Computer science is the study of computation and information.

[1][2] Computer science deals

with theory of computation, algorithms, computational problems, and the design
of computer systems hardware, software, and applications.[3][4] Computer science addresses both
human-made and natural information processes, such
as communication, control, perception, learning, and intelligence, especially in human-
made computing systems and machines.[5][6][7]
Its fields can be divided into theoretical and practical disciplines. For example, computational
complexity theory describes the amount of resources required to solve computational problems,
while computer graphics and computational geometry emphasizes more specific
applications. Algorithmics have been called the heart of computer science.[8] Programming language
theory considers approaches to the description of computational processes, while software
engineering involves the use of programming languages and complex systems. Computer
architecture and computer engineering deals with construction of computer components and
computer-controlled equipment.[5][9] Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making
computers useful, usable, and accessible. Artificial intelligence aims to synthesize goal-orientated
processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, motion
planning, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. According to Peter Denning,
the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?"[10][5]
The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the
modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have
existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. Algorithms for
performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated
computing equipment.
Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623.[13] In
1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner.
[14]
 Leibniz may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other
reasons, documenting the binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched
the mechanical calculator industry[note 1] when he invented his simplified arithmometer, the first
calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office
environment. Charles Babbage started the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator,
his Difference Engine, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable
mechanical calculator, his Analytical Engine.[15] He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in
less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer".[16] "A
crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom"[16] making it
infinitely programmable.[note 2] In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical
Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute
the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically
tailored for implementation on a computer.[17] Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator,
which used punched cards to process statistical information; eventually his company became part
of IBM. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909
published [18] the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1937,
one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was
making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business[19] to develop his
giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine,
which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it
as "Babbage's dream come true".[20]
During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful computing machines such as
the Atanasoff–Berry computer and ENIAC, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather
than their human predecessors.[21] As it became clear that computers could be used for more than
just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in
general. In 1945, IBM founded the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia
University in New York City. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's
first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which
today operates research facilities around the world.[22] Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM
and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia
offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.[23] Computer science
began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[5][24] The
world's first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began
at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science department
in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.[25] Since practical computers became
available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a
scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic
population.[26][27] It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science
revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM
704[28] and later the IBM 709[29] computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of
such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating […] if you had misplaced as
much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the
whole process over again".[26] During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much
in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.[27]
The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John
Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs, built the first
working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947.[30][31] In 1953, the University of
Manchester built the first transistorized computer, called the Transistor Computer.[32] However,
early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-
production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.[33] The metal–oxide–
silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed
Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[34][35] It was the first truly compact transistor that could
be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[33] The MOSFET made it possible to
build high-density integrated circuit chips,[36][37] leading to what is known as the computer
revolution[38] or microcomputer revolution.[39]
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology.
[40]
 Modern society has seen a significant shift in the demographics which make use of computer
technology; usage has shifted from being mostly exclusive to experts and professionals, to a near-
ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of humanitarian aid
was needed for efficient use—in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption
became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage.