releasing when the check zone detects a fault is normally

done by sending out positive DC-voltage to the discriminating
zones. Another way to do the releasing is to connect the negative
DC-voltage to all trip relays from the check zone and to connect
the positive DC-voltage from the discriminating zones.

Figure 4. 2-zone busbar differential protection, for double busbar switchgear
(including check zone), releasing the main zones for busbar A and B.
3. SWITCHING IN CURRENT CIRCUITS
For busbar systems, where the object can be connected to more

than one busbar, double busbar systems, the current must be
switched to the correct zone busbar protection. This switching
must be done in such a way that no differential current develops
in any of the busbar protections concerned. The switching is done
by using two auxiliary contacts on the busbar disconnectors.
These auxiliary contact are energizing throw-over relays (RXM-
VB 2) which perform the switching in the CT-circuits. The discon
nectors auxiliary contacts must be provided as in fig. 5.
Following requirements must be fulfilled by the auxiliary contacts

“a” and “b” respectively:
SWITCHING IN CURRENT CIRCUITS

- The auxiliary contact

a” must “
close minimum 100 ms before the main conta

can start to carry current.
- The auxiliary contact “b” must open before the auxiliary contact “a” clos
es.
- The auxiliary contact “b” must not close before full insulation is secured
(normally at 80% of the full insulation distance).
Figure 5. Requirements and connection of busbar disconnector auxiliary

contacts, for switching of RXMVB 2 repeat relays.
4. PROTECTION OF MV BUSBARS IN DISTRI-

BUTION NETWORKS
For busbars in distribution networks Busbar protection can be

achieved mainly in two different ways, either by blockable over
current protection at the incoming bays to the switchgear, or by
locating arc detectors inside the enclosure.
Blockable overcurrent protection is based upon the principle that

fault current is only fed by the incoming to the busbar. The incom
ing circuit is equipped with an overcurrent relay that have a fast
step definite time-delay of approximately 100 ms (this step is
PROTECTION OF MV BUSBARS IN DISTRIBUTION NET

blocked if any of the overcurrent relays in the outgoing circuits
starts, se fig. 6.
For metal enclosed busbars, arc detectors can be used as busbar
protection. The arc at a primary fault is detected by a arc sensitive
device, which trips all incoming circuit breakers. In order not to
risk maloperation due to photographic flashes etc., it’s advisable
to also have an overcurrent interlock.
3I>
100 ms
BLOCK &
TRIP
START
START
START
START
3I> 3I> 3I> 3I>
Figure 6. Blockable Overcurrent protection.
5. APPLICATION OF BUSBAR PROTECTION
Figure 7 gives a survey of different type of busbar protectio
Figure 7. Application of different types of busbar protection relays
APPLICATION OF BUSBAR PROTECTION

For busbars in distribution networks the protection can be
achieved mainly in two different ways. One way is by blockable
overcurrent protection at the incoming bays to the switchgear an
other way is by locating arc detectors inside the enclosure.
High impedance protection needs separate CT-cores with equal

ratio at each feeder, bus-coupler and bus-section. This means
that other protection relays cannot be connected to the same
CT-core. This type of busbar protection is mainly for medium volt
age levels.
RADSC is a new type of low impedance busbar protection that

can be used as an alternative to high impedance protection re
lays. It has a maximum of 6 inputs and can therefore not be used
in larger substations. It can however use the same CT-cores as
other protection relays but requires auxiliary CT:s if the main
CT:s in the different bays have different ratio.
Summation type of busbar protection can be used for more eco

nomical variants of protection. The Summation type Busbar pro
tection relays has only one measuring unit which means that
there is no internal back-up for 2-phase and 3-phase faults. Pri
mary operating current varies with a factor 4 depending on in
which phase the fault occurs. Phase indication cannot be ob
tained.
RADSS and REB 103 are medium impedance type of busbar

protection relays, during internal faults, but low impedance pro
tection during load and external faults. RADSS and REB 103 can
therefor be used together with other types of object protection on
the same cores. This kind of protection is intended for high (HV)
and extra high voltage (EHV) levels.
RADSS can be used without auxiliary CT:s if the main CT:s have
equal ratio. This gives a solution that is both economical and
saves space. The only restraint is that the maximum circulating
current through RADSS, power transferred through the zone,
must not exceed 4 A secondary. This could be a problem if the
APPLICATION OF BUSBAR PROTECTION

main CT:s both have 5 A secondary but can be overcome by in
creasing the primary ratio of the main CT:s.
When main CT:s have different ratio REB 103 gives a more eco
nomic solution since REB 103 is designed with auxiliary CT:s of
small physical sizes. REB 103 cannot be used without auxiliary
CT:s.
INX 5 is a low impedance busbar protection for high (HV), and ex
tra high voltage (EHV) levels.
REB 500 is a new decentralized, or centralized, numerical Bus

bar protection relay with a process bus connecting the different
bays. The relay is mainly intended for the HV and EHV voltages.
6. BREAKER FAILURE RELAYS
In order to take care of possible breaker failure, Circuit Breaker

Failure relays normally are installed in high voltage, and extra
high voltage systems.
All protection tripping (not manual opening) will start a current re
lay measuring the current through the CB. If the current has not
disappeared within the set time, all adjacent CB:s will be tripped
to clear the fault.
BREAKER FAILURE RELAYS

The time “split up” at a normal tripping and a breaker failure trip
ping is shown in fig. 8.
Fault
occurs
Normal clearing time
Normal
clearing
Protection Breaker inter
time rupting time Margin
Back-up breaker
Breaker failure timer interrupting time
Breaker
failure
tripping
Failed
breaker
Breaker failure total clering time
Figure 8. Time scheme for breaker failure relays
In normal cases the total fault clearing time will be the protection
relay operating time plus the CB interrupting time. Every time a
relay gives a trip order it will at the same time start the Circuit
Breaker Failure (CBF) relay. The CBF-timer will be running as
long as the current is flowing through the CB. When the CB inter
rupts the current the CBF-current relay will reset and the
CBF-timer will stop.
BREAKER FAILURE RELAYS

The setting of the CBF-timer must be:
maximum interrupting time of the ordinary CB, plus the reset time
of the CBF-current relay, plus the impulse margin time of the
CBF-timer, plus a margin.
With “impulse margin time” is meant the difference between set

time and the time “to no return”. If the timer is set to 100 ms and
is fed during, lets say 98 ms, it will continue to operate since the
margin between the set time and the actual time is small. The
margin should be chosen to at least 50-60 ms to minimize the risk
of unnecessary tripping, specially considering the heavy impact
on the network a CBF tripping will cause.
7. POLE DISCORDANCE RELAYS
For circuit breakers with one operating device per pole, it is nec
essary to supervise that all three phases have the same position.
This is normally done by using the auxiliary contacts on the circuit

breaker according to figure 9.
Figure 9. Connection of a Pole Discordance relay.
POLE DISCORDANCE RELAYS

Pole discordance relay “PD” is necessary to prevent service with
only one or two phases of a circuit breaker closed. This will cause
an unsymmetry that can lead to damage of other apparatus in the
network. Unsymmetrical conditions can only be accepted during
a single pole Auto reclosing cycle.
When single pole Auto reclosing is used a blocking of the PD is
necessary during the single phase dead time, see figure 9.
The timing sequence at closing and opening of breakers and the
timing of the operation at a pole discrepancy tripping must be
checked carefully. It is e. g. often necessary to operate the flag
relay first and the tripping from this relay to achieve correct indi
cation at a trip as the main contacts will rather fast take away the
actuating quantity when the remaining poles are opened.
Tripping from PD should be routed to other trip coil than the one
used by manual opening. This is due to the fact that at manual
opening there could be an incipient fault in the circuit. This incip
ient fault could result in that only one or two phases operate and
the MCB for the circuit is tripped. PD would thus not be able to
operate if connected to the same coil as manual opening.
Operation of PD shall in addition to tripping the own circuit break
er start Circuit Breaker failure relay, lock-out the own circuit
breaker and give an alarm.
A normal time delay for a PD relay should be approximately
150-200 ms when blocking during single pole Auto reclose is per
formed. If not the necessary time is about 1,2 sec.
Note: Some customers do not rely only on the auxiliary contacts
and want to detect Pole discordance also by measuring the resid
ual current through the breaker at breaker for some second at
opening and closing.
We have however good experience of the contact based principle
and recommend only this simple principle.
Residual current measurement at closing and opening is not a re
liable function either as there is no load current when a line is
closed from one end only and on the other hand normal residual

currents can occur if the closing is onto a fault or e. g. energizes
a transformer at the far end of the system.
Conclusion is to use a simple contact based Pole Discordance

function which is simple and reliable. The residual current based
principle is more complicated and can give difficulties in setting
of sensitivity etc.

Earth Fault Protection
1. INTRODUCTION
The fault statistic shows that earth faults are the dominating fault
type and therefor the earth fault protection is of main importance
in a network.
The type of earth fault protection used is dependent of the sys

tem earthing principle used. In the following the earth fault pro
tection for solidly- (effectively), reactance-, high resistive- and
resonance earthed systems are covered.
2. EFFECTIVELY EARTHED SYSTEMS
In the effectively earthed systems all transformers are normally

connected to earth and will thus feed earth fault current to the
fault. The contribution from all earthing locations gives special re
quirements for the protection system.
2.1 FAULT RESISTANCE AND FAULT

CURRENT LEVELS
In order to calculate fault currents in an effectively earthed sys

tem we must use the representation with symmetrical compo
nents.
The symmetrical component scheme for a 132 kV system with a

fault according to Figure 1 is shown in Figure 2.
INTRODUCTION

.
Figure 1. An earth fault in a direct, effectively earthed system.
Positive sequence
Uh/√3
3Rf
Negative sequence
U0 Zero sequence U0
I01 I02
Figure 2. The symmetrical components are used to calculate the “I0” current
for the fault in figure 1, “3I0” is the total fault current.
The distribution of fault currents, from the different system earth
ing points, can be derived from the distribution in the zero se
quence network (see figure 2). By inserting varying fault
resistances one can get the fault current level.
EFFECTIVELY EARTHED SYSTEMS

The fault resistance “Rf ”, consists of the arc resistance and the
tower foot resistance. The arc resistance is calculated by the for
mula:
Rarc = 28700a / If1.4 (according to Warrington)
where “a”, is the arc length in meter, normally the insulator length,
and “If ” is the fault current in “A”.
A calculation will show that values will differs from below 1 Ω for
heavy faults, up to 50-400 Ω for high resistive earth faults.
The tower foot resistance depends on the earthing effectiveness

of the towers, whether top lines are used etc. For the tower foot
resistance values from below 10 Ω up to 50 Ω have been docu
mented.
2.2 NEUTRAL POINT VOLTAGES
The occurring neutral point voltage, at different locations, can be

seen in figure 2. The designate “U0”, represents the neutral point
voltage (3U0 = UN). It’s to be noted that “U0” is generated by the
earth fault current “I0” through the zero sequence source. This im
plies that the angle between “U0” and “I0” is always equal to the
zero sequence source angle, independent of the fault resistance
and the angle between the faulty phase voltage and the line cur
rent in the faulty phase.
It must also be noted that “UN” will be very low when sensitive
earth fault relays are used in a strong network with low zero se
quence source impedances.
As an example we can use the 132kV network according to figure

1 and 2. With an “IN” setting of 120A, the “I0” is 40A and with a
zero sequence source impedance of say 20 Ω, the zero se
quence voltage component “U0” will be 40x10 = 400V and “3U0”
will then be 1200V. This will, with an open delta winding with 110V

secondary, mean a percentage voltage of 1.6%, i.e. the polariz
ing sensitivity of directional earth fault relays must be high.
In an open delta secondary circuit there is a voltage also during

normal service due to unbalances in the network. The voltage is
mainly of third harmonic and of size 0,2-0,5% with conventional
VT:s and 1-3% together with CVT:s.
This means that the sensitive directional earth fault protection

must be provided with a third harmonic filter when used together
with CVT:s. The filtering must be quite heavy to ensure correct di
rectional measuring for 1% fundamental content also with third
harmonic contents of say 3%.
2.3 RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

(REF).
For solidly earthed systems a restricted earth fault protection is

often provided as a complement to the normal transformer differ
ential relay. The advantage with the restricted earth fault relays is
their high sensitivity. Sensitivities of 2-8% can be achieved. The
level is dependent of the current transformers magnetizing cur
rents whereas the normal differential relay will have sensitivities
of 20-40%.
Restricted earth fault relays are also very quick due to the simple
measuring principle and the measurement of one winding only.
The differential relay requires percentage through fault and sec
ond harmonic inrush stabilization which always will limit the min
imum operating time.

The connection of a restricted earth fault relay is shown in Figure
3. It is connected across each transformer winding in the figure.
Id
Id
To Diff
protection
Figure 3. A restricted earth fault relay for an YNdyn transformer.
It is quite common to connect the Restricted earth fault relay in

the same current circuit as the transformer differential relay. This
will due to the differences in measuring principle limit the differ
ential relays possibility to detect earth faults. Such faults are de
tected by the REF. The mixed connection is shown in the low
voltage winding of the transformer, see figure 3.

The common principle for Restricted earth fault relays is the high
impedance principle, see figure 4.
IF
e1 e2
Rct RL RL Rct
Is
Xm1 UR Z=>0 Xm2
at sat.
Secondary current and voltage with

no voltage limiter.
Figure 4. The high impedance principle.
The relay provides a high impedance to the current. The current
will, for through loads and through faults, circulate in the current
transformer circuits, not go through the relay.
For a through fault one current transformer might saturate when
the other still will feed current. For such a case a voltage can be
achieved across the relay. The calculations are made with the
worst situations in mind and an operating voltage “UR” is calcu
lated:
U R ≥ I Fmax (R ct + R I )
where
“IFmax” is the maximum through fault current at the secondary
side,
“Rct” is the current transformer secondary resistance and
“Rl” is the loop resistance of the circuit.

The maximum operating voltage have to be calculated (both neu
tral loop and phase loop must be checked) and the relay set high
er than the highest achieved value.
For an internal fault the circulation is not possible and due to the
high impedance the current transformers will immediately satu
rate and a rms voltage with the size of current transformer satu
ration voltage will be achieved across the relay. Due to the fast
saturation very high top voltages can be achieved. To prevent the
risk of flashover in the circuit, a voltage limiter must be included.
The voltage limiter can be either of type surge arrester or voltage
dependent resistor.
The relay sensitivity is decided by the total current in the circuit

according to the formula:
I p ≥ n ( I R + I res + ΣI mag )
where “n” is the CT ratio, “IR” is the current through the relay, “Ires”
is the current through the voltage limiter and “∑Imag” is the sum of
the magnetizing currents from all CT’s in the circuit (normally 4).
It should be remembered that the vectorial sum of the currents

must be used. The current measurement have to be DC insensi
tive to allow a use of AC components of the fault current in the
calculations.
2.4 LOGARITMIC INVERSE RELAY
Detection of earth fault and back-up tripping with maintained se

lectivity in a solidly (effectively) earthed system is rather compli
cated due to the infeed of fault current from different direction
concerning all faults. A special inverse characteristic with a log
aritmic curve has been developed to be suitable for these appli
cations. The principle for earth fault relays in a effectively earthed
system is shown in figure 5 and the logaritmic inverse character
istic is shown in figure 6. The inverse characteristic is selected so

that if the current of the largest infeed is less than 80% of the
faulty objects current selectivity is achieved.
I I
I I
Figure 5. Earth fault protection in a solidly earthed system.
Figure 6. The logaritmic inverse characteristic. A fault current of the biggest

infeed less than 0,8 times the current of the faulty object, gives a selective
tripping.

To enable use together with Distance protection giving sin
gle-phase tripping a definite minimum time is set (normally 0.3
sec.). This ensures that a single phase tripping for heavy single
phase faults can be done by distance protection relay first.
2.5 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON SCHEMES.
To provide detection of high resistance earth faults in an effec

tively earthed network it’s common to use a directional compari
son scheme with directional earth fault relays at both ends of the
power line. The relays at the two ends are directed towards each
other and a communication between the relays, through a power
line carrier (PLC) or a radio link, is introduced.
Principle for communication schemes

Communication can be made according to two main principles:
- permissive scheme
- blocking scheme
In a permissive scheme the Directional earth fault relays will

send a signal (CS) to the remote end at detection of a forward
fault. At reception of a signal and detection of a forward fault at
the receiving end, an instantaneous trip is given. Normally the
same situation occurs at both ends. A permissive scheme princi
ple is shown in Figure 7.
Forward dir
3I0
Block input 50 ms
&
t T0=0-150 ms Trip
BL3
& TR POR
Carrier rec
CR2 50 ms
t Carrier send
≥1 CSEF
Figure 7. A permissive overreaching scheme (POR) with directional earth

fault relays.
In a blocking scheme the directional earth fault relays are pro

vided with a reverse locking element as a complement to the for
ward element. The reversed element is set to be more sensitive

than the forward element and will, when a reverse fault is detect
ed, send a signal (CS), to the remote end. At the remote end the
forward element is provided with a short time delay “T0” normally
set to 50-150 ms, to check if a blocking signal is received. If not,
the relay will trip. The same situation will for internal faults occur
at both line ends. The principle of a blocking scheme is shown in
Figure 8.
Forward dir
T0=0-150 ms Trip
3I0
& TR BL
Carrier rec
CR2
Reverse dir
3I0 Carrier send
& CSEF
Block input 50 ms
t
BL3
Figure 8. A blocking scheme with directional earth fault relays.
In most cases the Directional earth fault relays in a communica

tion scheme also includes a communication independent
back-up tripping with a time delay. Inverse or definite time delay
can be used. Normally the inverse characteristic and the logarit
mic inverse characteristic gives the best possibility to achieve
time selectivity also at back-up tripping.
Single phase tripping.

When Distance protection relays with single phase tripping and
auto reclosing are used at the same line as a scheme with earth
fault relays it must be ensured that the Distance protection relays
are allowed to give their single-phase tripping first. Earth fault re
lays must therefor be time delayed to allow this. This is also valid
when communication schemes are used. A blocking of the earth
fault scheme at distance protection operation is often used to en
able use of short time delays in the communicating earth fault re
lays.
During a single phase trip an unbalance in the complete network

occurs and an earth fault currents flows through the network.

These currents reaches levels up to 20% of the load current and
an unnecessary tripping from earth fault relays can therefor be
achieved. The earth fault relays are normally blocked during the
single phase auto reclose cycle.
Current reversal
A special application problem occurs together with directional
earth fault schemes communicating in a POR scheme. The prob
lem is fault current reversal which occurs when the CB at one end
of the faulty line trips before the breaker at the other end. The fault
current changes direction in the parallel line and a timing problem
to prevent maloperation at the end with a CS signal receipt at the
original fault occurring will occur (see figure 9). A special logic ac
cording to Figure 10 is required to prevent a unneccesary func
tion.
Trip 80 ms Trip 65 ms
Trip can be
given at Cur rev
Forw 25-80ms
Rev 80-100ms
Rev 25-80ms
Forw 80-100ms
Figure 9. The current reversal problem at parallel lines.
Carrier rec T0=0-150 ms Trip
CR2
TR POR
Forward dir &
3I0 50 ms
& t Carrier send
Block input 50 ms
BL3
t
70 ms & ≥1 CSEF
Reverse dir 20 ms & t
3I0 & t

Figure 10. A logic in directional earth fault relays, to prevent unnecessary
operation during current reversal.
Weak-end infeed
In special applications, a situation where the fault current infeed
from one end isn’t ensured during certain service conditions.
A special weak end infeed logic can be used together with POR
schemes. It is based on occurring zero sequence voltage and the
receipt of a carrier signal CS from the remote (strong) end. The
logic for an earth fault weak-end infeed function includes a check
of occurring UN voltage at carrier receipt and the breaker is
tripped even if no operation of DEF relay is achieved due to a to
weak source. It is also necessary to “mirror” the Carrier signal
back so the signal is sent back on receipt if the UN voltage is low,
or if the circuit breaker is open.
2.6 INRUSH CURRENT STABILIZATION
In some countries a second harmonic stabilization is required for

sensitive earth fault relays. The background to this is that the in
rush currents occurring at transformer energizing which, in some
networks has long durations. The long durations are often
achieved in weak networks. The second harmonic stabilization
can then block the earth fault relay, during the inrush and prevent
the risk of an unnecessary operation.
It should be noted that a POR communication scheme can not

operate for inrush currents as only one end will have conditions
fulfilled whereas the other end has a blocking condition.
For inverse time delayed scheme a time setting is selected to

achieve selectivity to instantaneous protection. This gives a long
delay compared to normal inrush times and the inverse charac
teristic will then match the decay of the inrush current and keep
the relay away from unwanted functions.
The only time when a stabilization is necessary is when very sen

sitive definite time delayed relays are used. In such cases the in
rush can cross the corner with minimum current before the time
elapses and an unwanted function can occur.

3. REACTANCE EARTHED SYSTEMS
The earth fault protection in a reactance earthed system is made

with a simple design as the generation of fault current comes
from the source side of the network only. The earthing is made at
the feeding transformer or at the busbar through a Z-0 earthing
transformer.
3.1 Z-0 EARTHING TRANSFORMER.
The earthing transformer is selected to give an earth fault current

with a well defined level. Normally the selected current is 750 to
1500A. The Z-0 (zig zag) transformer principle is shown in Figure
11.
I0
I0
3I0
I0
3I0 I
Figure 11. The principle of a Zig-zag transformer providing earth fault cur
rent in a reactance earthed system.
REACTANCE EARTHED SYSTEMS

The reactance is selected to give the fault current. It must be re
member that the zero sequence reactance in Ω/phase is three
times the reactance calculated by the formula:
Un
3I0 i. e. I N = 1000A = -------------------
3 × ZN
respectively
Un
------------------ = Z N
3 × IN
This means that, for a 20kV system with a 1000A earthing the Z-0
transformer shall be selected with a zero sequence reactance.
20
X0 = ------- 1000 = 11.6 ⇒ Select 35Ω ⁄ phase
3
A Z-0 transformer can often be provided with an auxiliary power
supply winding with a 400V secondary. This is possible up to 800
-1000kVA and the protection system have to be checked so that
the proper fault protection of the low voltage side of the auxiliary
transformer is achieved. One solution is to use delta connected
short circuit protection at the HV side (Z-0 winding).
Fuses and breakers placed at the HV side of a Z-0 transformer

should be avoided as the network earthing then can be discon
nected and the risk of earth fault trips disappears. It will also in
volve a risk of arcing faults and of ferro resonance in the voltage
transformers.
3.2 FAULT RESISTANCE AND FAULT CURRENT

LEVELS
In a reactance earthed system the current still is quite high. The
fault resistance will therefor decrease and a beginning fault will,
rather quickly, develop into a fault situation.
The fault current level will be quite independent of the fault posi
tion. If a reactance earthing with 1000 A is used in a 20 kV sys
tem, the apparent neutral reactance will be 12 Ω. This means that
a reactance to the fault, through a line of 12 Ω, will make the fault

current level half (12 Ω will be the reactance of a 30k m line in a
50 Hz system).
If a fault resistance is introduced the resistance will add vectorial

to the reactance and the current will change slowly with the fault
resistance.
3.3 NEUTRAL POINT VOLTAGES.
The neutral point voltage is calculated in the same way as the

source impedance (i.e. Zn (1/3Z0)xIf). This means that for a fully
developed earth fault full neutral displacement occurs and a fault
current of 20% e.g. 200 A in a 1000 A earthed system will be
20% of “Un”.
3.4 RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION.
A Restricted earth fault protection REF can not be justified in a

reactance earthed system in the same way as in a directly (effec
tively) earthed system. This is because the fault current is much
lower and by that also the occurring damage which is dependent
of the “I2t” condition.

However in many countries REF protection relays are specified
also in reactance earthed systems the connection of a REF relay
is shown in Figure 12.
Id
Id
To Diff
protection
Figure 12. A Restricted earth fault relay in a reactance earthed system with
a Z-0 transformer.
The application is fully possible but it must be ensured that a high

sensitivity is achieved. Operation values of 5-10% of the maxi
mum earth fault current generated is required.
When the operating voltage of the REF is calculated the check of

required operating value must be done by first checking the earth
fault loops for phase CT:s and neutral CT:s. However, as the
maximum through fault current is limited by the reactance a
check of the occurring loop at phase faults must be performed.
The unbalanced voltage is caused by one phase CT which is sat
urated and the other is not. This can be caused by, for example,
the DC components at fault current which is not equal between
the phases. This check will often set the required operating volt
age as the fault current at phase faults is much higher. It is advan
tageous to summate the three CT:s as close to the current
transformers as possible. This can sometimes be difficult be
cause of the transformer differential relay and its interposing CT’s
are located in the same circuit.

3.5 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION.
The earth fault protection in a reactance earthed system is nor

mally provided with time delayed simple and undirectional earth
fault current measuring relays.
Time grading of the protection, furthest out in the system to the

protection in the neutral of the zig-zag transformer is used. The
time delay can be with normal inverse, or definite time delay. A
solution with inverse time delayed relay is shown in figure 13.
I0
I0
3I0
I0
3I0 I
Figure 13. An earth fault protection system for a reactance earthed network
where selectivity is achieved by inverse time delayed relays.

4. HIGH RESISTANCE EARTHED SYSTEMS
4.1 PRINCIPLE
The high resistance earthed networks are earthed at the source

side of the network only. Normally the earthing is restricted to one
point only and an arrangement is provided to allow varying con
nection possibilities of the earthing point due to the service con
ditions (see figure 14).
Open
A disconnector arr
allows separated
service. When BS is
closed only one
resistor is connected
Figure 14. A high resistance earthed network and a selection of service

conditions with disconnectors.

LEVELS.
The earthing resistor is mostly set to give an earth fault current of

5-15A. The trend to decrease the current level gives lower re
quirement of earthing grid and higher neutral point voltages at
high resistive earth faults.
HIGH RESISTANCE EARTHED SYSTEMS

Due to the low current magnitude, high resistance earth faults will
not quickly develop to lower resistance so a high fault resistance
need to be detected. In Sweden a fault resistance of 5000 Ω must
be detected for some types of overhead lines. In order to detect
such high values it is often necessary to use a resonance earth
ing in order to achieve reasonable high neutral point voltages.
(>5V at 5000 Ω).
Due to the high sensitivity required it’s required to use cable cur
rent transformers surrounding the three phases to do the mea
suring. The current transformer is then selected with a suitable
ratio independent of load current and no current will flow during
normal services. A sensitivity down to 1-2A primary is required at
high resistance earthed systems.
4.3 NEUTRAL POINT VOLTAGES.
In order to detect high values of fault resistance up to 5000 Ω“it’s

often necessary to use a resonance earthing to achieve accept
able high neutral point voltages (>5V at 5000Ω). The neutral point
voltage is required to give the directional criteria for the direction
al earth fault protection and is also used to provide a back-up
earth fault protection at the busbar or the transformer bay.
A small neutral point voltage exists, during normal service of the

network due to unsymmetrical capacitance of the phases to earth
and the resistive current leakage at apparatus such as surge ar
resters. Normally the occurring levels of unbalance currents is
0,2 - 5%. Neutral point detection relays and directional relays
should therefor never be allowed to have sensitivities below
5-10% to compare with the requirements of very low levels in sol
idly earthed systems.
The neutral point voltages are calculated with the fault resistance
“Rf ” in series with the neutral reactance “ZN”. The neutral imped
ance consists of the earthing resistance “RN” and the capacitive

reactance of the network “XC”. The factor “Rf/Rf+ ZN”, gives the
occurring, per unit, voltage.
The “ZN” impedance can be calculated “Un/( 3 xlf)”, where If is

the total fault current.
It must be remembered that “ZN”, as well as the vectorial sum

have to be calculated.
4.4 DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
Due to the infeed of capacitive currents from healthy objects dur

ing an earth fault it’s usually required to use directional earth fault
relays. Directional relays are used when the infeed of capacitive
current from an object during a fault in an other object is higher
than 60% of the required sensitivity.
The directional relays will measure the active component of the

fault current only, i. e. the current generated by the earthing resis
tance. The principle for fault current and capacitive current gen
eration is shown in Figure 15.

Open
IR
UN UN
IR
UN> UN>
Ic2
Ic3 Ic2 Ic3
L1
L2 Ic2+IcL2
UL1 Ictot
L3
Ic3+IcL3
Ic2+IcL2
Ic3+IcL3
Ic2 Ic3
IR
IcL2 UL3 UL2
I
IcL3
UN
Note: CT does not
measure Ic2 and Ic3
Note: UN has always the
Ic2 angle of the faulty phase
Fault in L1 (+180 deg)
Ic3
Figure 15. The fault and capacitive current distribution in a high resistance
earthed network.
4.5 CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY FACTOR.
The efficiency factor must be calculated when sensitive earth

fault relays are used (see later sections).
5. RESONANCE EARTHED SYSTEMS
5.1 PRINCIPLE
The resonance earthed networks are earthed at the source side

of the network only. Normally the earthing is restricted to one
point only, or two with parallel transformers, and an arrangement
RESONANCE EARTHED SYSTEMS

is provided to allow connection with the earthing point. This var
ies with the service conditions. The earthing consists of a tapped
reactor tuned to the network capacitance compensating the cur
rent and gives a fault current close to zero Amperes at the fault.
In many cases high ohmic resistors is connected in parallel to

generate a resistive fault current for the protection system to
measure.
Alternatives without this type of resistor and with transient mea

suring relays as described below are used.
Figure 16 shows the earthing principle and the flow of earth fault
current components.

LEVELS
The earthing resistor is mostly set to give an earth fault current of

5-15A. The trend to decrease the current level gives lower re
quirement of earthing grid and higher neutral point voltages at
high resistive earth faults.
Due to the low current magnitude, high resistance earth faults will
not quickly turn into low resistance. This means that a high fault
resistance need to be detected. In Sweden for overhead lines
with insulation a fault resistance of 5000 Ω, must be detected and
up to 20 kΩ alarmed.
For other overhead lines the value for detection is 3000 Ω.
In order to detect these high values it’s often necessary to use a

resonance earthing to achieve acceptable high neutral point volt
ages (>5V at 5000Ω).
Due to the high sensitivity required it’s advantageous to use cable

current transformers surrounding the three phases to do the
measuring. The current transformer is then selected, with a suit
able ratio independent of load current, and no current will flow
during normal services.

A sensitivity down to below 1A primary is required with reso
nance earthed systems.
5.3 NEUTRAL POINT VOLTAGES
In order to detect high values of fault resistance, up to 5000 Ω, it’s

often necessary to use a resonance earthing to achieve accept
able high neutral point voltages (>5V at 5000 Ω). The neutral
point voltage is required to give the directional criteria for the di
rectional earth fault protection and is also used to provide a
back-up earth fault protection at the busbar or the transformer
bay.
A small neutral point voltage exists, during normal service of the
network, due to unsymmetrical capacitance of the phases to
earth and current leakage at apparatus as surge arresters. Nor
mally the occurring levels, of unbalance currents, is 0,2 - 5%.
Neutral point detection relays and directional relays should there
for never be allowed to have sensitivities below 5-10%. Compare
with the requirements of very high sensitivity in solidly earthed
systems.
The neutral point voltages are calculated with the fault resistance
“Rf ”, in series with the neutral reactance “ZN”. The neutral imped
ance consists of the earthing resistance “RN”, the capacitive re
actance of the network “XC” and the reactance of the earthing
reactor (normally tuned, “XL”).
The factor “Rf/(Rf+ ZN)” gives the occurring, per unit, voltage.
The “ZN” impedance can be calculated “Un/( 3 xlf)”, where If is
the total fault current.
It must be remembered that “ZN”, as well as the vectorial sum

have to be calculated. This means that the capacitive and reac
tive components “XC” and “XL” are in opposition and normally will
end up close to zero. This means that the fault current is lower
and the total reactance also will be close to zero.

5.4 DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
Due to the infeed of capacitive currents, from healthy objects,

during an earth fault, it’s usually required to use directional earth
fault relays. Directional relays are used when the infeed of capac
itive current from an object, during a fault in an other object, is
higher than 60% of the required sensitivity.
The directional relays will measure the active component of the

fault current only, i.e. the current generated by the earthing resis
tance (the principle for fault current and capacitive current gener
ation is shown in Figure 16).
Open
IR IL
UN UN
IL
IR
UN> UN>
Ic2
Ic3 Ic2 Ic3
L1
L2 Ic2+IcL2
IL Ictot
L3 UL1
Ic3+IcL3
IR
Ic2+IcL2
Ic3+IcL3
Ic2 Ic3
IR
IcL2 UL3 UL2
IcL3
UN
Note: CT does not
measure Ic2 and Ic3
Ic2 angle of the faulty phase
Fault in L1 (+180 deg)
Ic3
Figure 16. A Directional earth fault relay on a resonance earthed system.

5.5 NEUTRAL POINT CONTROL WITH SPECIAL
EQUIPMENT
A new principle for earthing has been discussed in Sweden and

some other countries during the last couple of years. This princi
ple includes a neutral point control, where the unsymmetrical
voltage occurring in the neutral during normal service is mea
sured, and compensated for in all phases by reactive elements.
The earthing is done with a neutral reactor in combination with a

movable core (other solutions exists) able to continuously regu
late the reactance and compensate for the capacitive current in
the network.
The unsymmetry occurring due to e.g. unsymmetrical capaci

tances at the different phases to earth as shown in figure 14 will
cause a neutral point voltage. This can be compensated for in dif
ferent ways but phase-wise reactor/resistors as shown in figure
15, will with an intelligent measuring, enable a regulation and a
compensation for the unbalance. This means that the neutral
point voltage during normal service is zero.
Earth fault currents down to tenth of an ampere can then be

achieved and its possible to have the network in service during
an earth fault until it is convenient to take the line out of service
for reparation. Earth fault protection must here be arranged,
based on other principles than measuring of fundamental earth
fault currents. A transient measuring relay as described below is
one possible solution.
-∆IL
-IR0 ∆Ico
∆IL IL IcL2
L1 Ico
UL1
IcL3
L2 IR0
L3
∆C0 C0 C0 C0
R0 R0 R0
UN
L - ∆L UL3 UL2
UN

angle of the faulty phase
(+180 deg)

Figure 17. Unsymmetrical capacitances giving neutral point voltages during
normal service.
L1
L2
L3
Course adj. Regulation &

UN
supervision
Harmonic
compensation
Figure 18. A compensation equipment for neutral point unsymmetry.
5.6 TRANSIENT MEASURING RELAYS
In the high resistive, resonance and unearthed systems, an earth

fault measuring based on the transient occurring at an earth fault
can be used. The transient is caused by the sudden change of
voltages and the sudden inrush of capacitive currents into the
healthy phases of the power lines.
This current can be measured with a residual sum measurement

or with cable current transformers.
The transients occur with a frequency of 100-5000 Hz and is

damped out very quickly. Normally within the first half cycle after
the fault, see figure 19. The measurement is therefore combined
with a measurement of neutral point voltage and the relay will
seal-in the direction of the transient as long as the neutral point
voltage is available.
Forward as well as reversed direction can be detected by the di

rection of the transient.
Transient measuring relays can for resonance earthed system be

set to be sensitive to high resistive earth faults if no resistor is
used, as the occurring neutral point voltages will be rather high.

The transient in the current is independent of the neutral device
as this is caused by the transient change of voltages.
Figure 19. The neutral point voltages and the high frequency transient oc
curring at an earth fault.
6. MEASURING EARTH FAULT CURRENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
At earth faults in a three phase system the residual sum of the

three phase currents will not end up to zero as during normal ser
vice. The earth fault current can be measured by a summation of
the three phase currents.
The summation can either be made by a summation of the three

phase current transformers, in a residual sum connection or by a
MEASURING EARTH FAULT CURRENT

cable current transformer surrounding the three phase conduc
tors. Figure 20 shows the alternatives).
Figure 20. Measurement of earth fault current can be made with a residual
sum measurement of a cable CT surrounding all three phases.

6.2 RESIDUAL SUM CONNECTED CURRENT TRANS-
FORMERS
When a residual sum connection is used a residual current can

be achieved caused by the small differences between the current
transformers in the three phases. Especially during a short cir
cuit, the residual current can reach high values. This can make
high sensitivity earth fault relays operate e.g. in high resistive or
resonance earthed systems.
To prevent operation of earth fault relays a release of earth fault

relay by a neutral point voltage protection and/or a blocking of the
earth fault relay at operation of a overcurrent protection should be
performed
A much higher sensitivity can be achieved with cable current

transformers than with residual connected phase current trans
formers, as the current ratio can be selected freely. In the residual
connected case the current transformers are given a ratio above
the maximum load currents.
For reactance- and solidly earthed systems this is not necessary

due to the low sensitivity of the earth fault protection.
6.3 CABLE CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Cable current transformers are available in varying types with dif

ferent mounting principles, different ratios and for different cable
diameters. Epoxy quartz transformers must be thread onto the
cable end before the cable box is mounted. Transformers with
openable cores can be mounted after mounting of the cables is
done.
Different ratios are used. Today 150/5 and 100/1A is common

whereas 200/1A has been a common figure in past.
A much higher sensitivity can be achieved with cable current

transformers than with residual connected phase current trans-

formers as the current ratio can be selected freely. When residual
connected the current transformers are given a ratio higher than
the maximum load currents.
For reactance- and solidly earthed systems this is not necessary

due to the low sensitivity of the earth fault protection.
The earth fault protection relays setting range must be selected

together with the current transformer ratio to give the requested
primary sensitivity.
6.4 MOUNTING OF CABLE CURRENT TRANSFORM-

ER
In order to achieve a correct measurement the cable sealing end

must be insulated from earth and the cable screen earthing must
be done as in Figure 20. The current in the cable screen will then
be in opposite direction to the current in the earthing connection,
and will thus not be measured. Therefor the fault current going
out to the fault is the only current to be measured.
The cable must be centralized in the hole of the transformer in or

der to prevent unbalance currents.
Cables are normally earthed at one end only if they are sin
gle-phased. This is to prevent the load current causing an in
duced current flowing in the screen/armory. If the cables are
three phase one- or two ends can be earthed.
7. CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY FACTOR
7.1 EARTH FAULT RELAY SENSITIVITY
When the primary earth fault current “3I0” is transformed in the

residual sum connected current transformers or in the cable cur
rent transformer a part of the current is used to magnetize the
current transformers to the terminal voltage “U” required to
achieve the operating current in the relay.
CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY FACTOR

The phase angle must be considered at calculation of the effi
ciency factor “η”:
η = I set ⁄ 3I 0 × n
where “Iset” is the set value of the earth fault relay, “3I0” is the pri
mary earth fault current and “n” is the turns ratio of the current
transformer


Current Transformers
1. INTRODUCTION
The main tasks of instrument transformers are:

- To transform currents, or voltages, from a high value to a value easy to
handle for relays and instruments.
- To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage.
- To provide possibilities of a standardization, concerning instruments and
relays, of rated currents and voltages.
Instrument transformers are special types of transformers intend

ed for measuring of voltages and currents.
For the instrument transformers, the common laws for transform

ers are valid.
For a short circuited transformer:

I 1
N 2
---
-
= N
I 2
------
For a transformer at no load:
E1 N1
-----
E2 - = ------
N 2
First equation gives the current transformation in proportion to
the primary and secondary turns.
Second equation gives the voltage transformation in proportion
to the primary and secondary turns.
The current transformer is based on equation 1 and is ideally a
short-circuited transformer where the secondary terminal voltage
is zero and the magnetizing current is negligible.
The voltage transformer is based on equation 2 and is ideally a
transformer under no-load condition, where the load current is
zero and the voltage drop only is caused by the magnetizing cur
rent and therefor is negligible.
INTRODUCTION

In practice, the ideal conditions are not fulfilled as the instrument
transformers have a burden in form of relays, instruments and ca
bles. This causes a measuring error in the current transformer
due to the magnetizing current, and in the voltage transformer
due to the load current voltage drop.
The vector diagram for a single phase instrument transformer is

shown in figure 1. The turn ratio is scaled 1:1 to simplify the rep
resentation. The primary terminal voltage is “U1” multiplied with
the vectorial subtraction of the voltage drop “I1Z1” from “U1”, which
gives us the emf “E”. “E” is also the vectorial sum of the secondary
terminal voltage “U1” and the secondary voltage drop “I2Z2”. The
secondary terminal voltage “U2” is expressed as “I2Z”, where “Z” is
the impedance of the burden.
The emf “E” is caused by the flux Ø, lagging “E” with 90°. The flux
is created by the magnetizing current “Im”, in phase with Ø. “Im” is
the no load currents “I0’s” reactive component in phase with “E”.
The resistive component is the power loss component “If ”.
Figure 1. The principle of an instrument transformer.
INTRODUCTION

2. MEASURING ERROR
The current transformer is normally loaded by an impedance,

consisting of relays, instruments and, perhaps most important,
the cables.
The induced emf “E”, required to achieve the secondary current

“I2”, through the total burden “Z2+Z”, requires a magnetizing cur
rent “I0”, which is taken from the primary side current. The factor
“I0”, is not part of the current transformation and used instead of
the rated ratio “Kn”.
I1
Nominal ratio K n = ---
I 2
we will get the real current ratio “Kd“,

I1 – I0
Real ratio K d = -------------
I2
where “I1”, is the primary rated current and “I2”, is the secondary
rated current.
The measuring error “ε” is defined:
Kn Is – Ip
ε = --------------------- × 100
Ip
where “Is”, is the secondary current and “Ip”, is the primary cur
rent.
The error in the reproduction will appear, both in amplitude and

phase.
The error in amplitude is called current, or ratio, error. According

to the definition, the current error is positive, if the secondary cur
rent is higher then the rated current ratio.
MEASURING ERROR

The error in phase angle, is called phase error or phase displace
ment. The phase error is positive, if the secondary current is lead
ing the primary.
If the magnetizing current “I0” is in phase with the secondary cur

rent “I2” (the maximum error), we will, according to equation 6, get
the error ε.
I1 – I0 I
-------------
I - – ---1-
Kd – Kn 2 I2 I0
ε = ------------------- × 100= ------------------------- × 100= ---- × 100
Kd I1 I1
I-
---
2
“I0” is consisting of two components, a power-loss component “If ”,

in phase with the secondary voltage and a magnetizing compo
nent “Im”, lagging 90° and in phase with the emf “E”.
The magnetizing current causing the measuring error, depends

on several different factors (as shown in Figure 2).
B
N1 I1
[T]
N2
I2
Z
IN/cm
E2 =2π/√2 * N A ^
Bf
N1/N2=I2/I1
Figure 2. The factors influencing the current transformers output and mag
netizing current.
For the induced emf “E”, the normal formula is valid, see fig 2. The
induced emf is given the capability to carry burdens the same
size as a transformer.
The burden is defined in IEC 185 as the power in VA can be con

nected to a current transformer at secondary rated current and at
a given power factor (cos Ø=0,8 according to IEC 185). The sec
ondary rated current is standardized to 1 and 5 A. The output volt-
MEASURING ERROR

age of a current transformer, shows the capability of the
transformer to carry burden.
As shown in figure 2, three factors will influence the emf “E”. It’s
the number of secondary turns “N”, the core area “A” and the in
duction in Wb/m2 “B”. The induction is dependent of the core ma
terial, which influences the size of the magnetizing current.
For a certain application the secondary turns and the core area
are thus selected to give the required emf output.
3. CURRENT TRANSFORMER OUTPUT
The output required of a current transformer core is dependent of

the application and the type of load connected.
METERING OR INSTRUMENTS Equipment like kW-, kVAr- and A in

struments or kWh and kVArh meters measures under normal
load conditions. For metering cores a high accuracy for currents
up to the rated current (5-120%), is required. Accuracy classes
for metering cores are 0.1 (laboratory), 0.2, 0.5 and 1.
PROTECTION AND DISTURBANCE RECORDING In Protection relays

and Disturbance recorders the information about a primary dis
turbance must be transferred to the secondary side. For these
cores a lower accuracy is required but also a high capability to
transform high fault currents and to allow protection relays to
measure and disconnect the fault. Protection classes are 5P and
10P according to IEC 185. Further cores for transient behavior
are defined in IEC 44-6.
In each current transformer a number of cores can be contained.

From three to six cores are normally available and the cores are
then one or two for measuring purposes, and two to four for pro
tection purposes.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER OUTPUT

3.1 METERING CORES
To protect instrument and meters from high fault currents the me
tering cores must be saturated 10-40 times the rated current de
pending of the type of burden. Normally the energy meters have
the lowest withstand capability. Typical values are 12-20 times the
rated current.The instrument security factor “Fs”, indicates the
overcurrent as a multiple of rated current at which the metering
core will saturate. This is given as a maximum value and is valid
only at rated burden. At lower burdens the saturation value in
creases approximately to “n”.
S 2
R CT +  ----- 
 I n-
S n 2- × F S
n = --------------------------------
R CT + -----  
 I n-
where “Sn” is the rated burden in VA, “S” is the actual burden in VA,
“In” is the rated secondary current in A and “Rct” is the internal re
sistance in Ω, at 75 °C.
According to IEC 185 the accuracy class shall be fulfilled from 25

to 100% of the rated burden.
To fulfil the accuracy class and to secure saturation for a lower

current than instrument/meter thermal capability the rated bur
den of the core must be relatively well matched to the burden
connected.
Standards.
Table 1 below shows the requirement in IEC 185 for ratio and an
gle error for different classes for a protection respectively a me
tering core.
meas. error e (%) angle error (min)

class purpose
at In resp ALF at In
0.2 0,2 10 rev. metering
0.5 0,5 30 stat. metering
1 1 60 instrument
5P 1,0 at In, 5 at ALF*In 60 protection
10P 3 at In, 10 at ALF*In 180 protection

Table 1. The accuracy classes for a current transformer. For me
tering classes there are additional requirements for 5 and 20%
of In.
3.2 PROTECTION CORES
The main characteristics of protection CT cores are:

- Lower accuracy than for measuring transformers.
- High saturation voltage.
- Little, or no turn correction at all.
The factors defined the cores are:

- The composite error with class 5P and 10 P. The error is then 5 respec
tively 10%, at the specified ALF and at rated burden.
- The Accuracy Limit Factor “ALF” indicates the overcurrent as a multiple,
times the rated current, up to which the rated accuracy (5P or 10P) is
fulfilled (with the rated burden connected).
- The ALF is given as a minimum value and in the same way as for FS for
a metering Core, the overcurrent factor is changed when the burden is
different to the rated burden.
The formula for the overcurrent factor “n” achieved for a connect
ed burden different than the rated burden is similar to the formula
for metering cores.
S 2
R CT + -----  
 I n-
S n 2- × ALF
n = --------------------------------
R CT + -----  
 I n-
where “Sn” is the rated burden in VA, “S” is the actual burden in VA,
“In” is the rated secondary current in A and “Rct” is the internal re
sistance in Ω, at 75 °C.
Note that the burdens today are generally pure resistive and
much lower than the burdens, several years ago, when electro
magnetic relays and instruments were used.

3.3 TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR
The short-circuit current can be expressed as:

–t ⁄ T1
i K = I k [ cos ∅ × e – cos (wt + ∅)]
where “iK” is the instantaneous value of the fault current, “Ik” is the
instantaneous amplitude value of the fault current and “Ø” is the
phase angle, at the fault inception.
The variable “Ø1” is set to zero, i.e. a pure resistive burden which
is the normal situation and simplifies the calculation. The first part
of the formula is the DC component of the fault current and the
second part is the pure AC component.
The “et/T1”, implies that the DC component is a decaying exponen

tial function, with the time constant “T1”. The maximum amplitude
depends on where on the voltage sine wave the fault occurred.
Concerning the protection relays, intended to operate during the

fault, it’s important to check the core output under transient con
ditions.
The fault must occur between two extreme conditions:

1. Ø=90° i.e. a fault at voltage maximum.The fault current will be a pure
sinus vawe. To transform the fault current without saturation, the ALF
factor must be ALF≥ “Ik/In”.
2. Ø=0° i.e. a fault at voltage zero. The short circuit current will have full
a symmetry with a maximum DC component. Fortunately these cases
are quite rare as faults normally occur close to voltage maximum rather
than close to voltage zero.
The DC component will build up a DC flux in the core and an in

terposed AC flux.The flux will increase and decrease according
to the time constants. The rise is dependent of the network time

constant “T1” (L/R) and the decay follows the current transformers
secondary time constant “T2”.
B
[T]
T1 40 ms
T2 2200 ms
T1 40 ms
T2 180 ms
t [sec]
Figure 3. AC and DC flux dependent of time, at faults with full DC component
and with different primary and secondary time constants.
i [A]
t [sec]
T1
Figure 4. The primary fault current with a DC component.
“T2” is the current transformer secondary time constant “L0/R0”,

where “L0” is the inductance of the secondary winding and “R0” is
the resistance of the secondary winding.

The quotient between the maximum value of the DC component
and the maximum value of the AC component is called the tran
sient factor “KT” and is defined:
2 2
∅(ac flux) × (ωT 1 cos ∅ – sin ∅ )
K T = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
∅(ac
ˆ flux)
which for a resistive burden (cos Ø2 = 1,0). This gives “KT = wT1”,
which with a primary time constant of, e.g. “T1” = “L/R” = 100 ms
= 31.4, which in turn gives a DC flux “31.4” multiplied with the AC
flux.
To transform the short circuit current correctly, the protection core

must have an ALF factor “31.4” multiplied with the ALF factor for
case 1.
The situation becomes even worse if a quick auto-reclosing is

used. At fault current breaking the core will be left magnetized to
“Ømax ” as the breaking is made at current zero crossing i.e. volt
age is close to maximum and the flux is thus also close to maxi
mum. The remanence flux “Ør” in the core will decay according to
the formula:
t
– -------
∅ r t = ∅ max × e
T2
Ø max
Ør
t [sec]
T2
Figure 5. The decay of the flux and the remanence flux.
At a reclosing for a permanent fault after the time “t” (the same
flux direction is foreseen in the worst case), a part of the core is

already used for the remanence flux. To manage a correct trans
formation of the current during an auto reclosing sequence the
core must be further increased with a remanence factor “Kr”.
This factor is according to IEC:
f max
K r = ------------------
f max – f-r
The current transformer cores must thus be increased with the

transient- and the remanence factor “KT” and “Kr”.This is required,
if saturation isn’t allowed during the transient fault having a full
DC offset and with an Auto reclose sequence.
Saturated
output
Figure 6. Secondary current at DC saturation. For some cycles the positive

part of the sine wave will be destroyed.
Ideal transformation of short circuits using DC component and

during Auto reclose will give very high over dimensioning require
ments. All clearances of parameters will be multiplied and can
give unrealistic requirements on core size after multiplying with
“KT” and “Kr”.

4. SELECTION OF CT CORES
Some general guidelines for selecting current transformer cores,

for metering and protection purposes, can be given.
SELECT THE RATED CURRENT The primary rated current is select

ed to be 10-40% higher than the object rated current. This always
gives a high resolution of the metering equipment and instru
ments.
For the protection cores it can be of interest to have the highest

possible ratio as this gives the least requirements of core data.
The modern relays have wide measuring ranges.
A primary- or secondary tap to get several ratios can be useful in

metering cores. Remember however that the output is reduced
when fewer turns are used.
The secondary current can be 1 or 5 A. Today 1A is the dominat

ing as the protection and metering equipment have so low bur
dens. The cable burden is “I2R” which indicates that a 1A circuit
has 25 times lower cable burden, measured in VA, than a 5 A cir
cuit. This means that cores can be made in smaller dimensions
with a lower cost as a result.
SELECT BURDEN Do not use an over dimensioned burden more

than necessary. A too high rated burden compared to actual bur
den can mean that the metering equipment is destroyed as the
Security factor “Fs” factor is valid at rated burden.
For relay cores an extra clearance concerning burden can give

unrealistic core sizes after multiplication with “KT” and “Kr”.
SELECT “Fs” AND ALF FACTORSSelect the correct Security factor

Fs and Accuracy Limit Factors ALF, dependent of the type of
equipment connected. Always refer to the product description
and check the overcurrent capability for instruments and meters
and the requirement on core output for relays.
SELECTION OF CT CORES

Remember also possible clearances of the burden which will in
fluence the real Overcurrent factor.
Do not overdimension!
In practice all current transformer cores should be specially

adapted for their application in each station.
SELECT ACCURACY Do not specify higher requirements than nec

essary. For metering cores especially with A-turns less than
about 400-500 a too high requirement can mean extra expenses
as a more expensive core material must be used.
SOME RULES OF THUMB

The secondary resistance “RCT is important for the CT output
and should be limited, specially for 1 A high ratio CT’s, to give an
efficient use of the current transformers i. e. the core voltage out
put shall be used to support the connected burden and not the in
ternal resistance. A good goal could be to always have internal
resistance lower than rated burden, preferable much lower.
When the secondary resistance following rule of thumb can be
used:
RCT ≤ 0,2 - 0,5 Ω per 100 turns.
Bigger values for big cores and small values for small cores.
Cores are considered to be big when the voltage output is of

range 1 - 2 V per 100 turns and medium size cores have outputs
0,5 - 1 V per 100 turns.
Generally the resistance values are lower for 5 A circuits as the

winding has bigger Area for 5 A than for 1 A. However the prob
lem that the secondary resistance is high is occuring mainly on 1
A as the number of turns are five times higher for 1 A than for 5 A.
It is thus essential to keep core size and secondary resistance
down to get useful cores where the voltage output is mainly pro
ducing current to the load and not giving internal voltage drop
and power loss.


Voltage Transformers
1. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (VT) AND CA-
PACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CVT)
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Voltage transformers can be of two types, magnetic voltage
transformers (VT) and capacitive voltage transformers (CVT).
The magnetic voltage transformers are most economical for volt
ages up to about 145 kV and the capacitive voltage transformers
there above. A CVT can also be combined with the PLC equip
ment used for communication over the high voltage transmission
lines.
Voltage transformers are in most cases connected between
phase and earth.
Voltage transformers are together with current transformers
called instrument transformers. The standard covering voltage
transformers is IEC 186.
The main tasks of instrument transformers are:
- To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a
value easy to handle for relays and instruments.
- To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage.
- To provide possibilities of a standardization of instruments and
relays to a few rated currents and voltages.
Instrument transformers are special types of transformers intend
ed for measuring of voltages and currents.
For the instrument transformers the common laws for transform
ers are valid.
For a short circuited transformer the following formula is valid:
I 1
N 2
---
-
I 2
= -----
N 1
-
For a transformer in no load the following formula is valid:
E 1
N 1
E 2
-
----- = ------
N 2
INTRODUCTION

Equation (1) gives the current transformation in proportion to the
primary and secondary turns. Equation (2) gives the voltage
transformation in proportion to the primary and secondary turns.
The current transformer is based on equation (1) and ideally a
short-circuited transformer where the secondary terminal voltage
is zero and the magnetizing current is negligible.
The voltage transformer is based on equation (2) and is ideally a
transformer under no-load condition where the load current is
zero and the voltage drop is only caused by the magnetizing cur
rent and is thus negligible.
In practice the ideal conditions are not fulfilled as the instrument
transformers are loaded with burden in form of relays, instru
ments and cables. This causes a measuring error in the current
transformer due to the magnetizing current and in the voltage
transformer due to the load current voltage drop.
The vector diagram for a single phase instrument transformer is
shown in figure 1.
Figure 1. The principle of an Instrument transformer.
The turn ratio is 1:1 to simplify the representation. The primary

terminal voltage is U1. The vectorial subtraction of the voltage
drop I1Z1 from U1 gives us the emf E. E is also the vectorial sum
of the secondary terminal voltage U1 and the secondary voltage
drop I2Z2. The secondary terminal voltage U2 is expressed as I2Z
where Z is the impedance of the burden.
INTRODUCTION

The emf E is caused by the flux Ø lagging E with 90°. The flux is
created by the magnetizing current Im in phase with Ø. Im is the
no-load current I0 reactive component and in phase with E is the
resistive component the power loss component If.
1.2 MEASURING ERROR
The voltage transformer is normally loaded by an impedance
consisting of relays, instruments and, perhaps most important,
the cables.
The induced emf E required to achieve the secondary current I2
through the total burden Z2+Z, requires a magnetizing current I0

which is taken from the primary side voltage.
The I0 is not part of the voltage transformation and instead of the
rated ratio Kn:

U 1
-----
U 2
- = NominalratioK n
we will get the real voltage ratio Kd:
U 1 – ∆U
--------------------
U 2
- = RealratioK d
where
U1 is the primary rated voltage
U2 is the secondary rated voltage
The measuring error ε is defined (IEC 186) as:
U 1
U – ∆U
1
------ –�--------------------
U 2
U2 - ∆U
---------------------------------
- × = U 1
- × 100= ε( 5 )
-------
U 1
-----
U -
where
U1 is the primary voltage
U2 is the secondary voltage
MEASURING ERROR

The error in the reproduction will appear both in amplitude and
phase.
The error in amplitude is called voltage or ratio error. According
to the definition, the voltage error is positive if the secondary volt
age is higher then the rated voltage ratio would give.
The error in phase angle is called phase error or phase displace
ment. The phase error is positive if the secondary voltage is lead
ing the primary.
According to the figure
∆U = ∆E1 + ∆E2
∆E1 = I1Z1
∆E2 = I2Z2
If Z1+Z2=Zk and I1=I0+I2 we will get
∆U=I0Z1+I2Zk
The error of a voltage transformer is thus dependent of one part
independent of the load current, but dependent of the voltage U
and the flux density and magnetizing curve, and one part depen
dent of the load current.
The magnetizing current which causes the measuring error de
pends on several different factors as shown in Figure 2.
For the induced emf E the normal formula is valid, see fig. The
induced emf is also gives the size of a transformer capability to
carry burden.
The no load voltage drop I0*Z1

Following relations are valid:
I0 =f(B)
I0 Z1= f(B)*R1 + jf(B)*X1
To achieve a low voltage drop following steps should be taken:

- The primary winding is wound with a wire with big Area.
- A low induction is used
- The reactance is kept low
This implies that a big core area must be used in order to flux high
enough and a not to high number of primary turns as the reac
tance has a square dependence of the turns number.
The load dependent voltage drop I2Zk.
Zk=R1+ jX1+R2+j X2
MEASURING ERROR

U1
N1
N2
I2
^f
E 2 =2 / 2 * N A B
N1/N2=I2/I1
B
[T]
I0/cm
Figure 2. The factors influencing the voltage transformer output and magne
tizing current.
To keep a low voltage drop due to the load current the primary
and secondary impedances must be kept as low as possible
which in practice means that a winding with big area on the wires
is used and the coils are made as compact as possible to reduce
the leakage flux.
The measuring error variation with the voltage.
The no load error I0Z1 varies with the voltage following the mag
netizing curve of the transformer, the primary impedance Z1 can

be considered as a constant.
The load dependent voltage drop is proportional to U2 as I2 =
U2/Z where Z is the connected burden and Z1 and Zk are con

stants.
The relative voltage drop is thus constant.
MEASURING ERROR

Turns correction is often used on voltage transformers to achieve
a high accuracy. The high number of turns gives a possibility to
regulate in small steps.
According to IEC 186 a voltage transformer is required to fulfil its
accuracy class for burdens between 25 and 100% of rated bur
den. A turns correction is mostly selected to give a positive error
+εmax at a burden of 25% of rated burden and -εmax at a burden
of 100% of rated burden. This is shown in Figure 3.
+εmax
10 25 50 65 100 % of S n
−εmax
Figure 3. The measuring error as a factor of secondary burden at a constant

primary voltage.
1.3 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS WITH SEVERAL

SECONDARY WINDINGS.
The voltage transformers can be designed with more than one

secondary windings. This is done when secondary windings for
different purpose are needed. Each loaded secondary winding
will take load current from the primary winding and the total volt
age drop is cased by the sum of the secondary burdens.
The most common design is to provide one Y-connected winding
and one extra secondary winding for open delta connection, used
for earth fault protection relays. This winding is not loaded during
normal service and will thus not influence the measuring accura
cy. The open delta winding is normally provided with 110 V sec
ondary for solidly earthed systems and for 110/3 V for unearthed,
reactance or resistance earthed systems. This will give an open
delta output of 110 V during a solid earth fault in both systems.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS WITH SEVERAL SECOND

Open delta winding

for earth fault
detection
Y-winding for metering

and protection purpose
Figure 4. A Voltage transformer with two secondary windings, one Y-con

nected and one Open delta connected.
Figure 5. The principle for a open delta winding. Occurring voltages at an

earth fault in a direct earthed system.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS WITH SEVERAL SECOND

Healthy condition Fault condition
L1
L1 L1
L2
L3
L3 L2 L3 L2
L1
L3
L2
Ursd =0
Ursd=3*U 2n
Figure 6. The principle for a open delta winding. Occurring voltages at an

earth fault in a unearthed or high resistive/resonance earthed system.
1.4 VOLTAGE FACTOR
Voltage transformers are normally connected phase to earth. In
the event of a disturbance in the network the voltage across the
VT's (CVT's) will be increased in the healthy phases. IEC speci
fies the voltage factors:
1,9 for systems not being solidly earthed.
1,5 for solidly earthed systems.
The saturation is specified to be 30 sec for systems with tripping
earth fault protection and 8 hours if no Earth fault tripping protec
tion is used.
The VT's must not be saturated at the voltage factor.
1.5 BURDEN AND ACCURACY CLASSES.
A number of standard values of rated burden are given in IEC
186. Following burdens are preferred values.
10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500 VA
VOLTAGE FACTOR

The values are rated values per phase for a three-phase set. The
standard values on burden is given at cos Ø=0,8.
The accuracy class is fulfilled for 25-100% of rated burden.
Burden of today protection and metering equipment is very low
(in range 5-10 VA for an object) and considering that accuracy
class is fulfilled down to 25% only a low selected rated burden
should be used.
A rated burden around 1,5* the connected burden will give max
imum accuracy at the connected burden. Refer to figure 3.
Accuracy classes are specified for protection purpose and for
metering purpose. Table 1 below shows the requirement in IEC
186 for ratio and angle error for different classes.
class meas. error e (%) angle error (min) purpose

0.2 0,2 10 rev. metering
0.5 0,5 20 stat. metering
1 1 40 instrument
3P 3 120 protection
Table 1. The accuracy classes for a voltage transformer.
It should be noted that a voltage transformer winding can be giv

en a combined class i e 0.5/3P which means that metering accu
racy is fulfilled for 80-120% of nominal voltage but the
requirement for 5% of nominal voltage and the transient re
sponse requirement from protection cores is also fulfilled.
1.6 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER OUTPUT
The output required from a current transformer core is dependent

of the application and the type of load connected.
- Metering or instruments.
Equipment like kW, kVAr, A instruments or kWh or kArh meters
measures under normal load conditions. For metering cores a
high accuracy for voltages in range (80-120 %) of nominal volt
age is required. Accuracy classes for metering cores are (0.1 lab
oratory), 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER OUTPUT

- Protection and disturbance recording.
Protection relays and Disturbance recorders where information
about a primary disturbance must be transferred to the second
ary side. For such windings a lower accuracy is required but a
high capability to transform voltages from 5 - Vf*rated voltage to
allow protection relays measure and disconnect the fault. Protec

tion class is 3P.
Further a good transient response is required for the protection
transformers and this is a problem for CVT´s where the energy
stored in the capacitive voltage divider and in the interposing volt
age transformer (IVT) will result in a transient voltage oscillation
on the secondary side. The transient oscillation consists of a low
frequency component (2-15 Hz) and a high frequency oscillation
(900-4000 Hz). The time constant for the high frequency part is
short (<10 ms) whereas the low frequency part has long time
constants. The amplitude is decided by the fault inception angle.
Higher capacitances in the voltage divider gives lower amplitude
of the low frequency oscillation. The IEC 186 states that the sec
ondary value, one cycle after a solid short circuit shall be lower
than 10%.
Fault inception
point
10%
t
1 cycle
Figure 7. The transient voltage at a solid short circuit on the terminals of a

Capacitive voltage transformer.
1.7 FERRO RESONANCE
Ferro resonance can occur in circuits containing a capacitor and

a reactor incorporating an iron core (a non-linear inductance).
Both the CVT and a magnetic VT can be involved in Ferro-reso
nance pfenomenon.
FERRO RESONANCE

Ferro resonance in a magnetic VT
The ferro resonance for a magnetic VT is an oscillation between
the inductance of the VT and the capacitance of the network. Fer
ro resonance can only occur at ungrounded networks, but note
the risk that some part becomes ungrounded under certain cir
cumstances.
An oscillation is normally triggered by a sudden change in the
network voltage. Ferro resonance phenomenon can occur both
with sub-harmonic frequencies or with harmonic frequencies.
Generally it is difficult to state when a risk of ferro-resonance oc
curs but as soon a a system with a voltage transformer is left un
grounded under some circumstances, preventive actions should
be taken (also consider the risk of capacitive charged systems
with a VT).
The damping of ferro-resonance is normally done with a 27-60 Ω,
200 W resistor connected across the open delta winding. The re
sistor value should give a current as high as possible but a cur
rent below the thermal rating of the voltage transformer.
Ferro resonance in a capacitive VT
The CVT with its capacitor and IVT is by itself a ferro-resonance
circuit. The phenomena is started by a sudden voltage change. A
sub-harmonic oscillation can be started and must be damped to
prevent damage of the transformer.
The IEC standard specifies that CVT´s must be provided with fer
ro-resonance damping devices. Normally this consists of a satu
rating reactor and a resistor in each phase.
1.8 FUSING OF SECONDARY CIRCUITS
Secondary fuses should be provided at the first box where the

three phases are brought together. The circuit before the first box
from the terminal box is constructed to minimize the risk of faults
in the circuit. Any fuse in the terminal box is preferable not used
as the voltage transformer supervision is difficult to perform then
and the fuses in the three phase box is still provided to enable a
fusing of the circuits to different loads like protection and meter
ing circuit.
FUSING OF SECONDARY CIRCUITS

The fuses must be selected to give a fast and reliable fault clear
ance also for a fault at the end of the cabling. Earth faults and
two-phase faults should be checked. Refer to figure 7.
1.9 VOLTAGE DROP IN SECONDARY CABLING.
The accuracy of a voltage transformer is specified on the second

ary terminal. The voltage drop and angle error in the secondary
cabling must thus be checked in order to confirm the total accu
racy of the circuit.
Figure 8. The voltage drop for a voltage transformer secondary circuit.
The voltage drop and angle error in the secondary cabling should
be lower than the error given by the class specification of the
transformer.
VOLTAGE DROP IN SECONDARY CABLING.



CT Requirements
1. INTRODUCTION
Many types of protection relays are used in a power system. Dif

ferential protection relays, distance protection relays, overcurrent
protection relays of varying types etc. will all have different re
quirements on the current transformer cores depending on the
design of the individual protection relay.
Instantaneous and delayed protection relays will also have differ

ent requirements. A DC component of the fault current need often
to be considered for the instantaneous types of protection relays.
Modern solid-state protection relays, of static or numerical types,

provides a much lower burden on the current transformer cores
and often also have lower requirements on the core output as
they normally are designed to operate with saturated CT cores
which was not the case for the old types of electro-mechanical re
lays
Hereafter follows a briefing of requirements that modern ABB sol

id state protection relays will set on current transformer cores. For
special types we further refer to manuals for the respective relay
and to tests of behavior at saturated current transformers per
formed with the different products.
To explain the general expressions used we will show a normal

current transformer circuit.
RP RCT RL
OTHER
RR PHASES
RL
RN
Figure 1. The current transformer principle circuit with magnetizing reac

tance and secondary resistance.
INTRODUCTION

For phase to phase faults the loop-resistance will include the ca
ble resistance “RL” plus the resistance of Phase measuring relays
“RR + RCT”.
For phase to earth fault loops the resistance will include two
times the cable resistance “RL+Rl” plus the total resistance of
Phase and Neutral measuring relays “RR +RN + RCT”.
Core voltage output can either be the knee-point voltage, if
known, or the secondary voltage output “E2” calculated with help
of 5P or 10P data, ALF and the secondary resistance according
to:
E2 = ALF x In(RCT + Rn)
where
“E2” is the secondary limiting emf
“In” is the CT rated secondary current
“RCT” is the CT secondary resistance at 75°C and
“Rn” is the CT rated burden, calculated as resistance.
Normally, modern relays provides a pure resistive burden.
Of course values given in ANSI, or other standards, can be used
in similar ways to calculate the cores secondary output and the
achieved value can be used instead. The differences in the volt
age output at selected definition of core is of size some 10-20%
and is not of importance for the calculation.
2. OVERCURRENT PROTECTION RELAYS
Overcurrent relays are used both as short-circuit and earth-fault

protection. They can be instantaneous or delayed, definite- or in
verse time. Current transformer cores must give sufficient output
to ensure correct operation.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION RELAYS

CT Requirements
The required CT core output is given below:
INSTANTANEOUS PROTECTION Core shall not saturate for an AC

current, smaller than “2xIset”. The DC component doesn’t need to
be considered as ABB overcurrent relays are designed with short
impulse limit time to secure operation also when only a very short
current pulse is achieved due to heavy saturated current trans
former cores. Due to high setting of instantaneous stages the re
quirement often will be quite high.
INVERSE TIME DELAYED OVERCURRENT PROTECTION RELAYS

Core may not saturate for an AC current less than “20xIset”.
The 20 times factor is required to ensure that the inverse time
characteristic will be correct and no extra delay will be introduced
in some relay (due to saturation in a CT core). Such a delay
would mean a lack of selectivity. If required, the factor 20 can be
changed to “the Maximum fault current of interest for selectivity
divided by the Set current”.
DEFINITE-TIME DELAYED OVERCURRENT PROTECTION RELAYS

Core may not saturate for a current “I” less than “2xIset” to secure
operation.
The current output is calculated:

E2
I
= -------------
R Loop-
Both phase and earth-faults values should be checked when

earth fault currents are high. Normally however the short circuit
protection will give the highest requirement.
Overcurrent relays have moderate requirement on accuracy. 5P

or 10P class according can be used without problems. If a low ac
curacy class is used this should be considered when selecting
the setting. Especially the margin should be increased for earth
faults when the summation of the three phases is done as the
measuring error is increased when several current transformer
cores are involved.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION RELAYS

3. IMPEDANCE AND DISTANCE PROTECTION
RELAYS
Distance protection relays

Distance protection is an instantaneous impedance measuring
protection for MV and HV power lines. The general requirement
on current transformer cores which can be used for ABB Dis
tance protection relays, of modern static and numerical type, is
that the core may not saturate within 50 ms for a fault at the end
of zone 1. Differences of acceptable saturation time between dif
ferent relay types exists but a use of 50 ms is generally suitable.
For detailed information about the requirement we refer to the
manual of each relay. Saturation is allowed for internal faults as
the relays are designed to operate with saturated CT core without
any delay in operation. Saturation due to the DC component must
be considered due to the instantaneous operation of the protec
tion.
The empiric formula for a CT free from saturation is:
E2= Is1(X/R+l)(RCT+RL) where
“Is1” is the current through the own line for a fault at set reach of
zone 1 and “Is1” is calculated as:
U
I s1 = ------------------
3 × Zs
where
Zs is the total impedance for a fault at zone 1 reach.
X/R is the ratio of X/R up to the zone 1 reach.
RCT+RL give the secondary resistance of the current transformer
core and the connected burden to the current transformer termi
nal.
To calculate the required output voltage for a saturated free volt
age the following formula can be used. The secondary time con
stant is then considered to be high and the influence neglected:
0.05
  T -
----------- 
E 2 = I s1  T 1 × w  1 – e 1  + 1 (R ct + R 1 )
   
IMPEDANCE AND DISTANCE PROTECTION RELAYS

CT Requirements
where
T1 is the primary time constant.
4. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAYS
There are many types of Differential protection relays used for

many different applications. Here follows a summary of the most
commonly used differential relays from ABB.
High impedance protection relays.

CT cores used together with high impedance protection must all
have identical turn ratio. Turn correction is not allowed. Normally
separate cores must be provided for this kind of protection on all
involved current transformers. However sometimes high imped
ance type of relays at Restricted earth fault protection application
can be used on the same core together with the Transformer dif
ferential protection if interposing CT:s, or insulated input trans
formers, are provided.
All cores must have a saturation voltage Usat:

Usat>2Ur to ensure operation at internal faults.
Relay operating voltage Ur is calculated as:

Ur> Ismax (Rct + RLoop) where
Ismax” is the max secondary through fault current and
RLoop” is the max loop resistance seen from connection point.
Two-way cable resistance must normally be used but for applica

tions as pure phase fault protection single way cable resistance
can be used.
Transformer differential protection.

Transformer differential protection relays are percentage restraint
differential protection relays. The operation level is increased at
through faults to ensure stability even with the tap changer in an
end position and with differences between high and low voltage
CT cores. Generally the CT cores should not saturate for any
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAYS

through fault but the percentage stabilization and an internal sta
bilization for current transformer saturation means that the re
quirement can be limited.
Following formula should be used:

E2 ≥ KTFx Ismax (Rct + RLoop) where
KTF is the transient overdimensioning factor

Ismax is the max secondary through fault current and
RLoop is the max loop resistance seen from connection point.
KTF should be selected dependent of the type of Protection relay

supplied and the application.
KTF = 2 should be used for RADSB with interposing CT’s.
KTF = 3 should be used for RADSB without interposing CT’s or
RET 521 DIfferential protection function.
KTF = 4 should be used for SPAD 346 or RET 316.
For one- and a half, Ring busbar or two breaker arrangements
separate stabilizing inputs shall always be used for CT's where
through fault currents can occur.
The modern relays are designed to operate correctly for heavy in
ternal faults also with saturated CT's so the through fault condi
tion to ensure that stability is achieved for outer faults will be
dimensioning for the involved cores. It is advisable to use as sim
ilar saturation level (in current) for the involved current transform
ers.
Accuracy class 5P according to IEC185, or similar accuracy
class in other standards, should preferable be used.
Pilot wire differential relay RADHL

RADHL operates with a circulating current in the pilot wires. Cur
rent transformer cores must be provided with the same ratio at
the two terminals but don’t need to be of the same type. The CT
accuracy requirements are based on the most severe external
fault under symmetrical current conditions. Under these condi
tions and with the CT burden composed of the CT secondary and
lead resistances, plus an allowance of 5 VA for the largest single

CT Requirements
phase burden of the RADHL summation CT, the CT shouldn’t ex
ceed 10% accuracy
This gives an expression

E2 – Ez
I s = -------------------------------------
R I + R ct + R sct-
where “Is” is the maximum secondary AC fault current, “E2” is the
CT:s secondary voltage with 10P (or 5P) accuracy and “Ez” is the
voltage across the regulating diodes reflected to the primary side
of summation CT.
For 1A RADHL at ph-ef faults, “Ez” is 0.7 V and for 1A RADHL at
ph-ph faults “Uz” is 3.9 V
For 5A RADH, at ph-ph faults “Ez” is 0.15 V and for 5A RADHL at
ph-ef faults “Uz” is 0.78 V
“Rl” is the cable resistance (one way for ph-ph and two way for
ph-ef faults), “Rct” is the CT:s secondary winding resistance and
“Rsc” is the summation CT resistance, reflected to the primary
side of the summation current transformer, 0.2 Ω.
When so selected no saturation due to DC component in asym
metrical fault currents will cause maloperation. Neither will CT:s
that saturates during an internal fault, due to AC or DC, prevent
operation. General prudence suggests a limitation of the maxi
mum fault currents to 100 times nominal current or 250 A sec
ondary which ever is the smallest.
When current transformers of similar characteristic are provided
at both ends of the line the through faults will always saturate the
current transformers equal at both ends and smaller cores can
then be used.
The formula:
E2 ≥ 20 x In (RCT + Rl + R2 + 5/In2)

should then be fulfilled, where:
R2 is the load of other equipment connected to the same core.
Rl is cable resistance (one way for ph-ph and two way for ph-ef
faults. If earth fault current is low only one way is sufficient).
Busbar differential protection type RADSS or REB 103 and

pilot wire differential protection RADSL
RADSS/L and REB 103 are moderate impedance restraint pro
tection relays which due to extreme speed and restraining char
acteristic is independent of CT saturation for both internal and
external faults.
To secure operation at internal faults the CT secondary limiting

emf “E2” or the CT knee-point voltage is:
E 2 ≥ 2U rs = I d1 (R dt + 28) + n d V d3
where
“Id1” is the RADSS/L, REB103 operating current
“Rdt” is the total differential circuit resistance
“28 Ω” is the secondary winding resistance of the aux CT in the
differential circuit, referred to the primary side and
“ndVd3 = 20V” is the forward voltage drop at the full wave rectifier
in the aux CT at the differential circuit secondary side.
Loop resistance
The permissible loop resistance for secure through fault stability
seen from the relay is:
R Ix = R dt × S ⁄ ( 1 – S)
where
“S” is the setting of the slope
“Rdt” is the total differential circuit resistance and
R dt = n d2× R d3 + R md + (R a × R d11 )
where
“nd” is the turns ratio of the aux CT in the differential circuit and is
10,

CT Requirements
“Rd3” is the resistance of the fixed resistor set to l l Ω,
“Rmd” is the short circuit impedance of the aux CT in the differen
tial circuit set to 350 Ω,
“Ra” is the resistance of the alarm relay set to 20 Ω and
“Rd11” is the resistance of the variable resistor
The loop resistance seen from the relay is:
R Imax = (R 2 + R I ) × n mx
where
“R2” is the main transformer secondary resistance,
“Rl” is the cable loop resistance and
“Imx” is the aux transformer ratio.
5. FAULT LOCATORS
Fault locator type RANZA.

Requirement on current transformer cores used for ABB Fault lo
cator RANZA is that the core is not allowed to saturate within 30
ms from the fault inception for a fault at a location where the max
imum measuring accuracy is required.
The formula for saturation free CT in 30 ms is:
E 2 = K tf (R ct + R I )
The transient dimensioning factor “Ktf ”=Ømax /Øssc
The flux at 30 ms, Ø(0,03) is:
 wT T  0.03 0.03  
 1 2  -----------
∅(0.03) = ∅ ssc ------------------ e T1 - T2 - 
-----------
+ 1
 T1 – T2  –e  
   
where
“T1” is the primary net time constant in seconds,
FAULT LOCATORS

“T2” is the secondary time constant in seconds,
“Øssc” is steady state flux corresponding to the sinusodial current
and
“ω” is the angle speed i.e. 2πf where “f” is the net frequency.
For conventional CT's with a high “T2” compared to “T1” this can
be simplified:
0.03
  T -
----------- 
E 2 = I s1  T 1 × w  1 – e 1  + 1 (R ct + R 1 )
   
where
“Is1” is the max fault current for which the accuracy is required,
“R1” is the loop resistance seen from core terminals,
CT ratio must be selected to ensure that phase component of the
fault current always is bigger than 10% of rated current).
Accuracy class 5P according to IEC185 should preferably be ful
filled.
Fault locator in Distance relay type REL100 or REL 511, REL

521 or REL 531
The built-in fault locator option in the Line protection terminals as
above is designed with the same measuring algorithm as in fault
locator type RANZA. The time window for measurement is how
ever shorter and therefor a time to saturation for a fault at location
where maximum accuracy is required of 20 ms can be used.
Similar formula as for RANZA, but with 20 ms instead of 30 ms,
should thus be utilized.
Normally it’s sufficient to use cores suitable for the Distance pro
tection without special check. However, when lines are long and
requirement on cores from Distance protection low, a high accu
racy can be required for faults much closer to the station. Then
the requirement set by the Fault locator will often be dimension
ing although the time to saturation allowed is much shorter.
A certain saturation can also be accepted without loss of measur

ing accuracy due to the analogue and digital filtering of current
FAULT LOCATORS

CT Requirements
signals. There is also a possibility to recalculate the result given
by the fault locator in above products using a different measuring
loop if a heavy DC saturation is noticed in some of the involved
phases. This can give a big improvement as the DC component
will always differ between phases for multi-phase faults.
6. BREAKER FAILURE RELAY TYPE RAICA
The requirement on a core feeding a Breaker failure relay RAICA

is:
E 2 ≥ 15 × I set (R ct + R 1 )
or:
E 2 ≥ 0.2 × I n × n(R ct + R 1 )
whichever is the biggest.
where
”Rct” is CT secondary resistance,
“R1” is the total loop resistance seen from CT terminals,
“Iset” is the RAICA set current,
“In” is the CT secondary rated current an
“n” is maximum primary fault current/CT primary rated current.
This will secure the operation of the Breaker failure relays even
with CT saturation. RAICA is designed with a energy storing to
give a continuous energizing of the output, even with heavy sat
urated current transformers, and with short reset pulses every cy
cle caused by the extreme speed of the measuring relay RXIB.
BREAKER FAILURE RELAY TYPE RAICA

BREAKER FAILURE RELAY TYPE RAICA

Control System Structure
1. INTRODUCTION
The control system equipment in a Substation is a vital part that
supervises, protects and controls the transmission of electrical
power.
The increasing complexity in the substations of today, together
with the increasing transmitted power and the increasing fault
current levels, means increasing requirement set on the control
and protection equipment.
Dependent of the stations location in the networks and the power
consumption, the operation and maintenance organization of the
customer and government regulations etc., many choices must
be done in order to achieve lowest possible Life Cycle Cost
(LCC).
The highest possible service reliability is a general goal. Flexibil
ity and maintainability are also important factors in order to attain
a total reliability.
The first choices are the selection of the primary apparatus. The
choice of AIS or GIS switchgear and decision of the switchgear
arrangement, to be used and transformer sizes etc. are important
in order to achieve a low LCC.
Thereafter choices of control and protection equipment must be
done e. g. conventional or computerized control equipment, sin
gle or redundant protection systems, design and voltage of bat
tery system, choice of battery type etc. All choices must be done
with the expected future development in mind. Later changes will
always mean a much higher cost than a selection made after fu
ture needs.
It’s always difficult to foresee the future but a summary of expect

ed changes of the power network in the area of the new station
should always be done e.g. by checking plans for building of new
living areas, starting of new industries etc., with the communities.
INTRODUCTION

The cost distribution for a construction of a typical Substation is
shown in Figure 1. It should be noted, that the control and protec
tion equipment is about 10-15% of the stations total cost. If trans
mission lines also are included in the comparison the cost part of
control and protection will be even smaller.
Figure 1. The cost distribution at installation of a HV substation.
The importance of control and protection equipment is expanding
if the total life cycle cost is considered. The control equipment is
very important for the station operation and the protection equip
ment is an important part of the maintenance and thus the main
tenance cost.
In most organizations a number of standards has been selected
and must be followed. Government also has a number of require
ment which must be followed by the station owner. A standard
can often mean a high initial cost but will give a positive impact
on the life cycle cost, as the maintenance personal will be more
efficient as they are well familiar with the equipment. The spare
part cost will also be lower.
In this document a survey of different parts of the control and pro
tection equipment is done. Equipment included in the control sys
tem are:
- Auxiliary power systems.

- Protection system.
- Metering equipment.
- Control and regulation.
- Signalling and event recording.
- Operation.
INTRODUCTION

2. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
2.1 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Location
The location of the current transformers will give the limitation of
the protection zones.
The most common approach is to locate the current transformer

at the outside of the object circuit breaker, so that a Busbar differ
ential protection will cover the circuit breaker.
The location should generally be as close as possible to the cir

cuit breaker as the breaker will open when a fault is detected. The
zones where an incorrect tripping is achieved is thereby mini
mized.
For GIS switchgears a requirement to cover all GIS compartment

from the busbar protection is often raised. This will ensure an in
stantaneous trip for all faults in the GIS and the risk of
“burn-through” is thereby minimized.
For lower voltages where busbar protection is not used, a loca

tion of the current transformer to between the breaker and the
busbar could be advantageous but is usually impossible to do
due to the mechanical construction.
When Transfer busbars, C-arrangements, are used a location of

current transformers outside the C-disconnector is preferred.
The object protection will then still be in operation when the trans
fer busbar and transfer breaker is used to by pass another break-
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

er scheduled for maintenance and a rearrangement of the trip
circuit to the transfer breaker can simply be done (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. The location of current transformer at a AC-Busbar arrangement.
At one and a half breaker systems and double breaker systems,

the current transformers in the two sections are connected to
gether in a summation. Similar core data on the involved cores
will match each other when the cores are summed.
A control of possible primary current loops through the current

transformer must be done, when circuit breaker is earthed on
both sides. Resistance of primary loop is seen as the current
transformer ratio in square times the primary loop resistance
from the secondary side. A fault or load current in the other (sum
mated) current transformer will thus be split up between protec
tion/meters and the primary loop according to the impedances in
the two circuits.
Especially for CT:s with low ratio, primary resistance seen from
secondary side could be quite low, leading to an important mea
suring error for the metering and fail to trip for a primary fault. This
is due to the fact, that a part of the load/fault current will create a
primary circulating current instead of going through the
meter/protection. For high impedance protection schemes this

could be a problem even with not so low CT-ratio and must be
checked. (See Figure 3)
Figure 3. Summation of current transformers in a double busbar arrange

ment.
Earthing
To prevent dangerous potential in the secondary circuit of a cur
rent transformer all secondary circuits shall be earthed.
Only one earthing point may be used when several current trans
formers are connected together in a summation or differential
connection. This is necessary as equalizing currents else can
flow through the circuit, during a primary earth fault.
Neutral connection and earthing can be made according to vary
ing practises in different countries and with different utilities.
Earthing towards the protected object and neutral connection are

the most common principles followed by most companies and
manufacturers of protection and metering equipment.
Within ABB Substations we follow the principles:

- Neutral and earth towards protected object.
- Neutral and earth toward the metering direction.

Reconnected CT’s.
Primary as well as secondary reconnection is used.
At primary reconnection there are two primary windings, usually

only one turn each, which are connected in series or in parallel.
Independent of the connection the same core data will be
achieved.
Secondary reconnected cores has taps on the secondary wind

ing. The core data will then be, as best, linearly reduced.
Due to the reduction of core data a difference between maximum
and minimum tap, higher than 1:2 should be avoided as the sec
ondary circuit burden is always the same.
Secondary taps not used shall be left open.
Cores not used shall be short-circuited at maximum taps.
An open current transformer secondary circuit will mean danger

ous voltages and must therefor be avoided carefully.
Terminals
To enable a simple testing and reconnection of current circuits at
commissioning/fault finding a terminal grouping as in Figure 4)
can be used. A simple change of current direction is achieved by
changing the link. A simple test of each core can be done from
the terminals. The terminals are openable with links and should
be suitable for connection of normal test wires.

Figure 4. A terminal arrangement which allows simple reconnection of a cur

rent transformer direction and a simple testing of each core.
2.2 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Location
The location of the voltage transformers will primary depend on
the switchgear arrangement, the protection, the metering and the
automatics connected.
Normally, voltage transformers connected to the busbars and at
the low voltage side of the transformers are satisfactory in a dis
tribution substation.
Directional Protection on outgoing bays are then fed from the
busbar VT:s.

On the transmission voltage level the protection equipment will
normally require voltage transformers at all objects, sometimes
with exception of the HV side of power transformers.
Further, a single phase set is located at the busbars for voltage,

frequency and synchronizing purpose. This avoids complex volt
age selection schemes.
Earthing and fusing.

The secondary circuits are fused and earthed in the VT marshal
ling box. This will ensure that dangerous voltages will not occur.
Connection of different VT/CVT circuits should therefor be avoid
ed to prevent equalizing currents in the secondary circuits during
primary earth faults.
The fusing can be done with diazed fuses or Miniature circuit

breakers (MCB:s). The tripping condition must be checked i.e. it
must be checked that the fuses/MCB will trip within a reasonable
time (e.g. 5 sec). This normally means that higher rated currents
than 6 A cannot be used.
Supervision
A fault can always occur even if the plant is well designed and
well constructed. When a fault occurs it’s of importance that the
fault is immediately detected and an alarm given to enable the
maintenance personal to quickly repair the fault. A fault in a me
tering circuit will mean incorrect metering, with loss of income as
a result. A fault in a protection circuit can mean one missing or
incorrect tripping which will lead to unnecessary disconnecting of
one or several objects.
The supervision of a voltage transformer secondary circuit can

be done according to Figure 5 if the circuit supplies metering
equipment. An occurring unsymmetry between the phases will
be detected and the relay can by that detect one or two phase
fuse failure.

Figure 5. Supervision of a voltage transformer circuit (for alarm purpose

only).
If a protection relay is supplied a supervision according to Figure

6 can be used. A differential voltage measuring is used where the
voltage of a main fuse, supplying the protection relay, and a pilot
fuse are compared. This principle will detect one, two or three
phase fuse failures.
Figure 6. Supervision of a Voltage transformer secondary circuit (for block

ing of protection).

Another solution used to detect fuse failures in some types of Dis
tance protection is to compare the occurrence of zero, or nega
tive, sequence voltage with the occurrence of zero, or negative,
sequence current. If only voltage occurs the problem is a blown
fuse. If both current and voltages occur there isn’t a fuse problem
but a primary earth fault. The drawback with this principle is that
it will only detect one and two phase fuse failures. However the
normal faults on a voltage transformer circuits are to earth and in
rare cases between two phases.
If MCB:s are used an auxiliary contact can be used to give alarm.

If Distance protection relays shall be blocked a special MCB with
low instantaneous level and a very fast auxiliary contact must be
used.
Cabling
Dedicated cables shall be used for the voltage transformer sec
ondary circuits. The cable shall be screened and earthed at both
ends to keep the disturbance voltages to low levels.
The secondary cabling must be dimensioned to:

- Ensure that fuse/MCB will operate, in a reasonable time, for a fault at the
far end of the cables.
- Keep the voltage drop, due to the burden, one level lower than the inac
curacies in the voltage transformer.
A special problem occurring in voltage transformer circuits if fus

es are used is the risk of back-feeding a faulty phase from the
healthy phases. This phenomena occurs when phase to phase
connected load exists. The phase with the blown fuse can reach

rather high voltage level. The level is decided by the load in the
different phases as indicated in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Back-feed of voltages to a faulty phase, when phase to phase load

exists.
2.3 AUXILIARY POWER DISTRIBUTION
The auxiliary power system has a very central role in a substa

tion. A fault in the battery system will mean that neither control
and protection equipment nor primary equipment can fulfil their
tasks. Often a complete station or a big part of a station is influ
ence by a main problem in the auxiliary power system.
At higher system voltages, two battery systems are mostly pro

vided to feed the local back-up protection, in redundant protec
tion systems.
At lower voltages this is not necessary as a protection system

with remote back-up normally is used. This means that faults can
be detected from another location as well.

The DC distribution ensures that protection relays which are pro
viding back-up to each other (e.g. outgoing feeder and transform
er protection) are fed from different main fuses in the battery
distribution. This will ensure that minimum possible part is tripped
at a primary fault even with a single failure in the fault clearing
chain, as in this case, in the battery system.
The supervision of a the auxiliary power supply is of utmost im

portance. The secured feeding of alarm circuits for DC problems
must be ensured.
A well designed supervision of the DC supply to an object should

supervise the feeding fuse, an open circuit and a blown
fuse/MCB in the sub distribution.
An example of a DC supervision is shown in Figure 8. It’s often a

good idea to include the contacts of the DC/DC converters in the
different protection relays in the supervision, so that a common
alarm is given when DC problems anywhere in the distribution
occurs.
Figure 8. Supervision of the DC supply to a protection panel, detecting faulty

supply fuse, open circuit and DC/DC converter failures.
Supply of different equipment

Varying principles are used in the auxiliary power supply of the
equipment.

An important principle is to limit the distribution of the auxiliary
power supply to the protection system as much as possible, and
to use only one supply to the protection of an object and the
breaker trip coil.
The limitation of the circuit distribution is done by feeding discon
nector, earthing switch operation circuits and enabling circuits
etc. from separate supplies.
The trip coil can in a system without redundant protection be sup
plied from the same supply as the protection relays and the trip
coil. A closing is then not possible if the voltage supply to trip isn’t
available.
To simplify the fault finding at earth faults in the DC supply system
a structured terminal system as shown in Figure 9 can be useful.
Figure 9. A terminal arrangement, enabling a simple localization of earth

faults and a simple design of the DC distribution to different panels and box
es.

The system includes a supply of marshalling boxes, control pan
els (and other panels) and internal distribution from different ter
minals, so that each circuit simply can be opened and checked
for e. g. bad insulation. The terminal numbering system utilized is
described later on.
To enable location of an earth fault, in a operation circuit, at a dis

connector/earthing switch, with two pole operation, a resistor
shall be connected across the contact at the negative side.
3. PROTECTION AND CONTROL EQUIPMENT
3.1 DESIGN OF PANELS
The panel design and construction shall be done following a

number of general guidelines:
- The layout are to follow the layout of the primary switchgear to avoid con
fusion.
- The panels should be clearly and visible labelled, so that objects located
in the panel is simply identified.
- The possibilities of future extensions should be kept in mind both in pan
el design and the location in the room etc.
- Maintenance should be simplified as much as possible and the design
should minimize the risk of mistakes such as testing the wrong object or
the need of making a lot of reconnections, to enable testing.
- Two object per panel, should be avoided but must be done out of cost
reason. The belongings of the object shall then clearly be labelled both
on front and inside the panel.
Terminals
The terminals are small but important components in a substa
tion. They should have possibility to simple connect and discon
nect measuring wires with a clearly visible indication.
A maximum of two cores are to be connected at each side of the

terminal and a mixture of single core and stranded wires should
be avoided.
At terminal numbering a clear structure should be used to im

prove the total quality. The design engineer will by that know
PROTECTION AND CONTROL EQUIPMENT

which terminal group to use for different types of circuits.
Different circuits in the panel can simply be separated. The work
shop testing and the site commissioning personnel will from the
numbering see what circuit type they are working with e.g. they
can simple differ a current circuit from a auxiliary supply circuit.
The terminal numbering system used by ABB Substations AB is

shown in Appendix 1.
The system used enables a clear separation of main and back-up

protection and gives an indication of interface and trip circuits
which is of importance for the service and maintenance.
The system is also made for connection of cables. Cable cores

are simple to erect as the connection of the different cores is in
the same group. Extra terminals for future use can also simply be
added with a prepared and correct number.
Trip circuit design

The trip circuits are together with the DC supply key parts of the
fault clearance chain.
Trip circuit supervision can be used to improve the dependability

of the circuit. The circuit from the relay panel to the circuit break
er, including the auxiliary contact of the breaker is supervised by
a small current (1-20 mA), fed through the circuit. Through a spe
cial circuit, with a resistor and an auxiliary contact at the breaker,
the circuit can be supervised also when the breaker is open.
A double supervision where a current measuring relay is con
nected both in the breaker circuit and across the relay can be
used when lock-out trip relays are used.

The arrangement of a trip circuit supervision is shown in Figure
10.
Figure 10. Arrangement of a trip circuit supervision.a) Single supervision,

b) Double supervision (with lock-out trip relays).
The trip coils of the circuit breaker normally have a power need
of 200-300W. A common requirement is that the contacts of the
trip relays are capable of breaking the current to the trip coils
even though there is an auxiliary contact in the breaker doing this.
This contact will however not operate at a breaker failure and
heavy duty contacts are therefor advantageous.
Busbar protection trip circuits.

Trip arrangements for busbar protection relays can be done in dif
ferent ways. The bus-principle as shown in Figure 11 is preferred,
as it gives a simple and clear technical solution, where Breaker

failure trip simple can be arranged to trip the busbar, without need
of extra auxiliary contact on the disconnectors.
Figure 11. A trip busbar arrangement, for busbar protection tripping, gives a
simple solution and allows the CBF trip to be connected without extra auxil
iary circuits on the disconnectors.
Lock out tripping.

Lock-out of circuit breaker closing should be initiated from protec
tion relays covering faults of permanent type. Lock-out relays are
reset manually, when the fault has been repaired. The best solu
tion is to open the close circuit only. A permanent signal in the trip
circuit only isn’t good as the breaker then can be unnecessary ini
tiated even though instantaneously retripped. A continuous trip
will also mean problems for trip circuit supervision and special
care need to be taken for this.
It should also be remembered that a Breaker trip coil cannot ac
cept more than a short trip pulse. Long pulses will destroy the trip
coils and this can happen e. g. when a Breaker has not stored en
ergy in the operating device and the trip relay is initiated, mostly
then during testing.
Lock-out should thus preferable be performed with self reset trip
relays and latching relays opening the closing circuit only.

Capacitive discharges.
Trip and important operation relays should be stable during the
capacitive discharges which can occur at an earth fault in the DC
system. The problem is shown in Figure 12. Special types of re
lays with a stabilization against this discharge are available.
Figure 12. An earth fault in the battery system, will give capacitive discharg
es, which can operate trip relays. Secured trip relays should be used when
the circuit is simply available e.g. in terminals.

4. SIGNALLING
4.1 FAULT SIGNALLING
At a fault in the primary network it’s of importance that the oper

ating personal receives information about fault type, whether the
fault is persistent or transient, what phases are involved and the
fault location so that correct actions can be taken.
At a fault in a the protection and control equipment it’s of great im

portance that the operating personal receives information about
the disturbances so that corrective actions can be taken.
These faults don’t normally mean disturbance for the system ser
vice but need to be repaired within a short time.
An alarm for a fault in the battery system like a lost battery charg
ing need to be fixed within 4-10 hours depending on the batteries
capacity so that the station is not left without protection and con
trol possibilities. A fault in the primary system would then cause
unnecessary large consequence, with damaged equipment and
disconnection of far to big parts of the network as a result.
Several different equipment types are used to give information

about primary and control equipment faults. Among them you’ll
find:
- Annunciator system
- Event recorder
- Disturbance recorder
- SCADA
One important part in order to achieve a high reliability and in or

der to follow up disturbances in the primary system and the be
havior of the protection system is the post fault analysis (see
Protection - General).
SIGNALLING

4.2 ANNUNCIATOR SYSTEM
The annunciator system will give the operating personal quick in
formation about a fault. At activation of an alarm point an audible
alarm is initiated. This alarm is locally switched off when the sta
tion is remotely controlled.
All faults are to be alarmed but grouping in suitable groups is

done to save cost and to simplify for the operator as too much in
formation will only be confusing when a quick decision have to be
taken.
4.3 EVENT RECORDER
The event recorders gives digital, time tagged, information about
all disturbances in the control system, as well as in the primary
system.
The sequence of events such as starting of measuring zones and
phase selection etc., can be followed with a resolution of some
ms which simplifies the follow up on a disturbance. This follow up
is performed later by experts at protection and control systems.
Information at the event recorder is just to a low extent used by
the operators.
4.4 DISTURBANCE RECORDER
The disturbance recorder gives information about the analogue

signals during a primary fault. A few digital event are also con
nected to get a time reference and a possibility to compare the
event recorder and disturbance recorders information.
The disturbance recorder starts when any protection relay starts

or trips. A pre-fault memory is included. The recording will there
by include information from just before the fault (0.1-0.5 seconds)
to up to after the fault has been cleared.
Today print-outs is on regular paper but there is also a possibility

to send the information in series form to a computer, as software
support today is available to most types of recorders.
SIGNALLING

4.5 REMOTE SIGNALLING.
Most stations in the world, are today remotely controlled, or pre
pared for remote control.
Locally available signals must be transmitted with high reliability
to the dispatch center and to the operators. This concerns signals
for faults in the primary system, as well as faults secondary in the
control system.
5. INTERLOCKING
The interlocking system will prevent human mistakes which can
lead to severe damages of equipment and/or injuries of persons.
With the development of today control system and the increasing
integration of circuits it is of greatest importance to always keep
the independence requirement between the operation circuits
and the interlocking circuits in mind. An equipment fault must not,
at the same time, cause an operation of a disconnector and an
enabling signal.
Independency does not necessary mean independent hardware
but the design of the circuit to achieve a highest possible reliabil
ity is important.
6. DOCUMENTATION
A big amount of documentation is necessary for each station in

order to enable service, maintenance, fault finding, purchasing of
spare parts and extensions of the station. The documentation is
the output of a process starting at contract signing and ending
with the Final acceptance.
The cost of design and documentation is about 20-30% of the to

tal cost of the control system.
INTERLOCKING

Documents for different categories
The documents produced are for varying categories of personal.
Erection, commissioning, maintenance and engineering depart
ments, have all different requirements and uses different docu
mentation in their work.
Documents groups
The documentation can be separated in three different parts:
- Operation and Maintenance manuals, gives information about operation
and maintenance of the station. General documents like Single-line di
agrams, Block diagrams and User’s manuals for products, are included
here.
- Electrical design contains Circuit diagram, apparatus list and intercon
nection tables etc., and gives detailed information to commissioning and
maintenance personal.
- Erection manuals includes information for mechanical construction such
as mounting information for panels and apparatus, mechanical draw
ings etc. The erection manuals are used by the erection personal.
It is of utmost importance that the documentation is kept updated

and that old versions are thrown away. An up-to-date set shall be
stored at the substation.
7. CONCLUSION
When a control system is designed it is important to see to the
goal with the substation and to check that the purpose with the
document produced is clear.
A reliable plant, with a high availability, shall be simple to operate
and maintain. Simple solutions are always preferred as mistakes
and misunderstandings during the different stages of the project
are prevented.
The documentation system has a key role as carrier of informa
tion between different departments during the different stages of
the project. A well structured organization where responsibilities
are known by all people is necessary to achieve a high quality
and reliable plant with high availability.
CONCLUSION

8. TERMINAL NUMBERING SYSTEM
8.1 RELAY PANEL, MAIN 1 PROTECTION
Function Type Terminal group

Current circuit
Core 1 I1 X11: 11-14
Core 2 I2 (other CT:s 21-24
Core 3 I3 are called 31-34
Core 4 I4 X111 etc.) 41-44
Voltage circuit
Distr 1 U1 X12: 11-19
Distr 2 U2 (other VT’s 21-29
Distr 3 U3 are called 31-39
Distr 4 U4 X112 etc. 41-49
Open delta 51-59
Auxiliary voltage
protection relays
DC distr R2+/- X13: 1-16
PLC sign X17: 1
Sub 1-Sub 2 Interface X18: 1
Trip outputs X19: 1

(incl CB fail, intertrip etc.)
TERMINAL NUMBERING SYSTEM

8.2 RELAY PANEL, MAIN 2 PROTECTION
Function Type Terminal group

Current circuit
Core 1 I1 X21: 11-14
Core 2 I2 (other CT:s 21-24
Core 3 I3 are called 31-34
Core 4 I4 X121 etc.) 41-44
Voltage circuit
Distr 1 U1 X22: 11-19
Distr 2 U2 21-29
Distr 3 U3 31-39
Distr 4 U4 41-49
Open delta 51-59
Auxiliary voltage
protection relays
DC distr R2+/- X23: 1-16
PLC sign X27: 1
Sub 1-Sub 2 Interface

X28: 1
Trip outputs
X29: 1-
(incl CB fail, intertrip etc.)

8.3 OTHER CIRCUITS
Control circuits
DC distr X31: 1-10
Other circuits 21
Annunciator circuits
DC distr X41: 1-10
Other circuits 21
SCADA circuits
DC distr X51: 1-10
Other circuits 21
Event recorder circuits

DC distr X61: 1-10
Other circuits 21
Fault Recorder circuits
DC distr X71: 1-10
Other circuits 21
DC Supply Main 1 (feeding MCB/fuse)
DC distr X91: 1-4
DC Supply Main 2 (feeding MCB/fuse)

DC distr X92: 1-4
AC Supply for Heaters Lighting etc.

AC distr X93: 1-10
Other circuits 21-


Setting of Protection
1. INTRODUCTION
The main function of the protection system is to isolate the mini
mum possible part of the power system at a fault or an abnormal
condition. This is achieved by selecting a protection system suit
able for the plant and object protected, and to set the protection
relays to suitable values. Suitable protection relays with incorrect
setting can cause severe disturbances of power supply and/or
unnecessary damage of equipment.
Faults occurring in the power system should always be detected
by two different protection relays to allow for a single failure. (Fus
es are “secure break points” and do thus not require back-up pro
tection). The protection relays are normally designated Main and
Back-up protection.
According to IEC it is the MAIN PROTECTION that is normally
expected to take the initiative in cases of a fault in the protected
zone. The BACK-UP PROTECTION is provided to act as a sub
stitute for the main protection in case of failure or inability of this
to perform its intended function.
The protection system shall, as mentioned before, be able to iso
late minimum possible part of the system. We can then introduce
the term SELECTIVITY.
SELECTIVE PROTECTION is a protection which determines
that the fault is within its zone and isolates that zone only. Selec
tive protection relays can be ABSOLUTE SELECTIVE or RELA-
TIVE SELECTIVE.
ABSOLUTE SELECTIVITY is when a protection responds only to
faults within its own zone.
Examples of ABSOLUTE SELECTIVE protection relays are:
Differential protection relays (Transformer-, Pilot wire-, Busbar
differential protection)
Buchholz and Transformer Temperature devices
Tank and frame leakage protection
Distance protection first- and accelerated- zone, where operating
area is decided by impedance setting protection relays for indi-
INTRODUCTION

vidual objects such as Reactor protection, Motor protection,
Shunt capacitor protection
As these protection relays only operates for faults within a certain
zone they are not required to be shown in the selectivity plan. Still
it can be advantageous to show them in the selectivity plan to get
the relation to other protection relays.
RELATIVE SELECTIVITY is when the selectivity is obtained by
grading the settings (i.e. time or current) of the protection relays
of several zones, all of which may respond to a given fault. These
protection relays can be either time or current selective or a mix
ture of both.
Examples of RELATIVE SELECTIVE protection relays are
- Distance protection back-up zones

- Overcurrent protection
- Earth-current protection
- Overload protection
-Voltage protection
For these protection relays selectivity plans are made as they op
erate for faults in a big part of the power system and disconnect
the faulty part only by grading of current, voltage and time setting.
Most types of faults initiate several protection relays in above
groups. For example, short circuits with earth connection can ini
tiate overcurrent protection, earth current protection, overload
protection, differential protection, negative sequence protection
and undervoltage protection dependent on fault location, type of
earthing and the protection system provided.
SELECTIVITY CHARACTERISTIC or SELECTIVITY PLAN.
Diagram or table showing the operating times and corresponding
actuating quantities or fault positions for the selective protection
relays of a network.
The purpose of the SELECTIVITY PLAN is to coordinate the re
lay settings so that:
- faulty equipment is tripped as fast as possible
- the least possible disturbance is obtained for healthy equipment
- a back-up protection is obtained if a main protection or its break
er fails to trip.
The selectivity plan is performed in similar way for short circuit

and earth-fault protection relays. In a solidly earthed system an
intercheck between earth-fault and short circuit protection's oper
ating times must be made as short circuit protection relays often
INTRODUCTION

will operate for earth-faults as well. It is then checked that a short
circuit protection, measuring phase component of fault current,
will not have shorter operating time than the earth-fault protection
at the same location, for an earth-fault.
of the protection relays of several zones, all of which may re
spond to a given fault. These protection relays can be either time
or current selective or a mixture of both.
Examples of RELATIVE SELECTIVE protection relays are
- Distance protection back-up zones

- Overcurrent protection
- Earth-current protection
- Overload protection
-Voltage protection
For these protection relays selectivity plans are made as they op
erate for faults in a big part of the power system and disconnect
the faulty part only by grading of current, voltage and time setting.
Most types of faults initiate several protection relays in above
groups. For example, short circuits with earth connection can ini
tiate overcurrent protection, earth current protection, overload
protection, differential protection, negative sequence protection
and undervoltage protection dependent on fault location, type of
earthing and the protection system provided.
SELECTIVITY CHARACTERISTIC or SELECTIVITY PLAN.
Diagram or table showing the operating times and corresponding
actuating quantities or fault positions for the selective protection
relays of a network.
The purpose of the SELECTIVITY PLAN is to coordinate the re
lay settings so that:
- faulty equipment is tripped as fast as possible
- the least possible disturbance is obtained for healthy equipment
- a back-up protection is obtained if a main protection or its break
er fails to trip.
The selectivity plan is performed in a similar way for short circuit
and earth-fault protection relays. In a solidly earthed system an
intercheck between earth-fault and short circuit protection relays
operating times must be made as short circuit protection relays
often will operate for earth-faults as well. It is then checked that a
short circuit protection, measuring phase component of fault cur-
INTRODUCTION

rent, will not have shorter operating time than the earth-fault pro
tection at the same location, for an earth-fault.
2. PROTECTION RELAYS SETTING
Absolute selective protection relays

Distance protection
Distance protection relays are set according to the setting in
struction for the specific protection. Below follows just a brief in
formation of the general principle of setting Distance protection
relays.
Distance protection relays use the impedance characteristic of
the transmission line to decide the distance to the fault. Due to in
accuracies in instrument transformers, relays, line data etc. the
protection is normally set to cover about 80% of the line on the
first instantaneous zone. Faults up to 80% from each line end is
thus instantaneously tripped by the close end relay. The central
60% of the line will be instantaneously tripped from both line
ends.
Figure 1. A Distance protection with impedance characteristic for a power

line.
On higher voltages where fast fault clearance is required from

stability point of view faults on the last 20% of the line are tripped
instantaneously by aid of communication with remote end.
The two sides can communicate through:
PROTECTION RELAYS SETTING

- Radio link
- Power line carrier (PLC)
- Pilot wires
- Optical fibre
Figure 2. The principle for Distance protection relays communication.
PLC is up to now by far the most common communication link but
during the 90’th the optical communication has started to be
come popular due to the possibility to send big amounts of infor
mation between the stations.
The two distance protection relays mainly communicate in two
different modes:
- Tripping (permissive) mode

- Blocking mode

In tripping mode instantaneous tripping is achieved by tripping
the circuit breaker as soon as acceleration signal is received from
remote end.
In blocking mode the accelerated step trips after a short time de
lay Tko to have time to check that no blocking signal is received.
When protection relays operate in blocking mode reverse looking
elements are added at both ends to send blocking signal for re
verse faults. Sometimes the blocking signal is sent for a criteria
-Fault (from undirectional element) but not forward. This can
mean that short unnecessary blocking pulses are sent for forward
faults due to differences in operating time for the undirectional
and the directional element. This can cause problems for relays
with true directional element reverse.
Line impedance.
Line positive sequence reactance is normally of size 0.32-0.4
ohms/km at 50 Hz for HV - MV lines. Line zero sequence reac
tance is approximately 3 times the positive sequence value. Line
positive sequence impedance angle is normally 70-85° and zero
sequence value slightly lower.
The impedance to be covered by Distance protection is the line
impedance up to the fault plus an additional arc resistance which
is approximately achieved from the following formula:
Rarc = 28700* (a+2*vt) / I1.4 Ω (Warrington Volume 2)
The arc voltage has a square wave form and is of size 1–2.5
kV/m. This can also be used to estimate an arc resistance as:
Rarc = 1 - 2.5 • a/ I
where
a is arc length (m)
v is wind speed (m/s)
t is arcing time (s)
I is fault current (A)
Both formulas give approximate, similar, values.
Arc voltage as function of current according to tests at ABB. Dif
ferent designations are tests at different occasions.

Figure 3. Distribution of arc voltage and current at many tests in ASEA.
Typical values for “a” (arc length) are:
72,5 kV 4.0 m
145 kV 5.0 m
245 kV 7.2 m
400 kV 12 m
Tower foot resistance.
In addition to the arc resistance a tower foot resistance exists.
The tower foot resistance depends on the soil resistivity, the ef
fectiveness of the tower earthing and possible available top lines
between the towers.
The primary impedance of the line is calculated to the secondary

side of instrument transformers by use of the formula: Zp = Up/Ip
Zs = Us/Is
Zs = Zp* (Us*Ip) /(Ip*Up)
where
Up/Us and Ip/Is is the voltage respectively the current transformer
ratio.

Distance protection principle.
The required reactance and resistance reach is achieved by, in
principle, two different characteristics available. These character
istics are “quadrilateral” and “mho” characteristics. It must be re
membered that Rarc is a loop resistance whereas the distance
protection relays measures the phase value.
When load is transferred on a power line with generation at both
ends, an angle difference will occur between the two sources.
This will give a current through the fault resistance which is not in
phase with the current measured at the two line ends and will
thus partly be measured as an additional reactance by the dis
tance protection.
The situation for a fault at far line end is indicated in below figure.
Figure 4. A fault at a remote station will due to infeed from other objects be
seen as much further off than it really is.

Figure 5. The Distance protection export end will overreach when a fault re
sistance is added in a double end infeed system. The import end will under
reach.
The importing end will measure a higher reactance and thus un
derreach and the exporting end will measure a lower reactance
and overreach. This must be compensated for, when a high resis
tive cover is required, with a decreased zone 1 E/F setting at ex
porting end.
For power lines in parallel on the same towers an additional prob
lem occurs due to mutual coupling between the two lines. The
mutual reactance can for an earth-fault be approximately 0.5 •
X0L whereas for a phase fault the value is just a few percent of
XlL. The mutual coupling can for earth-faults cause an overreach
of normally 5-15% and need to be compensated for in setting of
distance protection relays' earth-fault reach.
The second, third and possibly fourth zones are set with imped
ance and time to be selective to distance protection relays first,
second and third zones respectively in a remote station and to
the protection for other objects, e.g. transformers in remote sta
tion.

At setting the back-up zones consideration need to be given the
infeed of fault currents from other lines in the remote station and
the apparent increase of measured impedance. Distance protec
tion in station A will measure a higher voltage, and thus a higher
impedance U/I than only current would have caused. This means
that a remote back-up function is mostly difficult to achieve in a
HV meshed system and local back-up is thus necessary.
Differential protection relays
Differential protection relays are used for busbars, transformers
and feeders to give instantaneous primary protection of the ob
ject. Differential protection relays measure the difference in cur
rent and are thus absolute selective protection as they will only
respond to faults within a certain zone.
Examples of differential protection relays are:
- Busbar differential protection

- Transformer differential protection
- Transformer restricted earth-fault protection
- Optical line differential protection
- Pilot wire differential protection
These relays are set according to setting instructions for respec

tive relay. Below follows just a brief information of the principles
for the respective protection relay type.
Busbar differential protection RADSS and REB 103.

RADSS and REB 103 are medium impedance percentage re
straint relays which are normally set to the required value at de
livery.

Figure 6. RADSS/REB 103 operating principle for one phase.
RADSS setting is made by adjusting the so called slope, adjusted

on resistors Rs, which give the stability line of the protection and
the resistor Rd11 which gives the total resistance of the differen
tial circuit and thus the operation level of differential relay dR. Set
ting of these resistors give the operation value of the protection
together with setting of the separate start relay SR, provided to
give two separate conditions for tripping. The start relay is set
higher than maximum through load thus providing stability for
open CT circuits under load conditions. REB 103 has fixed set
tings of slope and Rd11 resistor due to the design ensuring that
the relay is always suitable for all switchgears and short circuit
levels.

Transformer differential protection
Transformer differential protection relays are percentage restraint
differential relays, where operation level is in percent of mea
sured current for external faults which gives a secure through
fault stability. This is a necessary requirement for transformer dif
ferential protection relays as normal differential currents occurs
due to tap changers (TC).
For internal faults the sensitivity will be in percent of the trans
former rated current.
The percentage setting of Transformer Differential relays shall be:
Max. TC error (from mid-end position) + Errors from CT and aux
CT + 15 (margin).
A high set unrestraint stage provides extremely fast tripping for
heavy internal faults. The unrestraint stage must be set above
maximum through fault current and above maximum inrush cur
rent. If inrush currents are not known the following table can be
used as a general guide.
Connection Rated power Energizing from

High voltage side
- <10 MVA 20 x
Yy 10-100 MVA 13 x
Yy >100 MVA 8x
Yd - 13 x
Dy <100 MVA 13 x
Dy >100 MVA 8x

Figure 7. The differential relay for a transformer needs to have phase angle
shift compensation and must have a percentage restraint to operate correct
ly for through faults as the tap changer percentage error will be increased at
through faults. Stabilization is achieved with a summation (I1 + I2)/2
Restricted earth-fault protection
As earth-fault protection on solidly earthed transformers a Re

stricted Earth Fault protection (REF) is often provided. ABB REF
type RADHD or SPAE 010 are high impedance protection, stabi
lized against maloperation by setting the operation voltage just
above the maximum achieved voltage during external faults with
one CT core fully saturated, which is the worst case. The principle
is simple and will thus give fast operating relays. However the
type can only be used for differential relays where the same ratio
is available for all involved CT’s.
A voltage dependent resistor is connected across the relay to lim
it overvoltages at internal faults as high voltages will be achieved
at internal faults as current transformers due to the high internal
resistance will immediately saturate with high CT output voltages
as a result.

The required voltage setting UR is selected as:
Figure 8. The connection and principle for a Restricted Earth Fault protec
tion (REF)
UR ~ IFmax (RCT + RL) where

IFmax is max through fault current at an external fault
RCT = Current transformer secondary resistance
RL = Maximum cable loop resistance seen from the summation
point
Calculated required voltage setting will give a primary sensitivity
Ip:
Ip = n • (Ir + Ires +∑Im) where
Ir = relay current is 20 mA +24° to +45° dependent

on the selected relay operating voltage
Ires= current through voltage dependent resistor MXA
Im= sum of magnetizing current to all CT's. Angle of magnetizing

current is -34° to -60° dependent on relay operation voltage, type
of CT and the core data.
n = current transformer ratio
Normally a restricted earthfault protection will get a sensitivity of
5-15% of transformer rated current with higher values (lower sen
sitivity) when lower CT ratios are provided as the influence of
magnetizing current is increasing.

Pilot wire differential protection.
ABB pilot wire differential protection type RADHL communicates
with remote end RADHL on a pair of pilot wires. The relay has a
fixed sensitivity for all types of faults, where the sensitivity differs
between fault types because of the summation transformer. An
other relay based on the same principle is SOLKOR Rf from Rey
rolle protection.
No setting is required for RADHL if no starting relays are provid
ed. The starting relays shall (when provided), with sufficient mar
gin, be set above maximum load current. If no starting relays are
provided the relay will operate for open or short circuited pilot
wires as the sensitivity will be below rated current in most phas
es. Due to the summation type input transformer the sensitivity
will vary with fault type.
3. RELATIVE SELECTIVE PROTECTION RE-

LAYS
Overcurrent relays
Overcurrent relays are used as Back-up protection for short cir
cuits and earth-faults for most types of objects. Overcurrent re
lays are relative selective protection relays where selectivity is
achieved by a grading of current and/or time setting.
Overcurrent relays can be current selective, time selective or cur
rent and time selective.
Current selectivity
Current selectivity means that two overcurrent relays are made
selective by grading of current setting, i.e. relay at A below is set
high enough not to detect faults at F3 or F4 which should be
tripped by the relay at B.
RELATIVE SELECTIVE PROTECTION RELAYS

Figure 9. Current selective relays at A and B.
In practice this method can only be used when impedance R1 +

jX1 is of a relatively high value and thus limits fault current much
more than the variation in source impedance. This is normally
only the case where transformers are involved and a high-set
stage with a well defined limited reach can be used.
For example an instantaneous high-set stage on relay at B above
would detect faults in F3 but not in F4. A low-set delayed stage
would then detect faults at F4 and further on in the system. Relay
A can then be set on a higher value than relay B instantaneous
stage and need thus only be time selective against relay B instan
taneous stage, as current selectivity is achieved between relay at
B and low set stage on relay at A.
Time selectivity
Time selectivity is used at many occasions to get selectivity be
tween independent time delayed current protection relays and
fuses.
Figure 10. A Fuse and time selective overcurrent protection.
For the simple radial power system above, fuse tB will blow first.
A time delay t1 of 150-250 ms is then required on relay B to allow
this to reset after the fuse blowout.
Relay at A must then be set selective to relay at B by setting a
time t2 which allows relay at A to reset for a fault successfully
cleared by relay at B. Required margins are discussed below.
Disadvantage with time selective protection is that times start
adding and back-up trip times will be very long for a fault between

A and B where fault current is highest as the fault is closest to the
source.
Current and time selectivity

lnverse type protection relays with Normal, Very or Extremely in
verse characteristic have operating time dependent of fault cur
rent. Inverse type protection relays are simultaneously time and
current selective.
Figure 11. Inverse time delayed relays are at the same time current and time
selective.
Such relays can decrease back-up tripping times in a system

since operation time is decreasing with increasing fault levels.
In a radial system as below where current selectivity cannot be
achieved between different relays, inverse type characteristics
will give an advantage as shown by the selectivity chart below.
Comparison of independent (definite) time-lag relays and inverse
time-lag relays:
Definite time-lag. Inverse time-lag.

Easy to apply Selectivity plan elaborate
Simple selectivity plan Distribution of load and fault currents affects the
tripping time.

Tripping time independent of Large variations in short circuit power may give
the actual short circuit power. long tripping time.
Good correspondence between tripping time and
short time current rating of primary equipment.
Short circuit protection

When overcurrent relays are used as short circuit protection, fol
lowing aspects must be considered at the setting.
Current settings shall:
- be high enough not to risk maloperation at maximum load cur
rents.
- be low enough to give secure operation at minimum fault current
(tripping requirement)
Generally one shall not use lower current setting than required to
detect the occurring fault currents as this will only increase the
risk of unnecessary operations.
Margin to load
When selecting current setting, sufficient margin must be given
for maximum load currents. The margin allows the current relay
to reset when fault is tripped by an other protection and only load
current is flowing again or after e.g. a transformer inrush or a mo
tor start. For modern static relays the reset ratio can be 90-98%
whereas for electromechanical relays the resetting ratio can be
70% or even less. This means that a setting of 1.3 times max load
can be sufficient for a static relay, whereas an electromechanical
relay requires a setting of 1.5 times max load. For H.V. side of
transformers setting should be 1.3 - 2 times load current for in
verse type protection relays and 3-5 times load current for definite
time delayed protection relays to prevent maloperation for trans
former inrush currents.

Margin to other protection relays
Figure 12. Setting of overcurrent relays must provide margin to maximum

load current.
Further to margin to load, a short circuit protection selective to a

short circuit protection in a remote station, may not detect faults
not detected by the protection in remote station. This means a
setting of I1, according to fig, to: I1set + I2set + I3set + I4set
where:
I2set > I3set >I4set
It should be noted in the above formula that the load currents

have a lower phase angle than fault currents, which can be used
to get a low set value when problem arises with sensitivity under
minimum conditions.
When directional protection relays are used, the directional ele
ment, normally with operation angle of 60° lagging, should be set
lower than 0.25-0.5 times the current relay setting, to ensure a
secure and quick operation of the directional element at opera
tion current of the protection. The directional relay should howev
er preferably not be operated during normal load.
The 60° characteristic achieved on ABB directional relays, when
used as short circuit protection, gives operation for other angles
Ø when:
I > Is/cos (60- Ø).

Figure 13. Directional short circuit protection, e. g. type RXPE 42 have
60-65° angle on characteristic for maximum sensitivity.
Instantaneous stage
An instantaneous stages can be used as short circuit protection
for passive loads as motors, reactors capacitors etc. with no or
limited outfeed of fault current. It can be also be used for trans
formers, where the impedance of the transformer gives a limita
tion of the fault current to a, for through faults, well defined value,
little dependent of the source variations.
Figure 14. For a transformer an instantaneous stage can be used as the im
pedance of the transformer will limit the fault current at a low voltage fault.
For the above transformer a low voltage fault will have a higher
fault power than:

An instantaneous protection can thus, with a margin, be set high
er than this, which means that the relay will detect faults inside
the transformer, but will never reach through the transformer.
Further factors to be considered at setting of instantaneous stage
for this transformer are:
- Transient overreach of current relay, i.e. overreach due to DC
component in fault current. This overreach can on modern relays
be of size 2-15% whereas for older electromechanical relays it
can be 10-30%. Transient overreach is defined as (1 -K)/K where
K = quotient between the operation value for symmetrical AC
component with fully developed DC component and the opera
tion value for symmetrical AC current without DC component.
- Differences in transformer short-circuit impedance due to tap
changer step. Impedance is normally given at mid-point and can
differ + 1-2% percentage units (or even more) at end taps. (Note
that given percentage impedance is valid for the voltage at re
spective tap).
- Maximum inrush current must be lower than selected setting.
After considering these factors the instantaneous stage is nor
mally set to cover maximum 80% of transformer and is thus a
complement to transformer differential and Buchholz protection
for internal faults.
Margin to minimum fault current (Tripping requirement)
Figure 15. The minimum fault current achieved for which the overcurrent re
lay is required to be back-up must be detected.
When setting is calculated according to above it has to be

checked that the minimum fault current, normally for a two phase
fault, is sufficient to operate the relay. A margin factor to minimum
fault current of at least 1.5 is required.

Consideration must be given to the fact that two different inde
pendent protection relays, operating on different circuit breakers,
shall be able to detect the fault. This means e.g. that a fault at the
far end of a distribution line or on the low voltage side of a trans
former in the remote station must be detected under minimum
fault current conditions.
This is often difficult to achieve, and compromises on selectivity
under maximum conditions might be necessary to ensure suffi
cient sensitivity under minimum condition.
The tripping requirement must always have priority, i.e. lack of se
lectivity is preferred compared to failure to trip.
Margin to equipment capacity

At primary short circuits the plant is exposed to heavy mechani
cal and thermal stresses. The mechanical stresses cannot be in
fluenced by the protection relays but the thermal stresses are
dependent upon fault time (time to fault clearance). Following ex
pression can be used
Ik2 • tk = I12 where
Ik = Acceptable short circuit current for time tk
I1 = short circuit capacity for time 1 sec.
Above formula can be used to calculate the thermal capacity for
fault times in range 0.5 - 5 sec.
When setting short circuit protection relays, back-up protection
tripping should be achieved before the thermal capacity of an ob
ject is exceeded.
Earth-fault protection
The earth-fault protection measures the residual sum of the
three-phase currents and will thus not measure any current dur
ing healthy condition. The setting of earth-fault protection relays
can thus be made independent of load currents. The current set
tings will be dependent of the power system earthing.
Solidly earthed system

In a solidly earthed system contributions to fault current is
achieved from all system earthings, i.e. normally all transformer
neutrals. Earth fault currents are normally not transferred to other
voltage levels as earth-fault currents, except when autotrans
formers are involved.

Directional earth-fault relays are often required to give a possibil
ity of achieving selectivity, but it can also be possible by using
protection relays with inverse-time characteristic and same set
ting on all objects. The faulty objects is then tripped first since
fault current always is bigger on faulty object than on the object
with the highest infeed.
Figure 16. The earth fault protection relays in a solidly earthed system.
Protection operation level is dependent on practises in each
country, - on requirement from telecom-systems - on requirement
from personnel safety (due to voltage on tower structures at
faults) etc. For voltages 100-400 kV the earth-fault currents re
quired to be detected can be in range 100-400 A whereas on low
er voltages the value can be as low as 50-100 A.
When power lines are not transposed the occurring unbalance
current in the system will cause problems for sensitive earth-fault
protection relays. Operating current should then be increased to
up to 70% of maximum load.
Low impedance earthed system

For low-ohmic earthed systems, where system earthing is a
zig-zag transformer with or without a low-ohmic resistor, or a
low-ohmic resistor directly in a transformer neutral, the fault cur
rent is generated from one point only and selectivity can be
achieved by grading the time settings of the earth-fault protection
relays at different locations.
Required current setting is normally 10 - 30% of achieved maxi
mum earth-fault currents and the same for all protection relays in
the system. A small increase of protection settings, moving to-

wards the source should be used to prevent random operation
due to differences in CT's and protection relays.
As a complement a stand-by earth-fault protection can be includ
ed in the zig-zag transformer neutral. This protection is set on the
continuous thermal capacity current of the zig-zag transformer
and on a very long time (20-30 sec.)
High-ohmic earthed system

High-ohmic earthed systems are earthed in the same way as
low-ohmic earthed systems but with a high-ohmic resistor in the
neutral. The resistor is normally selected to give fault currents of
5 - 25 A.
Current relays with definite time delay are used and selectivity is
achieved by time-grading. Required current setting is normally 10
- 30% of maximum earth-fault current and close to equal for all

relays throughout the system. Directional earth-fault relays, mea
suring the resistive component only, are often required due to in
feed of capacitive earth-fault current from healthy objects.
Time settings
The required time interval, for time selective protection relays,
with definite time delay, is decided as follows:
Relay A Operating time measuring relay A

+ Time lag relay operating time A
+ Auxiliary relay operating time A
+ Breaker A total breaking time
= Total fault clearance time for A
Relay B Total fault clearance time for A
- Time lag relay operating time B
+ Reset time measuring relay B
+ Retardation (overshoot) time, time lag relay B
- Impulse time for auxiliary relay B
+ Margin between A and B
= Required setting protection B
When inverse time-lag relays are used the situation is slightly

changed. The required time setting will then be:

Relay A Operating time for time-lag overcurrent relay (at maxi

mum fault current for which A and B relays must be
selective)
+ Auxiliary relay operating time A
+ Breaker A total breaking time
= Total fault clearance time for A
Relay B Total fault clearance time for A
- Retardation (overshoot) time for time-lag overcurrent
relay at B at maximum fault current for which relays
needs to be selective plus possible load from other
objects)
- Impulse time for auxiliary relay B
+ Margin between A and B
= Required setting protection B
For selectivity between inverse time-lag relays or fuses the selec

tivity has to be checked for all fault currents.
Special consideration has to be given maximum fault current con
ditions since tripping times then are shortest
Time margin between A and B should, for short circuit protection

relays, be 100 -150 ms to allow for errors and not risk any malop
eration. For earth fault protection relays, where CT's are residu
ally connected, the time margin should be increased to 150-200
ms due to the additional error caused by the summation of cur
rent transformers in the three phases.
Overload protection
Thermal overload protection relays are often used as protection
of objects such as motors, small transformers, generators and re
actors with relatively large time constants and risk of overheating
due to overload. Overload protection relays should be included in
the selectivity plan and are set to provide protection against ther
mal damage of protected object.
Proposed settings: Overload protection relays are set on 1.02 x

Object rated current (complying to 1.04*Thermal content) and set
with a thermal time constant not exceeding the thermal time con
stant of the protected object. If no temperature compensation is

provided, object time constant for highest surrounding tempera
ture must be considered.
Note: If shunt capacitors are included in e.g. a motor circuit, the
contribution of these capacitors must be considered when calcu
lating the nominal load current.
Voltage protection
Different types of voltage protection relays are used in a power
system.
Neutral point voltage protection is used as a back-up protection
for earth faults both on solidly, low-ohmic and high-ohmic earthed
systems. Open delta winding on voltage transformer is normally
selected to give 110 V secondary at a solid earth-fault. This is
achieved with a secondary VT voltage of 110 V for solidly earthed
system and 110/3 for high-ohmic and unearthed systems.
Normally a setting of 20V is used. When lower settings are used,
e.g. for generators (normally about 5 V) or SVS (Static Var Sys
tem), a third harmonic filter is mostly necessary to prevent mal
operation due to the in normal service occurring third harmonic
component.
Neutral point voltage protection cannot discriminate where on a
power system voltage the fault occurs and must thus be given a
time delay to allow earth-fault current protection relays to trip first.
Undervoltage protection relays can be used for different applica
tions
As undervoltage protection relays for busbars with synchronous
and/or asynchronous motors. Synchronous motors can at under
voltage quickly come out of synchronism and must thus quickly
be disconnected. Asynchronous motors will, after an undervolt
age of longer duration, at voltage recovery require new starting
currents which, if many motors are connected to the same bus
bar, can cause operation of current protection relays on higher
level in the selectivity plan. Thus asynchronous motors need to
be disconnected when long voltage drops occur.
Suitable settings
t = 0.15 s for synchronous motors
t = 0.4 s for asynchronous motors

As undervoltage protection on busbars with high priority loads,
where voltage protection will separate power systems and allow
high priority network to be undisturbed.
Suitable settings
U = 80% t = 0.4 s
Undervoltage protection relays need not be included in the selec
tivity plan but must of course be coordinated. Firstly, with the sys
tem voltage profile obtained in the voltage drop calculations, to
prevent tripping under conditions where the service can be main
tained. Secondly, to obtain a load shedding or sectionalizing in an
orderly manner.
No-voltage (Zero voltage) automatic is used to open the circuit
breakers at loss of voltage and thus prepare for system restora
tion after a disturbance. This automatic is set to operate after all
other protection relays.
Suitable setting:
U = 40% - 50%
and the protection must thus be given a time delay to allow
earth-fault current protection relays to trip first.
4. SELECTIVITY PLAN
Preparation
Necessary informations when starting to prepare the selectivity
plan are
- System diagram is needed to follow the distribution of fault and
load currents.
- Maximum short-circuit currents are needed to check the rating
of the relays. (It is very much needed to check the stability of ab
solute selective protection relays, e.g. differential protection re
lays.)
- Minimum short-circuit currents are needed to ensure that no
current relay is set too high to operate (tripping requirement) un
der minimum fault condition.
- Maximum service currents are needed to check that no protec
tion relays trip erroneously during permissible service conditions.
SELECTIVITY PLAN

The maximum service currents and their order and duration for
different objects can be:
Transformers: Inrush current about 5-20 • In during the first peri
od, decreasing 20% per period.
Motors: Starting current 1.5-8 • In lasting up to 25 seconds (dif
fers a lot depending on type of load).
Busbars: Reacceleration current to all supplied objects of the cur
rents (motors) after a net disturbance of short duration. Size and
duration can be obtained through voltage drop calculations.
- Relay characteristics are needed to decide upon the margins

between consecutive protection relays. The margins are influ
enced by protective relay accuracy, setting accuracy, tempera
ture range, auxiliary voltage variations, reset value and “point of
no return” for the relays.
- Breaker characteristics, especially the total breaking time, are
needed to calculate required margin between the consecutive
protection relays time setting.
Step by step instruction
1) Prepare yourself by assembling and calculating: single line di
agram, system rated data, fault powers/currents plus relay block
diagram and relay characteristics on log-log paper (50 mm scale
factor). Inrush currents for transformers, start currents for motors
etc. are also assembled as indicated under 3.1 above.
If different voltage levels are involved, which is normally the case,
it's advantageous to use MVA (kVA) instead of currents in the se
lectivity plan. After selecting MVA (kVA) setting for each relay the
setting is calculated to primary and secondary current for the ob
ject.
Use 50 mm scale factor log-diagrams, semi-transparent, for your
selectivity plan. When only definite time protection relays are
used semi-transparent paper and relay characteristics are not
needed.
2) Start with settings of overcurrent protection relays and then
calculate settings of earth-fault protection relays. Selectivity must
be checked for faults on all objects.
3) Indicate time and MVA (kVA) scale on semi-transparent paper.
Same time scale as on relay characteristics should preferably be
used.
4) Start with the object lowest in the selectivity chain, where the
highest setting is foreseen. Calculate current and time setting, or
select time constant (on inverse type relays), for the relative se-
SELECTIVITY PLAN

lective protection required to operate first for a fault on the object
where selectivity is checked. See section 2.2 for setting calcula
tion.
Figure 17. Set the first relay to 50 A by putting 50 A matching 1 on the relay
characteristic sheets.
5) Put the semi-transparent log-log paper over the selected relay
curve and check that 1 sec. fits to 1 sec. and that selected MVA
setting fits to 1 (set current/power) on the semi-transparent and
the relay characteristic paper respectively. Draw the selected re
lay characteristic on the semi-transparent paper.
Example of setting 50 MVA, k = 0.05 sec.
6) Calculate required current setting on next relay to operate ac
cording to instructions under section 2.2 and find a suitable time
setting by trying with different k values and checking time and
current margin for all fault currents. Doing this it is advantageous
to add information about maximum and minimum fault cur
rent/power at/through different objects on the semi-transparent
log-log paper.
Relay setting 150 MVA k = 0.1
SELECTIVITY PLAN

Figure 18. Set next relay to 150 A by putting 150 A matching 1 on the relay
characteristic sheets. Draw the required curve giving sufficient time margin
for all currents achieved.
7) Repeat the procedure for all further protection relays required
to be selective.
8) Check that the back-up tripping times does not exceed thermal
capacity of the objects
9) Repeat the same procedure for earth-fault relays.
Check for faults at different locations, that short-circuit protection
relays will not give shorter tripping times and thus disturb the se
lectivity for earth-faults. Doing this it must be remembered that an
earth-fault protection measures neutral current whereas
short-circuit protection measures phase currents.
Absolute selective protection relays in the selectivity plan

It can sometimes be advantageous to indicate instantaneous unit
protection relays in the selectivity plan to check that relative se
lective protection relays are not interfering.
A differential protection is simple to indicate as it will operate for
certain current levels only and provide a fixed operating time of
20-40 ms.
SELECTIVITY PLAN

Figure 19. A Differential relay can be indicated in the selectivity plan with
the operating time and a current range starting from maximum sensitivity.
An impedance protection is more difficult to indicate as the oper

ation is dependent of the quotient Z = U/I which means depen
dence of the power S = Un (ZS + ZL) where ZS is source
impedance and ZL is distance protection setting for each zone.
Un is rated line to line voltage. Representation of a distance pro
tection in a log-log diagram will be as below.
SELECTIVITY PLAN

Figure 20. A Distance protection with three stages can be indicated with the
time stages and impedance stages recalculated to MVA or current at nomi
nal voltage and possible some other voltage level as a range for each stage.
Special problems at setting of protection relays
Figure 21. A generating station with many infeeds to a fault on an outgoing

feeder.
It should be noted that for a system with many infeeds such as

H.V. grid systems, the currents through relays of different loca
tions can be quite different, which can give a situation like this.
In this case the same setting can be used on all relays with main
tained selectivity since current through faulty object always is big
gest. The same situation also appears for earth-current relays in
SELECTIVITY PLAN

solidly grounded systems with many grounding points. Also for
one of many generator feeders a similar situation occurs.
Figure 22. Similar settings can give selectivity due to differences in fault cur
rents at different locations.
SELECTIVITY PLAN

5. SETTING EXAMPLES
Setting of short circuit protection relays in a distribution network.

For a power system the settings of short circuit protection relays
shall be calculated. The network is a distribution network as
shown in below figure.
Figure 23. The selectivity plan must cover setting of all the protection relays
in the network.
Start to
1) assemble data
a) One-line diagram see fig.
b) Rated data see fig.
SETTING EXAMPLES

c) protection equipment. All relays are of type RXIDK 2H with
normal inverse characteristic. Recovery (Overtravel) time is < 80
ms. Directional relay is type RXPE 42 with definite time delay
0.2-3 s.
d) Calculate fault power at all locations. Max and min values are
required. See fig.
e) All breakers have tripping time 60 ms
Fuse is of type SHB. 100 A = 1.9 MVA
2) Draw 100 A fuse characteristic on the log-log paper.
3) Calculate setting of short circuit protection A. Check required
setting with achieved selectivity. Note that A protection is only re
quired to cover 11 kV faults as a fuse is a “secure break point”.
Fault clearance time of fuse is 10 ms. A setting 15 MVA k=0.05
gives selectivity. Time margin 140 ms at max fault current on 11
kV (t1).
4) Calculate required setting for relay B. Relay B must be selec
tive to relay A allowing for load on other objects on 11 kV busbar.
IB set ≥ IAset + ILOAD
Set = 20 MVA, k=0.15.
5) Calculate required setting of relay C.
Same setting of inverse type element can be used as for relay B
as transformer any way always is disconnected and on an
achieved selectivity will delay backup tripping 300-400 ms for
fault within transformer and for faults higher up in system. As
transformer is D/Y a phase to phase fault on low voltage side will
have only 0.866 p.u. of current when H.V side has 1.0 p.u. in one
phase and 0.5 p.u. in the other two phases. This must be com
pensated for by selecting a little higher setting. Set 25 MVA,
k=0.15.
6) Select setting of instantaneous element of relay C.
Maximum fault power fed through the transformer for a low volt
age fault will be 87 MVA. Select a setting of 120% of max current
plus margin for transient overreach. RXIDK 2H transient over
reach for instantaneous step is < 18%.
Set 1.2-1.18-87=125 MVA.
7) Select setting of relay D.
D must be given a current setting IsD>Isc+ILOAD
A setting ISD = 30 MVA gives a sufficient margin not to operate
SETTING EXAMPLES

during normal load, and also fulfils above requirement since fault
and load currents are not in phase, and as load transmitting pos
sibility is limited because the voltage has collapsed. A check with
different k values and setting 30 MVA shows that k = 0.2 is a suit
able value.
8) Select setting of relay E.
In this case relay E is required to be selective to relay D although
disconnecting the same line. Only the breaker closest to the fault
may trip as stations are unmanned with quite a distance between.
E relay is set to ISE = 34 MVA which gives margin for differences
in current transformers and relays. Time curve k=0.3 gives selec

tivity to relay D. Time margin 0.3 sec. with max fault current at sta
tion B.
9) Setting of relay F delayed stage.
Relay F shall be set on IFset ≥ IEset + ILOAD (other object) and >
1.4-1.5 • In for the transformer. Note that at maximum service two

transformers are connected in parallel. Fault current will also be
split up between two transformers at maximum service but at
minimum service only one transformer is feeding.
Set IFset = 60 MVA k=0.4 which gives a suitable curve.
10) Select setting of relay F instantaneous stage.
Instantaneous stage is set as under item 6.
Set IFInst = 1.2 -1.18*345 MVA = 490 MVA.
11) Set directional short circuit protection relays G. Protection G
are intended to operate for fault current fed from parallel trans
former for a fault in one transformer low voltage bay. Relays must
operate selective to relay F for all occurring fault current fed from
parallel transformer (Maximum 690/2 MVA)
Protection has an operating angle of 60° and can be set on rated
power of transformer or even below if required.
Set IGset = 40 MVA t = 0.4 sec. which gives time selectivity to pro
tection on high voltage side (F) for all fault currents.

12) Setting is now completed and all settings can be calculated
in current for the appropriate voltage level and then to secondary
current for setting of the relay. Minor adjustments might be nec
essary if settings are not steplessly. The required time margin be
tween selective relays is checked according to item 2.2.4.
Required time difference will be (simplified).
This is fulfilled for all steps.
SETTING EXAMPLES

Figure 24. The selectivity plan will have all relays in the network indicated
and the time margin must be checked for all selective relays. The sensitivity
for back-up protection to fulfil tripping criteria must also be checked.
SETTING EXAMPLES

Setting of short circuit protection relays in a generation net
work
To illustrate use of inverse type characteristics we shall set the
protection relays the net as shown on fig.
1) Assemble data.
a) One-line diagram see fig.
b) Rated data see fig.
c) protection equipment. All relays are type RXIDK 2H with “nor
mal inverse characteristic”. Recovery (overtravel) time < 80 ms
d) Calculate fault power for busbar fault.
Figure 25. The selectivity plan shows that selectivity is achieved with similar
settings due to the differences in fault currents.
SETTING EXAMPLES

Max and min value required. Min generation is 4 generators. e)
Breakers tripping time is 60 ms.
2) Draw selected settings of outgoing object on log-log paper.
Only highest setting need to be shown i.e. draw Al setting.
3) Max operating time for fault on outgoing feeder A1 is about
0.75 sec. i.e. min operating time on each generator must be high
er than 750 ms + C.B. (60 ms) + RXIDK recovery (80 ms) + mar
gin i.e. > 1.0 s.
Current setting on generator is set with margin to max load.
Select 52 MVA (1.3-In) k=0.2 which gives a suitable curve.
It is noted that although generator setting is lower than for outgo
ing feeders selectivity is still achieved because of the big differ
ence in fault current for each object compared to the total current.
Setting of Back-up earth fault protection relays in a transmission

network
RXIDG 2H inverse characteristic.
Back-up earth fault protection relays shall be set in system as
shown in figure.
1) Assemble data
a) One line diagram see fig.
b) protection equipment. All relays are ABB type RXIDG 2H with
specially designed inverse characteristic for back-up earth-fault
protection relays in a H.V. meshed system.
c) Calculate fault current contributions from the different objects
under different occurring service conditions.
d) Set RXIDG 2H operation level on required level for system lev
el. Select 120 A primary. Time curve is fixed and will always give
selectivity if biggest infeed is less than 80% of fault current on
faulty feeder. Inverse time characteristic has a definite min level
which is selected to allow for single-pole tripping and autoreclos
ing. Set this level to 1.2 sec.
SETTING EXAMPLES

Figure 26. The logaritmic inverse characteristic will give selectivity if the big
gest object fault current contribution is lower than 80% of the faulty object
fault current.
Final conclusion
The setting of time and current selective relays is a quite compli
cated task. The preparation is very important in order to make a
good selectivity plan. It must be remembered that a incorrect set
ting can cause big disturbances in the power network with high
costs (missing earnings) as a result. The work should thus be
performed carefully and the future should be predicted as far as
possible to ensure that selected settings are suitable also when
network is extended and changed.
Modern tools are today available to perform a selectivity plan, but
they must always be used with human control, where all results
are checked and confirmed by a experienced relay engineer, as
tools are never better than the programmer of the tool. The same
philosophy is adapted when using a tool as described above. The
tool is just taking away the need for semi-transparent paper and
the work of drawing the characteristic.
SETTING EXAMPLES

Sub-divided Systems
1. SUB-DIVIDED PROTECTION SYSTEMS.
WHY?
The single failure criteria can be fulfilled with a protection system

including back-up protection. The back-up protection must be
able to detect all primary faults detected by the primary protec
tion, primarily intended to clear the fault. There are two different
ways of arranging back-up protection:
Remote back-up is the common way of arranging back-up in a
distribution network. This means that the back-up protection is
available at another breaker. Remote back-up is normally
achieved by a time grading where the back-up protection is given
higher time setting than the primary protection.
Local back-up is used when remote back-up is difficult to achieve
or when time grading to achieve selectivity is not acceptable due
to thermal limits or network stability reasons. Local back-up
means that at the breaker location, a second protection relay de
tecting the same faults as the primary relay, is included. The two
systems are operating in parallel on the same breaker.
The principle with local back-up is mainly used in the HV trans
mission network where the fault current is fed from many different
directions.
When the local back-up is operating with same time and principle
as the primary protection, the protection system consists of re
dundant protection.
2. SUB-DIVIDED PROTECTION SYSTEMS.

HOW?
As mentioned above the task of the protection system is to clear

the primary faults and the abnormal service conditions. The total
fault clearance chain consists of different parts as shown in below
figure.
SUB-DIVIDED PROTECTION SYSTEMS. WHY?

Breaking Breaker Trip Cable
element mech coil
DC
supply
Cable
Meas Aux
relay relay
Cable
Figure 1. The different parts of the fault clearance chain
As noted the secured clearance of the fault includes correct be

havior of many different elements, none of which is allowed to fail.
All sections can thus be said to have the same importance which
puts stringent requirement on the plant design.
When remote back-up is used the fault clearance is secured with

two different breakers including protection relays capable of de
tecting same faults. The important care needed to be taken in
such cases is to ensure that the same DC supply, or at least bat
tery feeder, is not used for two protection relays where one is be
ing back-up to the other.
When local back-up, with or without redundant protection, is used

the fault clearance chain will normally be as shown in figure 3.
SUB-DIVIDED PROTECTION SYSTEMS. HOW?

Sub-divided Systems
Figure 2. Fault clearance chain at redundant protection systems
A common practices used at redundant systems is:

- Different cores are used on the instrument transformers.
Duplication of apparatus is very unusual due to the high cost involved
and the very good operating statistic.
- The circuit breakers are not duplicated of cost reason. However dupli
cated trip coils are used.
- The DC supply is separated as far as feasible.
For HV system the use of redundant batteries is common practices.
- Physical separation is performed as far as realistic.
Often cables are laid in different cable ducts.
As the circuit breakers are not duplicated, the failure of a breaker

to operate will mean that the fault is not cleared. In order to clear
the faults the surrounding breakers are then required to operate
instead. For applications where local back-up is required due to
failure of “remote” protection relays to detect the fault, a breaker
failure relay is thus essential. The breaker failure relay measures
the fault current still fed through the breaker after expected trip
ping and will then trip all surrounding circuit breakers.
An example of the protection system including redundant protec
tion, for a HV line, is shown in Enclosure 1 under Protection Line.

Instrument transformer circuits
The instrument transformers are normally not duplicated but only
provided with different cores for the two sub-systems. The redun
dant protection systems are connected to different cores and any
mixture, where one current transformer core is feeding both
sub-systems, should be avoided. This also includes feeding an
other type of protection e. g. the Busbar protection, when this is
included in the other sub-system, from the same core.
Any current loop feeding more than one panel should be avoided
due to the risk of open circuits at terminating point or in the ter
minal itself (specially when this has a disconnectable link).
Both sub systems are normally connected to the same CT con
nection box. Physical separation in different CT boxes is normally
not possible.
For voltage transformer circuits a common way is similarly to use

separate secondary windings for the two sub-systems. In some
cases two windings are not available and in such cases the cir
cuits should be separated on different fuse groups in the mar
shalling box. This is normally a fully acceptable solution due to
the high availability proven for voltage transformers.
Physical location in panels

- When sub-divided systems are used the physical location in panels of
the protection relays and of necessary auxiliary relays is of main impor
tance.
- The common practices on the highest voltages is to use different panels
for sub 1 and sub 2 equipment. The reason for physical split-up is to pre
vent problems due to e. g. cable fire or mechanical damage in a panel.
However in some cases where the sub-systems takes small
place it must be considered acceptable to put the equipment for
both sub-systems in the same panel.
The risk of cable fire or other mechanical damage which could in
fluence two systems in the same panel must be considered neg
ligible. Problems with mixture of circuits and mistake at erection,
commissioning or maintenance must be considered and steps
taken to ensure that this will not happen.

Sub-divided Systems
Two different objects in the same panel will give similar problems
and need careful split-up of the equipment both on panel front
and inside the panel to prevent service and maintenance person
nel from doing mistakes.
Figure 3 Figure 4
Figure 3. The front layout of a relay panel for a HV line where the sub
systems are with panel separation. The equipment included is as shown on
block diagram for a HV line, see Line protection section.
Figure 4. Arrangement of two sub-systems in a common panel.
From above follows that an important part at panel design is to

clearly indicate to which object the equipment belongs. When
sub-divided systems are used the sub-system belonging shall
also be clearly indicated. This includes clear separation of the
equipment and clear labelling of different sections, also on sepa
ration parts between sub-systems or objects. The separation
must also be performed inside the panel by physically separating
the terminal groups for the different equipment in the panel.

A terminal numbering system allowing for visibility of sub-system
and circuit belonging is then an important part to simplify and en
sure a correct design. ABB SUB/T has set up rules for terminal
numbering in sub-divided systems.
Please refer to Control System structure section for this number
ing system.
All equipment used in the protection system and also other aux
iliary relays connected to the same battery system, or fuse
groups, shall be grouped together and clearly labelled.
Remember to include the equipment for closing, interlocking etc.
which is located in the protection panel.
DC supply
The DC supply is one of the key parts at arranging back-up pro
tection both when local and remote back-up are used. Many trip
failures causing large equipment damage have been caused by
DC failures.
The principle which must be followed is to ensure that the Main
and the Back-up protection are not fed from the same DC supply.
The level of independence can be different. On the highest volt
age completely redundant systems are used which then includes
two separate batteries, two to three battery chargers etc.
For simpler applications it can normally be considered sufficient
to separate the battery main distribution in two sections and feed
the main and back-up protection from different sections or at
least different main fuses on the battery distribution.
A commonly used principle is to minimize the sub 2 DC distribu

tion as much as possible. Preferable it should only be used in re
lay panel and on breaker trip coil.
An example showing the design of a DC system with redundant

batteries is available in Appendix 1.

Sub-divided Systems
2.1 ARRANGEMENT OF TRIP CIRCUITS
Another main part of the protection system is the trip circuits.
A failure of the trip circuit will of course give a failure to trip the
breaker. As mentioned above the breaker itself is not duplicated
of cost reason and the only realistic means of improving depend
ability is to use two trip coils on the breaker. This will cover prob
lems with DC supply, the wiring or the coil but will not give any
advantage for mechanical problems.
Duplication of the trip coil is today possible on all EHV, HV and
MV circuit breakers and to a low cost.
Another mean of further improving dependability of the trip circuit
is to include trip circuit supervision relay/s. These can supervise
the circuit from the relay panel to the breaker and will detect open
circuit or loss of DC supply. The common principle used is to feed
a small current through the circuit. The current path will be broken
at open circuit or DC problems and an alarm is given.
It should be ensured that all wiring is included in the supervision.
Specially care must be taken when some trip contacts are provid
ed in a different panel which can happen for transformer bays or
generator bays.
2.2 EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION BETWEEN THE

TWO SUB-SYSTEMS
The main principle used when sub-divided systems are utilized is

to avoid exchange between the two systems. As far as possible
the systems shall operate completely independent of each other.
This gives the highest total security as problems at design, main
tenance etc. due to human or equipment failure are avoided.
In most cases however some signals are required to go to other

sub-system. The most common signals are:
- Start and block of auto-recloser.

Auto-recloser is normally not duplicated due to speed problems with two
units and due to the minor consequence a failure to auto-reclose will mean.
A number of signals will be required between the sub-systems to give au
to-reclose also when only the protection in the other sub-system operates.
- Start of Breaker failure protection
Similar to Auto-recloser the Breaker failure function (BFR) is not duplicated
in redundant systems. The reason for this is however completely different.
The Breaker failure function has extremely high requirements on the securi
ty against unnecessary trippings and duplication will mean an increased de
pendability but the security will decrease. As the risk of breaker failure
statistically is very low the security aspect is most important and the BFR
function is only provided in one of the systems, normally in the primary pro
tection system.
The exchange of information between the systems should be
handled with outermost care to prevent problems e. g. when
maintenance is done in one of the systems.
Interface relays should be put inside or on front on a preferable
separate labelled area in one of the panels only.
The terminals should also be clearly indicated inside the panel in
order to simplify the finding and opening of the correct terminals
when the sub-systems are to be separated.
Interface relays should be separately mounted and preferably in
sub 2 panel. This will limit the distribution of the sub 2 DC supply
as mentioned above.

Sub-divided Systems
Figure 5. Sub 1 -Sub 2 interface for a HV overhead line

An example of how an interface unit for sub 1-sub 2 interface can
be arranged for a HV line is shown in Figure 5. The example is
same as on Block diagram in Enclosure 1 to Protection Line sec
tion and on the panel layouts Figure 3 and 4. The terminal num
bering used is based on the standard terminal numbering
system, refer to section Control System Structure.
2.3 CABLING
A common requirement for sub-divided protection system is to
use different cable ways for the two systems.
Often this requirement is limited to e. g. use of different cable lad
ders in the same cable duct. The sub 1 and Sub 2 signals must
under all circumstances be in different cables.

2.4 ALARMING AND TESTING
The protection system is designed according to “single failure cri

teria”. This means that the “single failures” in the protection sys
tem must be discovered within a reasonable time. An alarming of
secondary system faults is thus of same importance as the
alarming of primary faults. The alarms must be connected to give
remote alarms as well.
Some faults are not detected by the supervision equipment. To
detect these faults regular system testing and post fault distur
bance analysis are of vital importance.
Testing and analyzing of protection system behavior gives a pos
sibility to detect “hidden faults” such as failure in some parts of a
protection relay or problems with selected settings or with the
used measuring principle.
A correctly performed alarming and regular testing of the protec
tion system will ensure that faults in the secondary circuits are
discovered and the fault clearance at an occurring primary fault
secured.
2.5 GENERAL ASPECTS ON SECURITY AND DE-

PENDABILITY
As mentioned the reason for redundant systems is to ensure the

local back-up i. e. secure fault clearance according to the “single
failure criteria”. This is fulfilled with the two independent systems
where one system can fail in any component of the fault clear
ance chain but the fault clearance is still secured.
Adding extra equipment and/or cross tripping etc. to cover even

more than a “single failure” should be avoided as the security and
the dependability are in opposition and an increased dependabil
ity will always lead to a decreased security.
More equipment, a more complicated and advanced protection

system, cross tripping, where protection relays in each systems
are connected to trip also in the other system, shall be strictly

Sub-divided Systems
avoided. The simple reason is that security is always lost and the
total reliability is dependent on both security and dependability.
Most unwanted trippings in sub-stations are proven to be depen

dent of human mistakes. A basic principle at protection system
design should thus be to design the protection system simplest
possible but fulfilling the single failure criteria.
The design shall be such that human mistakes are avoided and
this includes mistakes during all stages of a project from basic
design where guide-lines are set, through detailed design stage,
erection, commissioning and maintenance.
It must be remembered that the life-time total cost of a plant is to

a big part including cost for service and maintenance and also
cost for availability. The cost of an unnecessary tripping can be
much higher than the initial cost increase to include some extra
equipment. Unnecessary equipment and complications should
thus be avoided.

2.6 CONCLUSION
Means to ensure a reliable redundant protection system are:

- Limit the mixing of equipment from different objects or from different
sub-systems in the same panel. When mixing, clearly label the equip
ment on the front and also within the panel to indicate object or sub-sys
tem belonging.
- A standardized terminal numbering system simplifies design and mini
mizes mistakes at panel design and erection and commissioning.
- Avoid exchange of information between sub-systems as far as possible.
When signals between the sub-systems are required, indicate where
these circuits are located both on the front and inside the panel. A sep
arate terminal group should be used.
- Keep design as simple as possible. Do not include extra equipment to
cover more “if's”. Extra equipment can increase dependability but will al
ways mean a reduced security and thus a reduced reliability.
Appendix 1 A redundant battery system Block diagram

Sub-divided Systems


We hope you have found the content of interest and of use for your work.
The protection application is an area where primary system knowledge is of

vital importance and where the technology of the secondary equipment is
going through a very fast change with micro-processor technology giving
many advantages such as:
- Self Supervision minimizing your maintenance
- Internal intelligence allowing improved functions for service values check

ing, event listing and disturbance recording which gives a much improved
reliability of the protection system if correctly used for post-fault analysis.
- Few spare parts and thus low spare part cost due to the hardware plat
forms for each products where different software is provided to give the dif
ferent functions.
- Improved protection functionality where the numerical technic with possi

bilities to store pre-fault conditions etc. gives a possibility to improve the pro
tection functions.
BOOK No 6
Revision 0
PROTECTION
APPLICATION HANDBOOK
ABB Transmission and Distribution Management Ltd BU TS / Global LEC Support
BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations C/o ABB Switchgear AB
P. O. Box 8131 SE - 721 58 Västerås
CH - 8050 Zürich Sweden
Switzerland
ReklamCenter AB (99244) Printed in Sweden, ABB Support 1999-06

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BOOK No 6 Global Organization

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations

LEC Support Programme

Suggestions for improvement of this book

BU TS / Global LEC Support Programme

C/o ABB Switchgear AB

Telex 40490 abbsub s

Copyright © BU Tansmission Systems and Substations

2 BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

Welcome to the Protection Application Handbook in the series of booklets

The booklet covers most aspects of protection application based upon

The booklet gives a basic introduction to application of protection relays

The intention is to have the application as hardware independent as possi­

The different sections are as free standing sections as possible to simplify

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme 3

Control System structure 275

Protection settings 301

Sub divided systems 341

4 BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

For a long power line, symmetrical built and symmetrical loaded

The propagation of speed can be calculated according to:

Surge impedance is deﬁned as:

For lines without losses the above formulas become:

The values of “X” and “B” can approximately be calculated from

TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme 5

“H” is the phase conductors height over earth

“Rekv” is the phase conductor equivalent radius. To determine the

equivalent radius see ﬁg. 1.

The surge impedance is accordingly obtained as:

Figure 1. Different conductor conﬁgurations.

The equivalent radius Rekv will be:

where “n” is the number of conductors per phase.

TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

6 BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

Figure 2. Voltage distribution along a line.

1.2 POWER LINE AT NO LOAD, I2 = 0

It must also be considered that “U1” increases when the line is

TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme 7

“Qc” is the capacitive power generated by the line and

“Ssh.c.” is the short-circuit power of the network.

The capacitive power generated by the power line can be calcu­

1.3 POWER LINE SHORT-CIRCUITED, U2 = 0

1.4 POWER LINE AT LOAD

At “surge impedance” load “U2 = Zv I2” the reactive power pro­

If the active losses of the line is neglected the following conditions

TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

8 BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

In reality these conditions are modiﬁed a little due to the resis­

The “surge impedance load” is normally only considered for very

As a general guidance for “surge impedance load” you can as­

2. VOLTAGE DROP AND LOSSES IN POWER

Figure 3. Load transfer on a short line.

VOLTAGE DROP AND LOSSES IN POWER SYSTEMS.

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme 9

The impedance for short lines can be expressed as “Z=R+jX”,

is possible to make the approximation “E1 =E2+ a”.

VOLTAGE DROP AND LOSSES IN POWER SYSTEMS.

10 BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

The intention is to have the application as hardware independent as possi

The capacitive power generated by the power line can be calcu

At “surge impedance” load “U2 = Zv I2” the reactive power pro

In reality these conditions are modiﬁed a little due to the resis

As a general guidance for “surge impedance load” you can as

The differential equation becomes possible to solve if the trans

A power station feeds power to a strong network through two par

mXl (1-m)Xl This reactance can be igno

For successful auto-reclosing of lines longer than above it’s nec

The teaser reactors inductance is normally about 26% of the in

The major requirements on protection relays are speed, sensitiv

Speed means that a limited operating time of the relay is re