Additional practice problems about

countability and cardinality

Note that some of these problems are pretty hard, so you should not
necessarily expect them to have simple solutions.
Problem 0. Let S = {a + bi|a, b ∈ Z} ⊆ C.
Prove that S is countable.
Solution.
Since Z is countable, we know that Z × Z is also countable, see Theorem
2.3 in the handout on cardinality and countability.
Define a function f : Z×Z → S as f (a, b) = a+bi for (a, b) ∈ Z×Z. Then
f is a bijection, and, in particular, f is surjective Since Z × Z is countable, it
follows that S is countable (e.g. by part (4) of Theorem 2.3 in the handout
on cardinality and countability).

Problem 1/2. Let A, B, C be sets such that |A| < |B| and B ⊆ C.
Prove that |A| < |C|.
Solution.
Since |A| < |B|, it follows that there exists an injective function f : A →
B. Consider the inclusion function ι : B → C given by ι(b) = b for every
b ∈ B.
Put g = ι ◦ f : A → C, so that g(a) = f (a) for every a ∈ A. Then
g : A → C is injective and therefore |A| ≤ |C|.
We now need to show that |A| = 6 |C|. Suppose, on the contrary, that
|A| = |C|. Then there exists a bijection h : C → A. Put h0 = h|B : B → A,
so that h0 (b) = h(b) for every b ∈ B. Then h0 is injective and hence |B| ≤
|A|. On the other hand, |A| < |B|, and, in particular, |A| ≤ |B|. Thus
|A| ≤ |B|, |B| ≤ |A| and hence, by part (6) of Theorem 1.4 in the handout
on cardinality and countability, we have |A| = |B|. This contradicts the fact
that |A| < |B|.
Thus |A| 6= |C|. Since we already know that |A| ≤ |C|, it follows that
|A| < |C|.
Problem 1. Prove that if A and B are sets such that |A| = |B| then
|P (A)| = |P (B)|. Hint: Assuming that f : A → B is a bijection, construct
a bijection g : P (A) → P (B).
Solution.
Since |A| = |B|, there exists a bijection f : A → B. Define a function g :
P (A) → P (B) as follows. For every subset S ⊆ A put g(S) := {f (s)|s ∈ S}.
We claim that g : P (A) → P (B) [Find a formal argument justifying this
claim].
Therefore |P (A)| = |P (B)|.
Problem 2.
Prove that |R| = |A|, where A = Q ∪ (3, ∞).
Solution.
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Since A ⊆ R, we have |A| ≤ |R|.

Consider the function f : R → A defined as f (x) = 3 + ex for x ∈ R.
Then f is an injective function and hence |R| ≤ |A|. We already know that
|A| ≤ |R|.
Therefore, by part (6) of Theorem 1.4 in the handout on cardinality and
countability, we have |A| = |R|.
Problem 3.
(a) Construct an explicit bijection between [0, 1) and (0, 1).
(b) Construct an explicit bijection between [0, 1) and R.

Solution.
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(a) For every positive integer n ≥ 1 put xn = 2n , so that xn ∈ (0, 1) for
all n ≥ 1.
Define a function f : [0, 1) → (0, 1) as f (0) = x1 = 21 , f (xn ) = xn+1 for
n ≥ 1 and f (x) = x for x ∈ (0, 1) \ {x1 , x2 , . . . }.
Then f : [0, 1) → (0, 1) is a bijection.
(b) Note that the function y = tan x gives us a bijection between (−π/2, π/2)
and R, and that the function y = (2x − 1) π2 gives
a bijection between (0, 1)
π
and (−π/2, π/2). Therefore y = tan (2x − 1) 2 gives a bijection between
(0, 1) and R. Using the bijection f : [0, 1) → (0, 1) constructed in part (a)

we now get a bijection h : [0, 1) → R defined as h(x) = tan (2f (x) − 1) π2
for x ∈ [0, 1).
Problem 4. Show that the set Z[x] of all polynomials with integer coef-
ficients is countable.
Hint. Prove first that for every integer n ≥ 1 the set Pn of all of all
polynomials of degree ≤ n with integer coefficients is countable. Then use
the fact that the union of countably many countable sets is countable.
Solution.
Let n ≥ 1 be an integer. Define a function fn : Zn+1 → Pn given by:
f (a0 , a1 , . . . , an ) := a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ,
where (a0 , a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ Zn+1 . Since the set Zn+1 = Z
| × ·{z
· · × Z} is countable
n+1
and the function fn is surjective, it follows that Pn is countable.
We have
Z[x] = ∪n∈N Pn .
Thus Z[x] is a union of countably many countable sets, and therefore Z[x]
is countable.
Problem 5. A number α ∈ R is called an algebraic integer if there exists
a monic polynomial p(x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ∈ Z[x] of degree
n ≥ 1 such that p(α) = 0.
Prove that the set W of all algebraic integers is countable.
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Hint: Use the fact that the set of monic polynomials with integer coeffi-
cients is countable (this can be deduced from the result of Problem 4) and
that every such polynomial has only finitely many roots in R.
Solution.
For each monic polynomial p(x) ∈ Z[x] denote by Rp(x) := {r ∈ R|p(r) =
0}, so that Rp(x) is the set of all real roots of p(x). Note that |Rp(x) | ≤
deg p(x) < ∞, so that the set Rp(x) is finite and therefore countable.
Denote by M the set of all monic p(x) ∈ Z[x]. Since Z[x] is countable
by the result of Problem 4 above, and since M ⊆ Z[x], it follows that M is
countable.
We have

W = ∪p(x)∈M Rp(x)
so that W is a union of countably many countable sets, and therefore W is
countable.
Problem 6. Prove that if X is an infinite set and x0 ∈ X then |X| =
|X − {x0 }|.
Solution.
Since X is infinite, there exists an infinite sequence of distinct elements
x1 , x2 , x3 . . . , xn , . . . of X such that we also have x0 6= xn for all n ≥ 1.
Define a function f : X → X − {x0 } as follows:

f (xn ) = xn+1 for all n ≥ 0

f (x) = x for x ∈ X − {x0 , x1 , x2 . . . }.
Then f is a bijection, and therefore |X| = |X − {x0 }|.
Problem 7.
For a set X denote by F (X, Z) the set of all functions from X to Z.
Prove that for every set X we have |X| < |F (X, Z)|.
Hint. Construct an injective function P (X) → F (X, Z) and use the fact
that |X| < |P (X)|.
Solution.
For every S ⊆ X define a function χS : X → Z as χS (x) = 1 if x ∈ S and
χS (x) = 0 if x 6∈ S.
Now define a function
h : P (X) → F (X, Z)
as h(S) := χS for S ∈ P (X).
By construction the function h is injective. Therefore |P (X)| ≤ |F (X, Z)|.
On the other hand we know that |X| < |P (X)|. Therefore (e.g. by the result
of Problem 1/2 above), we have |X| < |F (X, Z)|.
Problem 8.
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Prove that the set of all circles in R2 with center p = (x, y) and radius
r, such that r > 0 is a positive rational number and such that x, y ∈ Z, is
countable.
Solution.
Let X be the set of all circles in R2 with center p = (x, y) and radius r,
such that r > 0 is a positive rational number and such that x, y ∈ Z.
For each p = (x, y) ∈ Z and r > 0 denote by C(p, r) the circle of radius r
with center p.
For each p ∈ Z let Sp := {C(p, r)|r ∈ Q, r > 0}. Since we already know
that Q is countable and since {r ∈ Q|r > 0} ⊆ Q, it follows that {r ∈ Q|r >
0} is countable. For each p ∈ Z × Z the map g : {r ∈ Q|r > 0} → Sp ,
g(r) = C(p, r), is a bijection, and therefore Sp is countable.
The set Z × Z is countable. Now
X = ∪p∈Z×Z Sp ,
so that X is a union of countably many countable sets, and therefore X is
countable.
Problem 9.
For each number x ∈ (0, 1) fix a decimal representation of x = 0.a1 (x)a2 (x) . . . an (x) . . .
such that ai (x) ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9} and such that this decimal expression does
not terminate in an infinite string of the digit 9.
(a) Consider the function f : (0, 1) × (0, 1) → (0, 1) given by the formula
f (x, y) = 0.a1 (x)a1 (y)a2 (x)a2 (y)a3 (x)a3 (y) . . .
where x, y ∈ (0, 1).
Prove that f is injective.
(b) Use the result of (a) to conclude that |(0, 1)| = |(0, 1) × (0, 1)|.
Solution.
(a) Note that every real number admits a unit decimal expansion that
does not end an infinite string of 9s.
Suppose (x, y), (x0 , y 0 ) ∈ (0, 1) × (0, 1) are such that f (x, y) = f (x0 , y 0 ).
Then
0.a1 (x)a1 (y)a2 (x)a2 (y)a3 (x)a3 (y) · · · =
0.a1 (x0 )a1 (y 0 )a2 (x0 )a2 (y 0 )a3 (x0 )a3 (y 0 ) . . .
where the above equality is the equality of real numbers. By construction,
neither 0.a1 (x)a1 (y)a2 (x)a2 (y)a3 (x)a3 (y) . . . nor 0.a1 (x0 )a1 (y 0 )a2 (x0 )a2 (y 0 )a3 (x0 )a3 (y 0 ) . . .
ends in an infinite strings of 9s. Since these two decimal expansions rep-
resent the same real number, if follows that these decimal expansions are
equal digit-by-digit. Thus a1 (x) = a1 (x0 ), a1 (y) = a1 (y 0 ), a2 (x) = a2 (x0 ),
a2 (y) = a2 (y 0 ), and so on. Therefore for every n ≥ 1 we have an (x) = an (x0 )
and an (y) = an (y 0 ). Hence x = x0 , and y = y 0 , so that (x, y) = (x0 , y 0 ). Thus
f (x, y) = f (x0 , y 0 ) implies (x, y) = (x0 , y 0 ), so that the function f is injective.
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(b) Since by (a) there exists an injective function f : (0, 1)×(0, 1) → (0, 1),
we have |0, 1) × (0, 1)| ≤ |(0, 1)|.
Consider the map j : (0, 1) → (0, 1) × (0, 1) given by j(x) = (x, 1/2).
The map j is injective and therefore |(0, 1)| ≤ |0, 1) × (0, 1)|. Together with
|0, 1) × (0, 1)| ≤ |(0, 1)|, this fact implies that |(0, 1)| = |(0, 1) × (0, 1)|.
Problem 10.
Prove that if A and B are sets such that A ∩ B = ∅ and |A| = |R| and
|B| = |R| then |A ∪ B| = |R|.
Solution.
By assumption, |A| = |R| and |B| = |R|, and hence there exist bijective
functions f : R → A and g : R → B.
The function h1 : (−∞, 0) → R, given by h1 (x) = log(−x), is a bijection.
Similarly, the function h2 : (0, ∞) → R given by h2 (x) = log x, is a bijection.
Since the set [0, ∞) is infinite, the result of Problem 6 above implies that
|[0, ∞)| = |(0, ∞)|. Hence there exists a bijection τ : [0, ∞) → (0, ∞), so
that h2 ◦ τ : [0, ∞) → R is a bijection.
We have R = (−∞, 0) ∪ [0, ∞).
Now define a function F : R → A ∪ B as
(
f (h1 (x)) if x ∈ (−∞, 0)
F (x) =
g(h2 (τ (x))) if x ∈ [0, ∞)
By construction F : R → A ∪ B is a bijection, and therefore |A ∪ B| = |R|.
Problem 11.
Prove that if B is a countable set then |R ∪ B| = |R|.
Hint: For simplicity assume first that R∩B = ∅ and that B is countably
infinite, and construct a bijection f : R ∪ B → R such that f (x) = x for
every x ∈ R \ N and that f (B ∪ N) = N.
Solution.
Since B is countable and N is countable, it follows that B ∪ N is countable
(and infinite). Hence there exists a bijection h : N → B ∪ N.
Define a function f : R → R∪B as f (x) = x for x ∈ R\N, and f (x) = h(x)
for x ∈ N.
Then f : R → R ∪ B is a bijection, and therefore |R ∪ B| = |R|.