ELECTRODYNAMICS

Vector Analysis

PRODUCT OF VECTORS
 
Scalar Product: A B  AB cos
 
Vector Product: A  B  AB sin nˆ

Ax A y A z
        
Scalar Triple Product: A( B  C )  B(C  A)  C ( A  B)  Bx B y Bz
Cx C y C z

        
Vector Triple Product: A( B  C )  B( AC )  C ( A B)

VECTOR DERIVATIVES

Cartesian

The Infinitesimal displacement vector: dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ

T ˆ T ˆ T
Gradient: T  iˆ j k
x y z

 v v v
Divergence: v  x  y  z
x y z

iˆ ˆj kˆ
     v v y  ˆj  v z  v x  ˆ  v y v x 
Curl:  v   iˆ  z   k  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
vx vy vz

 2T  2T  2T
Laplacian:  2T   
x 2 y 2 z 2

2 v   2 v x  iˆ   2 v y  ˆj   2 v z  kˆ

Spherical

The Infinitesimal displacement vector: dl  dr rˆ  r d ˆ  r sin d ˆ
An element of surface area on the sphere of radius R: da  R 2 sin  d d
f 1 f ˆ 1 f ˆ
Gradient: f  r̂   
r r  r sin 
VECTOR IDENTITIES

Product Rules

1) ( fg )  f (g )  g (f )
  
2)  ( fA)  f ( A)  (f )  A
     
3)  (A  B)  B  ( A)  A  ( B)
    
4)  ( fA)  f ( A)  (f )  A = f ( A)  A  (f )

Second Derivatives

5)   ( A)  0
6)  (f )  0
  
7)  ( A)  ( A)  2 A

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
b 
Gradient Theorem: a
(f )  dl  f (b)  f (a)

  
Divergence Theorem: 
V
(  A) d    da
S
A [Gauss’s Theorem]

   
Curl Theorem:  ( A)  da   A  dl
S P
[Stokes’ Theorem]

Notes:

 Divergence of gradient:   T   2T  a scalar

 Curl of gradient:   T   a vector

 Gradient of divergence:     v   a vector

 Divergence of curl:    v   a scalar

 Curl of curl:    v   a vector

 
 F  0  F is solenoidal
    
  F  0 &    G  F can be written as curl of a vector  F    G 
  
 F  0  F is irrotational
  
 F  0 &   T   0  F can be written as gradient of a scalar function  F  T 
 Gradient:
T ˆ T ˆ T
 T  iˆ j k [ T = a scalar function]
x y z
 T is a vector quantity.
 The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase of the
function T .

r    
x 2  y 2  z 2  rˆ

1 rˆ r
    2   3
r r r

(r )  nr rˆ  nr n2 r
n n 1

The gradient of the function : f ( x, y, z)  e x sin( y) ln( z ) is

1
e x sin( y) ln( z ) ˆi  e x cos( y) ln( z ) ˆj e x cos( y) kˆ .
z
 The Divergence:
 v v v
 v  x  y  z
x y z

   v is a scalar.
 
   v is a measure of how much the vector v spreads out from the point in
question.

The divergence of the vector function: v  y 2iˆ  (2 xy  z 2 ) ˆj  2 yzkˆ
is 2 x  2 y .
rˆ
  2  0 for r  0 .
r
 The Curl:
iˆ ˆj kˆ
     v v y  ˆ  v z v x  ˆ  v y v x 
  v   iˆ  z   j  k  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
vx v y vz
 
  v is a measure of how much the vector v “curls around” the point in
question.

The curl of the vector function: v   yiˆ  xjˆ is 2kˆ .

rˆ r
 2   3  0
r r
  Laplacian:
 The Laplacian of a scalar T is a scalar.
 2T  2T  2T
The Laplacian of T :    T    2T  2  2  2
x y z

 The Laplacian of a vector v is a vector.
 
The Laplacian of v : 2 v   2 v x  iˆ   2 v y  ˆj   2 v z  kˆ
   
The Laplacian of v : 2 v =     v      v 
Problem

Calculate the Laplacian of the following functions:

(a) Ta  sin x sin y sin z

(c) Tb  e5 x sin 4 y cos3z


(d) v  x2iˆ  3xz 2 ˆj  2 xzkˆ

Solution:

 2Ta  2Ta  2Ta

(a) Ta  2  2  2
2

x y z
2 2 2
= 2  sin x sin y sin z   2  sin x sin y sin z   2  sin x sin y sin z 
x y z
=  sin x sin y sin z  sin x sin y sin z  sin x sin y sin z
=  3sin x sin y sin z
 2Tb  2Tb  2Tb
(b) Tb  2  2  2
2

x y z
 2 5 x  2 5 x  2 5 x
= 2  e sin 4 y cos 3 z   2  e sin 4 y cos 3 z   2  e sin 4 y cos 3 z 
x y z
=25e5 x sin 4 y cos 3 z  16e 5 x sin 4 y cos 3 z  9e 5 x sin 4 y cos 3z
=0
2
(c) v    2 v x  iˆ    2 v y  ˆj    2 v z  kˆ

=  2  x 2   iˆ   2  3xz 2   ˆj   2  2 xz   kˆ

ˆ ˆ
= 2i+6xj
 The curl of a gradient is always zero:   T   0

Hint:

iˆ ˆj kˆ
     2T  2T  ˆj   T   T   kˆ   T   T   0
2 2 2 2
   T    iˆ   
x y z  yz zy   xz zx   xy yx 
T T T
x y z
  2T  2T 
 
 xy yx 
 


 The divergence of a curl is always zero:     v   0

Hint:
iˆ ˆj kˆ
     v v  ˆj  v z  v x  ˆ  v y v x 
  v   iˆ  z  y  k  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
vx vy vz

        v v   v v   v v  
   v  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ   iˆ  z  y   ˆj  z  x   kˆ  y  x  
 x y z    y z   x z   x y  
  v v y    v z v x    v y v x 
=  z       
x  y z  y  x z  z  x y 
   v z    v z  
=0     
 x  y  y  x  
Potentials:
 
[1] If the curl of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be written as the
gradient of a scalar potential (V):
 
 F  0  F  V

The minus sign is purely conventional.

Curl-less (or “irrotational”) fields:

The following conditions are equivalent:


  F  0 everywhere.
b  
 a F  dl is independent of path, for any given end points.
 
  F  dl  0 for any closed loop.

 F is the gradient of some scalar, F  V

 
[2] If the divergence of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed

as the curl of a vector potentials ( A ):
  
 F  0  F   A

Divergence-less (or “solenoidal”) fields:

The following conditions are equivalent:


   F  0 everywhere.
 
   da is independent of surface, for any given boundary line.
F

  F  da  0 for any closed loop.
 
 F is the curl of some vector, F   A .


In all cases (whatever its curl and divergence may be) a vector field F can be written as the
gradient of a scalar plus the curl of a vector:
 
F  V   A (always).
Integral Calculus

a) Line Integrals:

A line integral is an expression of the form

b  
a v  dl ,

where v is a vector function, dl is the infinitesimal displacement vector, and the integral
is to be carried out along a prescribed path P from point a to point b .
  
Example of a line integral: The work done by a force F : W   F  dl

 
Line integral over a closed path: 
 
  dl
v
For conservative force:   F  dl  0
b) Surface Integrals (or Flux):

A surface integral is an expression of the form

 

S
v  da ,

where v is a vector function, and da is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction
perpendicular to the surface.
  
Example: The flux of E through a surface S :  E   E  da
S
 
 v  da
Surface integral over a closed path: 

  
If v describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then  v  da
represents the total mass per unit time passing through the surface [or flux].
 Electrostatic Field

Expressions for electric charge:

 
Electric Charge, q   d     dA  
line area volume
 dV   0 
area
E  da

 
Electric Flux through a surface S :  E   E  da
S

N  m2
SI unit of electric flux is .
C
Gauss’s law:

  1
 Integral form: 
S
E  da  Qenc
0
where Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface
 1
 Differential form:   E  
0

Electric Field:
 1 q
 The electric field a distance r away from a charge q : E  rˆ .
4 0 r 2

 The line integral of electric field:

b   1 q q
a E  dl  4 0  ra  rb 

 
  E  dl  0

  E  0
 Electrostatic field is a conservative field.
Electric Potential:

 V   dl  V (b)  V (a)
b
 Gradient Theorem:
a
 The potential difference between two points a and b :
b  
V (b)  V (a)   E  dl
a
 So,
 b  
a  V   dl
b
   E  dl
a

 E  V
Example

The expression for electric field in a region where potential is given by V  kxy :

Hint:

  V ˆ V ˆ V 
E  V   iˆ j k
 x y z 
   kxy  ˆ   kxy  ˆ    kxy  
  iˆ j k 
 x y z 


  kyiˆ  kxjˆ 
 ky iˆ  kx ˆj

1 q
Electric potential of a point charge: V 
4 0 r

 If E and V are electric field and electric potential at the midpoint of two equal and
opposite point charges, then E ≠ 0 and V = 0 .

 If E and V are electric field and electric potential at the midpoint of two equal and
opposite point charges, then E = 0 and V ≠ 0.


Poisson’s Equation:  2V  
0

Laplace’s Equation: 2V  0

 Electric Field:

Point Charge

 Electric Field a distance z above the midpoint between two equal charges, q , a distance
d apart :

1 2z
E q
4 0
3
 d 
2

2

   z 
2

 2  

 Electric Field a distance z above the midpoint between two equal and opposite charges,
q and  q , a distance d apart :
1 d
E q
4 0  d 2
3

2
 
   z 
2

 2  
Problems:

 Two charges, each of +q, separated by a distance d. The net electric field at a
distance x from a charge and on the line joining them is
q 1 1 
E 
4 0  x (d  x) 2 
 2
.

 Two charges, each of +q, separated by a distance 3x . The net electric field at a
q  3 
distance x from a charge and on the line joining them is E  .
4 0  4 x 2 
Line Charge:

 The electric field at a distance z above the midpoint of a straight line segment of length
2L which carries a uniform line charge  :
 1   2L  ˆ 1 q
E k kˆ
4 0 z z  L
2 2 4 0 z z  L2
2

where charge on a straight line segment of length 2L,

q    2L 

For infinite straight wire:

 1 2 ˆ
E k
4 0 z

 The electric field at a distance z above the center of a circular loop of radius r, which
carries a uniform line charge  :
1 z
E   2 r 
4 0 r  z2 
3
2 2

1 z
 q where total charge on the circular loop of radius,q=  2 r 
4 0 r2  z2 
3
2

Surface Charge:
 The electric field at a distance z above the center of a flat circular disk of radius R, which
carries a uniform charge density 
   z ˆ
E 1  2 k
2 0  z  R2 
For infinite sheet of charge
 
E kˆ
2 0

where, q    R 2  is the total charge on the flat circular disk of radius R

Applications of Gauss’s law:

Spherical shell:

 For a spherical shell of radius R which carries a uniform surface charge density  :
1 q  R2
Electric field: E   ; Outside the spherical shell
4 0 r 2  0 r 2

1 q 
E  ; On the surface of spherical shell
4 0 R 2  0

E  0; Inside the spherical shell

Total charge on the spherical shell, q =   4 R2 

 The electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R as a function of
the distance from its centre is represented graphically by

 r >R
E r< R

r
Uniformly charged solid sphere r=R

 For a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius which carries a volume charge density  :

1 q  R3
Electric field: E   ; Outside the sphere
4 0 r 2 3 0 r 2

1 q R
E  ; On the surface of sphere
4 0 R 2
3 0

1 qr  r
E  Inside the spherical sphere
4 0 R3 3 0

E 0 At the centre

4 
Total charge on the sphere, q =    R3 
3 

 The electric field due to a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R as a function of the
distance from its centre is represented graphically by
r< R r >R

E
r
r=R
 Examples:

Find the electric field outside and inside a sphere which carries a charge density
proportional to the distance from the origin,   kr , for some constant k .

Hint:
  1
Gauss’s Law:  E  da     d 
S 0  V 

Radius of Spherical Gaussian Surface → r

Outside the sphere: Inside the sphere:

  1   1
 S E  da   0  V  d  S
E  da     d 
0  V 
1 
 kr  r 2 sin  drd d  1 
 0  V
 E 4 r 2   E 4 r 2 
   kr  r 2 sin  drd d 
0 V


k 
 
0
 r dr sin  d  d
R

0
3
0
 2

0

k 
 r dr sin  d  d
 0 
r

0
3
0
 2

k  R4  k  r4 
    2  2      2  2 
0  4  0  4 
k R4 k r2
E E
4 0 r 2 4 0
Find the potential of uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R,which carries uniform
surface charge density  .

Hint:

Potential for a surface charge:

1  R 2 sin  d d  

4 0   R 2  z 2  2 Rz cos   
So, V (z)   

 R2   sin  d  
  0 
2 0  R 2  z 2  2 Rz cos   


 R2  1

2 0  Rz 
 R  Z    R  Z  
2 2



R  
 V (z)  R  Z   R  Z 
2 2

2 0 z  

 R2 1 q
Vout  z   
 0 z 4 0 z
Total charge on the spherical shell, q =   4 R2 
R 1 q
Vin  z     Von  R 
 0 4 0 R

 A thin spherical conducting shell of radius R has a charge q. Another charge Q is placed
R
at the centre of the shell. The electrostatic potential at a point p at a distance from the
2
1 Q 1 q
centre of the shell is V  V1  V2  
4 0 R 4 0 R
2

 A hollow metallic sphere of radius 0.1 m has 10-8 C of charge uniformly spread over it.
90
The electric field intensity at point 7 cm away from the centre is Vin  V
(0.1)
 Work and Energy in Electrostatics

 The work done to move a charge Q from point a to point b :

W  Q V (b)  V (a)
 The work done to move a charge Q from far away to a point a :
W  Q V (a)
 The energy of a continuous charge distribution:
0
W
2 
all space
E 2 d

0
Energy density,U E  E 2  energy per unit volume  Unit of U E  Jm3 
2

Problem

a) Three charges are situated at the corners of a square (side a), as shown in Figure P-1.
How much work does it take to bring in another charge,  q , from far away and place it in
the fourth corner?
b) How much work does it take to assemble the whole
configuration of four charges?

Hint: (a)
W4  qV
 1  q q q 
  q      
 4 0  a a 2 a 
1 q2  1 
  2 
4 0 a  2 

(b)
1  q 2 q2 q 2 q 2 q2 q 2 
U     
4 0  a a 2 a a a 2 a 
1 2q 2  1 
  2 
4 0 a  2 

1  q1 q2 q3 
 V    
4 0  r14 r24 r34 
1  q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3q4 
U       
4 0  r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34 
 Problems

Assume the Earth to be a sphere of radius R filled with a symmetrically distributed total
charge Q. The amount of work done to move a point charge q from north pole to south
pole along the path on the surface and against the electric field to Q is zero.

The work done in displacing a charge 2C through 0.5m on an equipotential surface is

zero.

[For equipotential surface: potential difference is zero]

A point charge + q is placed at the origin as shown in the Figure below. Work done in
taking another point charge – Q from the point A(0,a) to another point B(a,0) along the
straight path AB is: zero

The electrostatic potential energy of configuration of four charges +q, -2q, -q and +2q
1  5q 2 
placed at four corners A, B, C and D of a square of side „a‟ is 
4 0  a 2 
.

Hint:
1  q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3q4 
U       
4 0  r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34 

The electrostatic potential energy of configuration of three charges +2e,-e and -2e placed
e2
at three corners A, B and C of a equilateral triangle of side ' l ' is  .
 0l

Hint:
1  q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 
U    
4 0  r12 r13 r23 
Three charges +q, -q and -q are situated at corners A, B and C of a right angled isosceles
triangle ABC with length of short side „a‟. How much work does it take to assemble the
whole configuration of three charges?
Hint:
1  q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 
W    
4 0  r12 r13 r23 
1  q 2 q 2 q 2 
   
4 0  a a 2 a
1  q 2 

4 0  a 2 

Find the energy of a uniformly charged spherical shell of total charge q and radius
R.

Solution:
For a uniformly charged spherical shell
Inside E 0
Outside
 1 q
E rˆ
4 0 r 2
1 q2
So, E2 
 4 0 
2
r4
Therefore,
0
Wtot 
2 
all space
E 2 d

0  1 q2  2
    4 2 r 4   r sin  drd d 
2 outside  0 
 1   1     2  
2  4 0 2   R r 2   0
 0       d  
2
q dr  sin d
 0 
0 1  1 
 q 2
     2 dr 
2 2
2  4 0 2 R r 
1 q2
 Wtot 
4 0 2 R
Basic properties of Perfect Conductor

 E  0 inside a conductor.
   0 inside a conductor.
 Any net charge resides on the surface.
 A conductor is an equipotential.
 E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor.


When a perfectly conducting sphere is placed in a uniform external electric field E0 , then
[a] electric potential is zero everywhere inside the sphere.
[b] electric potential is non-zero constant everywhere inside the sphere.*
[c] electric field is non-zero constant everywhere inside the sphere.
[d] electric field at the centre is zero and increases as we move toward the surface


When a perfectly conducting sphere is placed in a uniform external electric field E0 ,
then
[a] electric potential is zero everywhere inside the sphere.
[b] electric potential is non-zero constant everywhere inside the sphere.*
[c] electric field is non-zero constant everywhere inside the sphere.
[d] electric field at the centre is zero and increases as we move toward the surface.
 Electric Fields in Matter

Electric Dipole:
 Electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges ( q)
separated by a distance d .
 
 Electric Dipole Moment: p  qd
SI unit of Electric Dipole Moment is C m .
Electric Dipole
 The approximate potential at points far from the dipole:
 1 qd cos  1 pz
V (r )  
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 3
  
1 rˆ  p 1 pr
 
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 3
Electric field of a dipole in the coordinate free form:

  1  
Edip (r )  3  p  rˆ  rˆ  p 
4 0 r 3

1 p
 3 
3cos  rˆ  kˆ 
4 0 r 

Electric field of a dipole in the spherical coordinate

system:

 1 p
Edip (r , )  2cos  rˆ  sin  ˆ  .
4 0 r 3 

The magnitude of electric field of dipole:

1 p
Edip  3 
3cos 2   1 
4 0 r 

  
Torque on a dipole in electric field:   p  E
 
Potential Energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field: U   p  E

An electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field experiences only a torque but no net
force.
 Polarization:
 Dipole moment per unit volume
 SI unit of polarization is C m2 .
 The effect of uniform polarization is to paint a bound charge

 b  p  nˆ over the surface of the material.

 Volume bound charge density: b    P

Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics:


  D   f ; Differential Form
 
   da  Q fenc ; Integral Form
D
where Q fenc denotes the total free charge enclosed in the volume.

  
Electric Displacement: D   0 E  P

The unit of the electric displacement is Coulomb per meter squared.

Linear Dielectric:
 
 P   0 e E where  e is the electric susceptibility of the medium.
  
 D   0 1  e  E   E
    0 1  e 

  r  1  e  k  r  the relative permittivity, or dielectric constant
0

In a homogeneous linear dielectric

 The bound charge density ( b ) is proportional to the free charge density (  f ) :

 e    r 1 
b    f   f
 1  e   r 
 The electric susceptibility (  e ) in term of bound charge density ( b ) and free charge
b
density (  f ) :  e  
b   f

 Methanol has a dielectric constant of 33. The ratio of bound charge and free charge in a
unit volume of methanol is 32 : 33 .
 Example 1
A long straight wire, carrying line charge  , surrounded by rubber insulation out to
a radius a [Figure D-1]. Find the electric displacement.
H

Solution::Drawing a cylindrical Gaussian

surface, of radius s of length L , and
 
applying   D  da  Q fenc
we find: D  2 sL    L.
Figure D-1
 
Therefore, D  sˆ
2 s

Example 2

A metal sphere of radius a, carries a charge Q [Figure D-2]. It is surrounded, out to

radius b, by linear dielectric material of permittivity  . Find the potential at the
center (relative to infinity).
Solution::
Drawing a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r (r  a) and
 
applying Eq.:   da  Q fenc , we get
D
D  4 r 2   Q
 Q
D= rˆ for all points r  a
4 r 2 Figure D-2
So,
 1 Q
E= rˆ, for r  b
 0 4 r 2
  
 D   0 1   e  E   E 
1 Q  
 rˆ, for a < r  b  E  1  1 
 4 r 2 D D

  0 1   e   
 0, for r  a
 The potential at the centre relative to infinity is
0   b a 0
V    E  dl    Edr   Edr   Edr
  b a

b 1 Q  a 1 Q 
b   4 r 2  a  0 dr
0
   dr   dr 
  4 r 2
 0 
Q  1 1 1 
 V    
4   0b  a  b 
Atomic Polarizability (  ):

 The electric dipole moment induced in the atom by an electric field of unit strength.
 
 Induced dipole moment: p   E .
 The SI unit of atomic polarizability is C m2 V 1  F m2  Farad meter squared  .

Clausius-Mossotti Formula:

 The relation between atomic polarizability  and the dielectric constant k .

3  k  1 
  0 where N is the number of atoms per unit volume.
N  k  2 
3 0  k  1  3 0   r  1  3 0  e 
      
N  k  2  N 
 r  2  N  e  3 
 Example

A primitive model for an atom consists of a point nucleus ( q) surrounded by a uniformly

charged spherical cloud (q) of radius a [Figure A-1]. Calculate the atomic polarizability of
such an atom.

Figure A-1

Solution:

In the presence of an external field E , the nucleus will be shifted slightly to the right and the
electron cloud to the left, as shown in Figure A-2.

Figure A-2
Say that quilibrium occurs when the nucleus is displaced a
distance d from the centre of the sphere.
At equilibrium, then,

The external filed pushing  The internal field ( field produced by the 
 the nucleus to the right  =  electron cloud) pulling the nucleus to the left 
   
E = Ee
1 qd
or, E =
4 0 a 3
1 p
or, E =
4 0 a 3
 p   4 0 a 3  E
 The atomic polarizability is
4 
  4 0 a3   0   a3  3  3 0v  p   E 
3 
   3 0 v where v is the volume of the atom.