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Course: Educational Research

Code: 837
Level: M.A/M/ED
Assignment N0 01
Q.1 critically examine the data collection process

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Collecting data Process
An organization is considering whether to collect data on its own or get help from an external
consultant, it will need to have enough information to make an informed decision about how to
proceed.

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This section outlines some of the key considerations that may arise during various steps in the

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data collection process. There is no requirement that these steps be followed or pursued in the
order that they are written. The model presented is offered as a reference tool. How data is

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gathered and analyzed depends on many factors, including the context, the issue that needs to be

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monitored, the purpose of the data collection, and the nature and size of the organization.
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The main consideration is to make sure that any information collected is done in a way and for a
purpose that is consistent with the Code and complies with freedom of information and privacy
protection legislation. In the interest of effectiveness and efficiency, it is recommended that
efforts be made to collect data that will shed light on issues or opportunities. To protect the
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credibility and reliability of data, information should be gathered using accepted data collection
techniques.
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Step 1: Identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data
The first step is to identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data and to decide what next
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steps to take. To do this, it may be helpful to conduct an internal and external assessment to
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understand what is happening inside and outside of your organization.

Some organizations, like FCP and Legislated Employment Equity Plan employers, are given
specific direction on what issues should be explored and how data must be collected. Other
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organizations may have more flexibility to decide when and how to collect information to
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achieve certain goals. Some of the non-exhaustive questions identified below may apply to a
diverse range of organizations and audiences, including employees and service users. Depending
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on the organization, these questions may be considered at Step 1, or at different stages in a data
collection process.
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Conduct a review of all policies, practices and procedures applicable to employees, service users or
another appropriate audience:
• Does the organization have human resources and human rights policies, practices and procedures
that are accessible to all employees or to the people they serve?
• Does the organization have clear, transparent and fair complaint procedures in place to deal with
allegations of discrimination, harassment or systemic barriers?
• Have any claims, grievances or allegations been made or received relating to discrimination,
harassment or systemic barriers?

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• Do any signal barriers to persons protected under the Code and/or other individuals/groups in
society based on a non-Code ground?
• Have any been dealt with appropriately and in accordance with existing polices, practices and
procedures?
Example: The review in Step 1 may have identified the following issues and/or opportunities for
collecting data:
• Positive public feedback received about a pilot community policing project in high-crime

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neighborhoods
• Unclear and inconsistent human rights policies and procedures in place to address sexual
harassment.
Top 2: Select issue(s) and/or opportunity (is) and set goals

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The focus of Step 2 is choosing a priority issue(s) and/or opportunity (is) for collecting data, and
then setting goals and objectives.

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The organization reviews the issues and/or opportunities identified from the internal and external
assessment done in Step 1, and picks one or more specific issues and/or opportunities for starting

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a data collection project from among the list of priorities. Some of the questions an organization
can consider when deciding to prioritize an issue and/or opportunity for gathering data include:
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• Is there a fundamental reason or opportunity to collect data from which other issues and/or
opportunities seem to arise?
Example: An aging taxpayer base provides a government body with a pressing reason to collect
data on this group’s projected size, needs and revenue base. This changing demographic also
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presents an opportunity for the government body to ensure that it is proactively developing
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policies, programs and services that are accessible and appropriate to meet the needs and
concerns of these taxpayers.
• Did the internal and external assessment of the organization in Step 1 reveal any critical gaps or
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trends that are apparent in the organization, industry/sector or similar organizations?
• Is there one particular area that has drawn positive/negative media attention or been subject to
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multiple complaints, internal rumors and concerns?

• Does there seem to be a greater diversity or lack of diversity in one area compared to others?
Goal-setting
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While the organization may intend to collect data relating to multiple issues and/or opportunities
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at the same time, the next steps, including goal-setting, should be individualized for each issue
and/or opportunity.
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The specific goal(s) defined for each issue and/or opportunity may depend on a hypothesis or
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guess about what is happening that can be tested using data collection techniques and analysis.

Example: A downtown Toronto hotel receives complaints from guests, who self-identify as
being gay, about the unwelcome treatment they received from staff. A hypothesis might be that
hotel staff lack sufficient awareness and training about how to deal respectfully with guests who
are gay, or are perceived to be from the larger LGBT community. The goal is to get enough
evidence to test this hypothesis.
Step 2 can also involve an organization brainstorming a smaller set of questions that may be
answered by collecting data. Rather than asking a general question like, “Is there any evidence of

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discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity in this hotel?” one might ask,
“What percentage of hotel guests self-identify as being part of the LGBT community?” and
“What are the perceptions of the service received by self-identified LGBT patrons?” Ultimately,
data that is collected should be rationally connected to the goals set and the overall purpose for
collecting the data.

Step 3: Plan an approach and methods

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In Step 3, organizations will make decisions about who will be surveyed, how data will be
collected, the sources of data that will be used, and the duration of the data collection project,
among other questions. These decisions may be made in consultation with an expert. The
methods and approaches will flow from the goals set in Step 2, and will vary significantly
depending on a number of factors, including the organization’s context, size, resources, and the

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purpose and complexity of the issue(s) or opportunity(is) selected.

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Some of the questions to consider at this stage include:

Who will the data be collected about?

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The “group of interest” (e.g. youth service users of a local community centre who cannot read
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and speak English as a second language) will be the focus of the study, and the data collection
methods used will refer to this group, or the persons within it, depending on the goals of the
project.

Understanding discrimination
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• When thinking about who the data will be collected about, it is important to consider who you
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think will be most affected by, for example, the discrimination or inequities that you wish to
measure. Is it a broad category (e.g. all service users who cannot read), or a sub-set of that
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category (e.g. youth service users who cannot read)? The italicized words refer to a unique
characteristic about a broader group that an organization may wish to gather information about.
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• Depending on factors like the goals of the data collection project, the organization’s size,
resources and time, data may be gathered about many sub-sets within a broader group of interest
(e.g. youth service users who cannot read and who speak English as a second language).
• Collecting data about a group of interest that shares characteristics, based on several Code or
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non-Code grounds, can help an organization understand the behaviour, perceptions, values and
demographic makeup of services users and other subjects of interest. Generally speaking,
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gathering data that reflects more than one Code and/or non-Code ground can allow for richer,
nuanced information and more complex analysis.
• It is important to recognize that based on their unique combination of identities, people may be
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exposed to particular forms of discrimination. Multiple forms of discrimination can intersect and
compound to form a unique experience of discrimination. This perspective is referred to as an
“intersectional” analysis of discrimination.
Example: A South Asian male youth service user, who cannot read and speaks limited English,
may face discrimination on any of the grounds of age, race, colour, ancestry, ethnic origin, place
of origin, gender, disability or perceived disability (e.g. could be seen as having a learning
disability). However, he may also be exposed to discrimination on intersecting grounds based on
being identified as a “young, illiterate Indian male from a foreign country,” based on the various

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assumptions or stereotypes that are uniquely associated with this socially significant interaction
of multiple identity factors.
Step 4: Collect data
When planning on how best to collect data in Step 4, it is important to be aware of the practical
considerations and best practices for addressing logistical challenges organizations often face at
this stage of the process. Implementing a data collection plan requires attention to matters such
as:

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• Getting buy-in from senior leadership and key stakeholders, in or outside of the organization.
This group could include boards of directors, management committees, union representatives,
employees, community groups, tenants, customers and service users.

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• Establishing a steering committee or selecting a person(s) to be consulted and held accountable
for all major decisions about the data collection process, such as design, logistics,

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communication management, coordination and finances.

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• Determining who will collect the data (e.g., experts or trained employees).
• Identifying the logistics, resources, technology and people needed to develop and implement a

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data collection initiative.
• Anticipating and addressing key stakeholder concerns and questions about the project.
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• Designing a communication and consultation strategy that will explain the data collection
initiative and encourage the highest possible participation rate.
• Protecting privacy and personal information by using carefully controlled procedures for
collecting, storing and accessing data that comply with privacy, human rights and other
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legislation. Dignity and confidentiality must be respected.

• Minimizing the impact and inconvenience for the people affected in the workplace or service
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environment, which includes choosing the best time to collect the data.
• Aiming for flexibility to allow for changes without great expense or inconvenience.
•
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Considering a test period or a pilot phase to allow you to improve and modify data collection
methods, as may be needed.
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Step 5: Analyze and interpret data

Step 5 involves analyzing and interpreting the data collected. Whether quantitative and/or
qualitative methods of gathering data are used, the analysis can be complex, or less so,
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depending on the methods used and the amount of data collected.

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Explaining the technical steps involved in analyzing and interpreting data is beyond the scope of
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this guide. An organization will have to determine whether it has the internal capacity and
expertise to analyze and interpret data itself, or whether it will need the help of an external
consultant.
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A smaller organization that has basic data collection needs may be able to rely on internal
expertise and existing resources to interpret the meaning of gathered data.

Example: An organization with 50 employees wants to find out if it has enough women working
in management positions, and if there are barriers to equal opportunity and advancement. The
organization counts the number of female employees it has (25), and determines how many of
these employees are working in supervisory and management positions (two). A few motivated

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employees identify some issues of concern, like gender discrimination, that may have broader
implications for the organization as a whole.
After deciding to do an internal and external assessment (Step 1), and gather qualitative data
using focus groups and interviews with current and past employees, senior leadership decides
that barriers exist for women in the organization’s recruitment, hiring, promotion and human
resources policies, processes and practices. Efforts are made to work with female employees,
human resources and other staff to address these barriers. The organization makes a commitment

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to foster a more equitable, inclusive work environment for all employees.

Step 6: Act on results

Once an organization has analyzed and interpreted the results of the data collected, it may decide
to act on the data, collect more of the same type of data or modify its approach.

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Quantitative and qualitative information can provide a solid basis for creating an effective action

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plan designed to achieve strategic organizational human resources, human rights, equity and
diversity goals identified through the data collection process. If an organization feels it has
enough information to develop an action plan, it should consider including the following

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elements:
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• a summary of the results of the analysis and interpretation of the data
• identification of the barriers, gaps and opportunities that exist or may exist for Code-protected
persons and other individuals/groups based on non-Code grounds
• steps that will be taken to address these barriers, gaps or opportunities now and in the future
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• realistic, attainable goals with short-term and longer-term timelines

• input sought from stakeholders and affected communities
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• How progress in meeting these goals will be monitored, evaluated and reported.
In some cases, an organization may decide that it needs to collect more information because
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there are gaps in the data collected, or areas where the data is unclear or inconclusive. This may
prompt them to conduct a more detailed internal and external assessment (go back to Step 1) or
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try another approach.

In the end, there is no one or “right way” to conduct a data collection initiative. The experiences
of Mount Sinai Hospital, KPMG Canada, the Keewatin-Patricia District School Board, TD Bank
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Financial Group, the University of Guelph and the Diverse City Counts project and featured in
the Appendices reflect this statement, yet also show some similarities in terms of the best
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practices and lessons learned.

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Q.2 critically examine the usefulness of review of Litrature in search.

A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.
Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a
larger field of study.

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Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a
literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and
synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of the important
information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that
information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The
analytical features of a literature review might:

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• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
pertinent or relevant research, or

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• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a
problem has been researched to date.

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The purpose of a literature review is to:

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• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
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being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
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• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.

• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
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• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].
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Types of Literature Reviews
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It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are
the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies
that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary
studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared
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informally that become part of the lore of field.

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In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of
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knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary
studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to
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provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of
approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.
Types of Literature Reviews
Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The
purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the
value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration

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control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important
form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are
used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on

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a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are
generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses
or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary
research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in

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the social sciences.
Historical Review

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Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on
examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue,

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concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the
scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show
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familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future
research.
Methodological Review
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A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about
saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework
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of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches,
and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of
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knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the
areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration,
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sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical
issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.
Systematic Review
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This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research
question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise
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relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the
review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all
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of the research about a clearly defined research problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific
empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A
contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research
studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social
sciences.
Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an
issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what

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theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help
establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for
explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical
concept or a whole theory or framework.
The structure of a literature review should include the following:

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• An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review,
• Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a
particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],

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• An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and

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development of their area of research.

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The critical evaluation of each work should consider:
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• Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by
evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, and recent
scientific findings]?
• Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data
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appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the
results effectively interpreted and reported?
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• Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data
considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness -- which of the author's these are most convincing or least convincing?
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• Value -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately
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contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

•
• Four Stages
•
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• 1. Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its
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component issues?
• 2. Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.
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• 3. Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the

understanding of the topic.
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• 4. Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent

literature.
Q.3 Describe the source of such as books, year books, hand books and periodical.
Academic sources

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Text books

Strengths: Text books can present a focused view of a key issue. In producing a text with a
specific theme, the author has drawn on a range of sources and synthesised these into a set of
coherent arguments. Text books often highlight the key features of lengthier pieces of work, and
also provide you with the full bibliographic references of the primary material.

Multi-themed text books, for example overviews of areas such as organisational behaviour or

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accountancy, are useful in presenting a broad view of a field of study, the relationships between
theoretical perspectives, the views of different authors, and the models and tools that they
produce. They give you the 'edited highlights' tour of the field and help you to feel comfortable
and confident in your learning.

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This is also the case with books that focus on a particular outcome: for example research
methods books. Here the authors guide you through the process, drawing on the key issues, key

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authors and key perspectives to help you.

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Limitations: Text books that focus on a particular issue may present a very particular view.
Each academic author has their own perspectives, views and positions, and these are reflected in
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their texts. Some authors do acknowledge alternative perspectives, while using well-reasoned
debate informed by the wider literature to support their own views.

Text books which cover a great range may suffer from the decisions made in selecting what to
include, and so present a partial rather than a complete picture.
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A general problem with text books is in the age of the information they contain. Book publishing
can take anything up to two years, so even in a new book the information may be out of date.
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Academic journals
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Strengths: Academic journals are a favored source of academic information. They usually offer
a more current view than do text books, and have credibility due to the process of peer review,
under which journal articles ('papers') submitted by researchers are evaluated by experts in the
field before being published.
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They also approach the subject matter in a particular way. Journal articles are seen as being
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either theoretical or empirical.

• Theoretical articles use reasoned debate to present new or alternative ways of thinking
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about a subject, or offer a critique of existing ways of thinking.

• Empirical papers use new research to illuminate a subject in different ways, to offer new
insights or a critique of the existing ways of thinking.

Both these approaches are based on the principle of drawing on well-constructed argument and
critique informed by the literature, which is at the heart of study at postgraduate level.

Limitations: Whilst academic journals can present new and varied perspectives, some do this in
rather inaccessible language. Your tutor can direct you to relevant and comprehensible journals.

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Although academic journals are generally more current than text books published at the same
time, it is worth remembering that some journals have a two-year waiting list for papers to be
published.

Professional journals

Strengths: Professional journals are produced by the bodies that oversee practice in a range of
professions, for example institutions such as CIPFA, CIPD, RIBA and the BMA. These journals

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uphold the standards of the profession, and checks are made on the credibility and the
authenticity of the information being presented.

Because they are produced for a practitioner audience they are written in a language which is

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usually quite accessible, certainly to anyone familiar with the terminology. Professional journals
also have shorter lead times, and so more contemporary perspectives can be found.

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Limitations: The language used in professional journals can be a problem if you are totally new
to a particular field of study. Professional journals may follow a particular way of thinking.

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People schooled in a profession tend to see things in a similar way. By implication, articles
published in professional journals tend to match what is acceptable to the profession. Journals
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may choose not to publish articles which they feel challenge the accepted norms and values.

Government literature

Strengths: Literature produced by a government is often a good source of information. Data is

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gathered by reliable means and data analysis is subject to rigorous checks. Research is often well
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funded and can therefore offer the results of projects done at scale.

Although much of the research undertaken relates to the public sector, the data produced and the
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research findings are often applicable to wider contexts. Government-produced literature can
also offer longitudinal studies (studies repeated over a period of time) which other researchers,
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because of funding implications, find quite difficult to do.

Government departments undertake reviews of recent research on topics of current interest,

which may give a useful overview of major findings and also indicate which journals and
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research groups are active in a particular field.

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Limitations: The limitations of government-produced literature relate in a broad sense to any

secondary information that you might draw on in your studies. The data has been gathered for a
particular purpose and has been analysed to meet the specific needs of that project. Then a
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decision has been made about which parts of the research findings should be published. Often
what we see is the 'edited highlights' which, when one thinks of the political nature of
government, may favour one particular view over another.

Organisational literature

Strengths: Organisational literature is produced within an organisation to help its managers

make decisions or communicate with the stakeholders. Organisational literature can also give

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you information over time. For example, by studying the published financial reports over a
number of years, you can follow the comparative success and failures of a company.

Limitations: As with government literature, the information may be structured to represent a

very particular view, especially where the information is made available for view by competitors,
accrediting bodies or the public. Organisations want to present a certain view of themselves, and
this may mean revealing some pieces of information but not others.

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Physical Media
You may notice that there's no page for e-books or online articles. That's because all of the
content types here can be online. The categories here aren't about physical media, they're about

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the intellectual content contained in the pages or bytes. However, we've included notes about
physical media.

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In addition to print and online, other common media include:

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microfilm, microfiche, and other microforms (ways of shrinking print down to tiny sizes)
• CDs, DVDs, and other offline digital media
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• cassettes, albums, films, and other analog audio-visual media
• regalia, a catch-all term for artwork, cloth, toys, and other items that don't fit regular library
categories

Scholarly Sources / Peer Reviewed

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Professors often ask you to limit your research to scholarly sources. While there's no no hard and
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fast definition of "scholarly," it most commonly refers to peer-reviewed publications that adhere
to academic writing standards such as citation of sources. Academic peer review is a process in
which works are vetted by experts in the field before being accepted for publication.
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It's not always obvious whether a specific book or journal is scholarly, and there are gray areas.
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Look for these signs:

• Statement of peer-review policies in a journal's submission guidelines.

• Published by a university press or reputable academic publisher.
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• Sources are cited, and the work includes a bibliography or list of references.
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When in doubt, ask your professor or TA whether a specific source is acceptable.

Primary and Secondary Sources
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Primary sources are "first-hand" information, sources as close as possible to the origin of the
information or idea under study.
Secondary sources are works that provide summaries, analysis, commentary, or criticism on the
primary source.
Precise definitions vary from field to field, and a single source can mix types. For example, a
newspaper article written by a journalist is usually considered a secondary source, but any quotes
from participants or eyewitnesses can be considered primary sources. Furthermore, definitions of

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"primacy" are relative; if that article contains the only remaining contemporary account of the
event you're researching, it's as primary as you're going to get.
Books Advantages: Scholarly books contain authoritative
information and this can include comprehensive
accounts of research or scholarship, historical data,
overviews, experts' views on themes/topics. Use a book
when you require background information and related

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research on a topic, when you want to add depth to a
research topic or put your topic in context with other
important issues.
Disadvantages: Because it can take years, in some

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instances, to write and publish books, they are not
always the best sources for current topic.

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Journals/Journal Articles Advantages: The articles found in many scholarly
journals go through a "peer-review" process. In other
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words, the articles are checked by academics and other
experts. The information is therefore reliable. As well
as containing scholarly information, journal articles can
include reportsand/or reviews of current
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research and topic-specific information.

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Use scholarly journals when you need original research
on a topic; articles and essays written by scholars or
subject experts; factual documented information to
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reinforce a position; or references lists that point you to
other relevant research. Scholarly journals take less
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time to publish than books, but the peer-review process

can be lengthy.
Disadvantages: Scholarly journals include information
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of academic interest, so they are not the best sources

for general interest topics. Because the peer-review
process can be time-consuming, they may not include
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up-to-the minute news or current event information.

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Websites Advantages: Websites provide up-to-the

minute news and information about current events,
trends, and controversial topics. They may also
contain government publications such as reports,
statistics, legislation and service information;
interviews, newspaper articles; research reports;
conference/workshop/symposium papers; maps and

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other types of resources.

Of scholarly information is available on the open web.

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Q.4 what is a sociomentry? How is it helpful in measuring social relationship, values
orattitude scale and its usefulness in research?Envelopment of the Literature Review

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Notes on Sociometry | Social Research
Goniometry is concerned with charting out the attractions and repulsions among the members of

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a group, among groups (miniature social systems) or subgroups or between the subgroup and

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individuals. Sociometry involves a set of operations that depart fundamentally from the method
employed by Emory Boradgus for the measurement of social distance.

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Helen Jennings, one of the pioneer in the field of sociometric studies, described sociometry as a
device for a graphic and straight-forward portrayal of the total configuration of relations among
the members of a group at some given point in time. Such a picture affords at a glance, the main
lines of communications and the whole kaleidoscope of attractions and repulsions among
members of the group.
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Sociometry is a method used for discovery and manipulation of social configuration by

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measuring the attractions and repulsions among individuals in a group.”
The basic technique employed in sociometry is the sociometric test; sociometric techniques have
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a reference to a cluster of devices, sociometric test included, which consist in having each
member in the group with whom he/she would like to or would not like to engage in some
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activity that is relevant to the life of the group.

Depending on the character of the group, the members may be asked to indicate whom (from
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among the other members of the group) he/she would like to be associated or not like to be
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associated with, in play, studies, problem-solving, dinner, lending and borrowing, etc.
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What type of interactions among members become the focus of the researcher’s attention
depends, besides his objectives, on the nature and functions of the group. Generally, sociometric
studies employ observation, questionnaires and interview schedules.
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Sometimes, examination of records may also be employed to secure the relevant information.
But sociometry should more properly be considered a method of analysis rather than simply a
method of data-collection.

The researcher needs to conduct observation of the behaviour of members if he wants to know
the actual happenings in the group. During such an observation, the researcher concentrates on
how the members behave, how they interact with one another, what the nature of their

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relationship is, who initiates interaction (orientation role) and who plays the object-role, etc.
Suppose, we conduct an observation aimed at ascertaining the pattern the students of a class in a
public school exhibit in respect of exchanging the New Year Greetings.

We may find that one student may be taken to be the most popular member of the class as much
as he receives maximum number of greetings; a sociometric ‘star,’ to use the language of
sociometry. We may also find that a few students do not receive any greeting cards.

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In sociometric terminology, these are the ‘isolates.’ We may further find that there has been
among students, incidence of mutual exchange of greeting cards, e.g., a sends to B and B sends
to A. This is known as the ‘mutual choice.’ In the course of our observations, we may come
across some cliques, i.e., sub-groups of students, within each of which mutual exchange of

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greetings has taken place.

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The sociometric questionnaires and interviews are employed in securing information from each
persons about the other members of the group with whom they would like to or would not like to
engage in a particular type of interaction, as also, their thoughts about this interaction. Questions

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included in the sociometric questionnaire/schedule are directed toward seeking information from
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each person in the group as to which other members of the group he would like or not like as his
playmate, roommate, colleague, etc.

Sometimes, the person is asked to name all the persons in the group whom he would like to
choose or reject; that is, there is no restriction on the respondent to confine his choice or
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rejections to the first three or four persons in order of preference. But if the group is numerically
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large, the individual respondent is usually asked to indicate his choices or rejections to the first
few persons in order of preference.
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Moreno himself insisted on soliciting unrestricted number of choice or rejections, i.e., he
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recommends that the respondents should be allowed to indicate the total range of choice or
rejections without any limitations. There is, of course, no denying that such a freedom allowed to
the individual members of the group would go a long way in affording a sensitive and objective
portrait of the interpersonal relations in the group.
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But, practical considerations often warrant a restriction on the individual respondent to indicate
his choice or rejections only up to a certain numerical limit (three or four). If the group subjected
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to sociometric analysis is a large one, such a restriction largely becomes necessary. Suppose, we
want to administer a sociometric test in a class of students. We may ask each student of the class
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to indicate which three (or more) students he would like to invite for a birthday party at his place
and what his order of preference would be among those he would like to invite.

We may also ask each student to indicate which three (or more) students he would not like to
invite to his birthday party and what would be his order in rejection.

If the respondents believe that their choices or rejections would be used as a basis for the actual
restructuring of the group or for effecting subsequent arrangements or rearrangements, there is a
greater likelihood of their responding to the sociometric questions in all sincerity.

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At least, this is the usual and reasonable assumption. So in the sociometric studies, the researcher
normally prefaces his questioning with the assurance to the respondents that their choices in
respect of play, living arrangements and studies, etc., will be taken into active account while
effecting modifications in prevailing conditions or in making subsequent arrangements. Despite
the fact the Moreno and associates had employed the sociometric method with extreme care and
their insistence was on the use of this method only under certain conditions, the sociometric
method has been used quite extensively and quite often without much caution.

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The popularity of this method may be attributed to the facility and graphic character of the
‘socio-gram’ which may be aptly described as a diagrammatic means of presenting in essential
basics the outline of inter-personal relations among the members of a group and the sentiments
underlying these relationships. Sociometric data can also be summarized by means of N x N

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table. Such a tabulation is basic to matrix analyses.

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Similarly, the digits 2 and 3 in the table indicate respectively the second and third preferences.

a
As can be seen in the table, C has given second preference to A and third preference to E.
Similarly, D has given first preference to A, second to C and third to E. Thus, on the whole, the

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sociometric matrix, illustrated above, portrays in a quite intelligible manner the interpersonal
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relations among the students of a class.

The very same data may be presented in the form of a socio-gram.

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Socio-gram: Showing Patterns of Choice at the Birthday Party:

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A
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Examining the socio-gram presented above, we find that A is the most frequently chosen person.
He has secured the highest number of choices, i.e., eight. Out of these, three are first preference
choices, four second preference and one third preference.

It is worthy of note that C, G and B have secured respectively a total of 5, 5 and 4 choices but
each of them has received 3 first preferences. B has secured first preference choice from A who
is the ‘star’ (as such this first preference choice, qualitatively speaking, and amounts to more
than any other first preference choice). Such qualitative differences are important aspects of
sociometric analysis.

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In the socio-gram, we find that 0 has not been chosen by a single student and is thus an isolate in
sociometric parlance. Some instances of mutual choices also appear in the sociogram, e.g., A has
chosen B and B has reciprocated A’s sentiment.

Similarly, K and N have given third preference choices to each other. The sociogram also
presents mutual choices that are qualitatively unequal, e.g., D has indicated his first preference
choice for A but A has given a second preference choice to D.

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If we had a group considerably larger than the one represented by the sociogram, the
corresponding figure might have shown the existence of sub-groups or cliques within the larger
group. The sociogram above, represents the pattern of choices with respect to invitation to a
birthday party.

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We could have also asked the students of the class questions with a view to knowing the pattern

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of choices/rejections in regard to other criteria. For example, “whom would you choose as your
playmate?” or “with whom would you like to share your lunch?” etc., are some of the questions
that could be asked.

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The sociometric questions that the situations or events about which questions are asked must be
the ones the members of the group are familiar with and that the questions should appear realistic
in the context of the group.

That is, the events or situations should not appear very outlandish or far-fetched to the
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respondents and should meaningfully fit into the cognitive structure of respondents. Lastly, it is
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very desirable to maintain a fair measure of consistency between the sociometric structure we are
interested in and the criteria in respect of which we ask respondents to indicate their acceptance
or rejection.
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The questionnaires and interviews are the principal instruments involved in the administration of
sociometric tests. These are easy to administer and can be reformulated to suit situations of
differing kinds.
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Students engaged in testing the reliability of sociometric data have found that despite a
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considerable variation in the individual’s specific choices and the patterns of inter-personal
relations within the group, the scores/ indexes based on the sociometric data are fairly stable.
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Sociometric methods have been used with advantage in the studies of leadership, friendship
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pattern, group structures, social adjustments, minority prejudices, morale, public opinion, etc. In
the field of psychiatry too (especially, group therapy) the use of sociometry has proved very
fruitful.

Among the pioneering studies of leadership using the sociometric technique, the one conducted
by Helen Jennings on girl students deserves special mention. Jennings calculated the choice-
scores for each student on the basis of the choices or rejections received by each of them.

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Q.5Wxplain the types of written research report and also comments on its general
structure and illustration.
Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s intentions, his
success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or his point of
view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by
governmental bureaus, special commissions, and similar other organisations are generally very
comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important

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research products. Similarly, Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing,
usually completed by.
The above narration throws light on the fact that the results of a research investigation can be
presented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, a popular report, an article, a monograph

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or at times even in the form of oral presentation. Which method(s) of presentation to be used in a
particular study depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the nature of the
results.

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a
A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether for
recordkeeping or for public dissemination.

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A popular report is used if the research results have policy implications. We give below a few
details about the said two types of reports:
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Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
i. the methods employed,
ii. assumptions made in the course of the study,
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iii. the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting data.
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A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the
9
problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required,
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etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in
sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection,
etc.
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4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary
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data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the
manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
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5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the
findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
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This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several
chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the
results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and
the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

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The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the order
of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other words,
means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined
above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready
availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of
charts and diagrams is considered desirable.

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Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large
print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic

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feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular report.

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1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most
practical interest and on the implications of these findings.

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2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of
the study is made in this section of the report.
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3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with
the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques
used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of
the report.
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5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study
5
are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such
as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented
9
in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely
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meant for general public.

There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The only
important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the
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extent possible.
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