MERCANTILISM

Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon
its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international tradeis "unchangeable". Economic assets
(or capital) are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value), which is best increased through a
positive and healthybalance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports).
The theory assumes that wealth and monetary assets are identical. Mercantilism suggests that the ruling
government should advance these goals by playing aprotectionist role in the economy by encouraging
exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of subsidies and tariffs respectively. The
theory dominatedWestern European economic policies from the 16th to the late-18th century.
Mercantilism was the dominant school of thought in Europe throughout the
late Renaissance and early modern period (from the 15th-18th century). Mercantilism encouraged the
many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism —
both in Europe and throughout the rest of the world — until the 19th century or early 20th century.
Arguments have been made[for the historical promotion of mercantilism in Europe since recorded history,
with authors noting the trade policies of Athens and its Delian League specifically mention[clarification
needed]
 control of value of trade in bullion as necessary for the promotion of the Greekpolis. Additionally, the
noted competition of medieval monarchs for control of the market town trade and of the spice trade, as
well as the copious documentation of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa regarding control of
the Mediterranean trade of bullion clearly points to an early understanding of mercantilistic principles.
However, as a codified school, mercantilism's real birth is marked by the Empiricism of the Renaissance,
which first began to qualify large-scale trade accurately.
Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally
considered mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but
was quickly adopted by historians. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system". The
word "mercantilism" was introduced into English from German in the early 19th century.
The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain.
[4]
 Smith saw English merchant Thomas Mun (1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system,
especially in his posthumously published Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664), which Smith considered the
archetype or manifesto of the movement.[5] Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James
Steuart’sPrinciples of Political Economy published in 1767.[4]
Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern
period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centered in England and
France, and it was in these states that mercantilist polices were most often enacted. Mercantilism arose in
France in the early 16th century, soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French
politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the importation of woolen goods from Spain and some parts
of Flanders. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion.[19]
Over the rest of the sixteenth century further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of
French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister for 22 years in the
17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called Colbertism. Under Colbert, the
French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist
policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and
monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of over a thousand directives
outlining how different products should be produced.[20]
Adam Smith and David Hume are considered to be the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought. A
number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Adam Smith developed an
ideology that could fully replace it. Critics like Hume, Dudley North, and John Locke undermined much of
mercantilism, and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century.
SYNDICALISM
Syndicalism is a type of economic system proposed as a replacement for capitalism and state
socialism which uses federations of collectivised trade unions or industrial unions. It is a form of
economic corporatism that advocates interest aggregation of multiple non-competitive categorised units to
negotiate and manage an economy.[1]
For adherents, labor unions are the potential means of both overcoming economic aristocracy and
running society fairly in the interest of the majority, through union democracy. Industry in a syndicalist
system would be run through co-operative confederations and mutual aid. Local syndicates would
communicate with other syndicates through the Bourse du Travail (labor exchange) which would manage
and transfer commodities.
Syndicalism is also used to refer to the tactic of bringing about this social arrangement, typically
expounded by anarcho-syndicalism and De Leonism, in which a general strike begins and workers seize
their means of production and organise in a federation of trade unionism, such as the CNT[2] Throughout
its history, the reformist section of syndicalism has been overshadowed by its revolutionary section,
typified by the IWW or the Federación Anarquista Ibérica section of the CNT.[3]
Syndicalisme is a French word meaning "trade unionism". More moderate versions of syndicalism were
overshadowed by revolutionaryanarcho-syndicalism in the early 20th century, which advocated the
abolition of the state in addition to capitalism, feeling that syndicalist economics would replace the need
for one. Anarcho-syndicalism was most powerful in Spain in and around the time of the Spanish Civil War,
but also appeared in other parts of the world, such as in the US-based Industrial Workers of the World or
the Unione Sindacale Italiana - the Italian Syndicalist Union.
The earliest expressions of syndicalist structure and methods were formulated in the International
Workingmen's Association or First International, particularly in the Jura federation. In 1895,
the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) in France expressed fully the organizational structure and
methods of revolutionary syndicalism influencing labour movements the world over. The CGT was
modelled on the development of the Bourse de Travail (labour exchange), a workers' central organization
which would encourage self-education and mutual aid, and facilitate communication with local workers'
syndicates. Through a general strike, workers would take control of industry and services and self-
manage society and facilitate production and consumption through the labour exchanges. The Charter of
Amiens, adopted by the CGT in 1906, represents a key text in the development of revolutionary
syndicalism rejecting parliamentarianism and political action in favour of revolutionary class struggle.
The Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden (SAC) (in Swedish the Sveriges Arbetares
Centralorganisation), formed in 1910, are a notable example of an anarcho-syndicalist union influenced
by the CGT. Today, the SAC is one the largest anarcho-syndicalist unions in the world in proportion to the
population, with some strongholds in the public sector.
Syndicalism is one of the three most common currents of socialist economics, together
with Market socialism and socialist planned economies. It holds, on an ethical basis, that all participants
in an organised trade internally share equal ownership of its production. By contrast, socialism
emphasises distributing output among trades as required by each trade, not necessarily considering how
trades organise internally. Syndicalism is non-governmental and while some people[who?] say it is privatism,
unlike communism, others[who?] maintain that it is more accurate to associate it with the civic sector.
Communism rejects government-sanctioned private ownership of the means of production in favor of
ownership by the class of individuals who actually use such property (i.e., the workers or proletariat, who
under most variants of communism would have control of the state as well, muddling the distinction
between state and proletarian ownership). In syndicalism, unions exist independent of the state rather
than needing the state's micromanagement and central planning. As withbusinesses in capitalism, labor
unions in syndicalism would likely share a complicated relationship of co-operation and opposition with
the state (with the obvious exception of anarcho-syndicalism, under which there would be no state).
MARXISM
Marxism is an economic and socio-political worldview that contains within it a political ideology for how to
change and improve society by implementing socialism. Originally developed in the early to mid 19th
century by two German émigrés living in Britain, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marxism is based upona
materialist interpretation of history. Taking the idea that social change occurs because of the struggle
between different classes within society who are under contradiction one against the other, the Marxist
analysis leads to the conclusion that capitalism, the currently dominant form of economic management,
leads to the oppression of the proletariat, who not only make up the majority of the world's populace but
who also spend their lives working for the benefit of the bourgeoisie, or the wealthy ruling class in society.
To correct this inequality between the bourgeoisie, who are the wealthy minority, and the proletariat, who
are the poorer majority, Marxism advocates, and believes in the historical inevitability of, a proletarian
revolution, when the proletariat take control of government, and then implement reforms to benefit their
class, namely the confiscation of private property which is then taken under state control and run for the
benefit of the people rather than for the interests of private profit. Such a system is socialism, although
Marxists believe that eventually a socialist society would develop into an entirely classless system, which
is known as communism in Marxist thought.
A Marxist understanding of history and of society has been adopted by academics studying in a wide
range of disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, media studies,[2] political
science, theater,history, sociological theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary
criticism,aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.[3]
The first Marxist-run nation state was the Soviet Union, founded in 1922 following the Russian
revolutionof 1917. Its leaders Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin formulated the theoretical
trends ofMarxism-Leninism, Trotskyism and Stalinism respectively while the Chinese Communist
Party leaderMao Zedong later developed Maoism.
The term Classical Marxism denotes the theory propounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[citation
needed]
 As such, Classical Marxism distinguishes between “Marxism” as broadly perceived, and “what Marx
believed”; thus, in 1883, Marx wrote to the French labour leader Jules Guesde and to Paul
Lafargue (Marx’s son-in-law) — both of whom claimed to represent Marxist principles — accusing them of
“revolutionary phrase-mongering” and of denying the value of reformist struggle; from which derives the
paraphrase: “If that is Marxism, then I am not a Marxist”.[4] To which, the US Marx scholar Hal
Draper remarked, “there are few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been so badly
misrepresented, by Marxists and anti-Marxists alike”
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818—14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political economist,
and socialist revolutionary, who addressed the matters of alienation and exploitation of the working class,
the capitalist mode of production, and historical materialism. He is famous for analysing history in terms
of class struggle, summarised in the initial line introducing the Communist Manifesto(1848): “The history
of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles”. His ideas were influential in his time, and it
was greatly expanded by the successful Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917 in Imperial Russia.
Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820–5 August 1895) was a 19th century German political
philosopher and Karl Marx’s co-developer of communist theory. Marx and Engels met in September 1844;
discovering that they shared like views of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote works
such as Die heilige Familie (The Holy Family). After the French deported Marx from France in January
1845, Engels and Marx moved to Belgium, which then permitted greater freedom of expression than other
European countries; later, in January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the Communist
Correspondence Committee.
In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto (1848), based upon Engels’ The Principles of
Communism; six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pamphlet in February 1848. In March,
Belgium expelled them, and they moved to Cologne, where they published the Neue Rheinische Zeitung,
a politically radical newspaper. Again, by 1849, they had to leave Cologne for London. The Prussian
authorities pressured the British government to expel Marx and Engels, but Prime Minister Lord John
Russell refused.
COMMUNISM
Communism is a sociopolitical movement that aims for
a classless and stateless society structuredupon common ownership of the means of production, free
access to articles of consumption, and the end of wage labour and private property in the means of
production and real estate.[1]
In Marxist theory, communism is a specific stage of historical development that inevitably emerges from
the development of the productive forces that leads to a superabundance of material wealth, allowing
fordistribution based on need and social relations based on freely-associated individuals.[2][3]
The exact definition of communism varies, and it is often mistakenly used interchangeably withsocialism;
however, Marxist theory contends that socialism is just a transitional stage on the way to
communism. Marxist-Leninists and Leninists revised this theory by introducing the notion of a vanguard
party to lead the proletarian revolution and to hold all political power after the revolution in a transitional
stage between capitalism and socialism. Some communists, such as council communists and non-
Marxist libertarian communists and anarcho-communists, oppose the idea of a vanguard party and
transition stage and advocate for the construction of full communism to begin immediately upon the
abolition of capitalism.
In the modern lexicon of what many sociologists and political commentators refer to as the "political
mainstream", communism is often used to refer to the policies of states run by Communist parties,
regardless of the practical content of the actual economic system they may preside over. Examples of this
include the policies of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam where the economic system incorporates "doi
moi", the People's Republic of China where the economic system incorporates "Socialism with Chinese
Characteristics", and the economic system of the Soviet Union which was described as "State capitalist"
by Vladimir Lenin.[4] A variety of different forms of communism have developed, each based upon the
ideas of different political theorists, usually as additions or interpretations of various forms of Marxism, the
collective philosophies of Karl Marx.[5] Marxism-Leninism is the synthesis of Vladimir Lenin's contributions
to Marxism, such as how a revolutionary party should be organised; Trotskyism is Leon Trotsky's
conception of Marxism andMaoism is Mao Tse Tung's interpretation of Marxism to suit the conditions of
China at that time.
Communist theory generally states that the only way to solve the problems existing within capitalism is for
the working class, referred to as the proletariat, who is the main producer of wealth in society and is
exploited by the capitalist class, as explained in theories such as surplus value, to replace the bourgeoisie
as the ruling class to establish a society without class divisions, called socialism, as a prelude to
attempting to achieve the final stage of communism.[1]
Pure communism, or the stage in history after socialism, refers to a classless, stateless society, one
where decisions on what to produce and what policies to pursue are made in the best interests of the
collective society with the interests of every member of society given equal weight in the
practical decision-making process in both the political and economic spheres of life. Karl Marx, as well as
some other communist philosophers, purposely never provided a detailed description as to how
communism would function as a social system. In theCommunist Manifesto, Marx lays out a 10-point plan
advising the redistribution of land and production to begin the transition to communism.
The origins of communism are debatable, and there are various historical groups, as well as theorists,
whose beliefs have been subsequently described as communist. Some theorists have considered hunter-
gatherer societies to adhere to a form of primitive communism, whilst historical figures
like Plato and Thomas More have been described as espousing early forms of the ideology. The
communist movement as it is known today largely took shape in the nineteenth century, when it was
developed.[5] In the twentieth century, revolutions led to openly communist governments taking power in
many countries, leading to the creation of states like the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China and
the Republic of Cuba.
In modern usage, communism is often used to refer to the policies of these governments, which were one
party systems operating undercentrally planned economies and a state ownership of the means of
production.
FASCISM
Radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology.[1][2][3][4]Fascists seek to organize
a nation according to corporatist perspectives, values, and systems, including the political system and the
economy.[5][6] Fascism was originally founded by Italian national syndicalists in World War I who combined
extreme right-wing political views along withcollectivism.[7][8][9] Scholars generally consider fascism to be
on the far right.[10][11][12][13][14][15]
Fascists believe that a nation is an organic community that requires strong leadership, singular collective
identity, and the will and ability to commit violence and wage war in order to keep the nation strong.
[16]
 They claim that culture is created by the collective national society and its state, that cultural ideas are
what give individuals identity, and thus they reject individualism.[16] Viewing the nation as an integrated
collective community, they see pluralism as a dysfunctional aspect of society, and justify atotalitarian state
as a means to represent the nation in its entirety.[17][18]
They advocate the creation of a single-party state.[19] Fascist governments forbid and suppress opposition
to the fascist state and the fascist movement.[20] They identify violence and war as actions that create
national regeneration, spirit and vitality.[21]
Fascism rejects the concepts of egalitarianism, materialism, and rationalism in favour of
action,discipline, hierarchy, spirit, and will.[22] They oppose liberalism (as a bourgeois movement)
and Marxism(as a proletarian movement) for being exclusive economic class-based movements.
[23]
 Fascists present their ideology as that of an economically trans-class movement that promotes ending
economic class conflict to secure national solidarity.[24] They believe that economic classes are not
capable of properly governing a nation, and that a merit-based elite of experienced military persons must
rule through regimenting a nation's forces of production and securing the nation's independence.
[25]
 Fascism perceives conservatism as partly valuable for its support of order in society but disagrees with
its typical opposition to change and modernization.[26] Fascism presents itself as a solution to the
perceived benefits and disadvantages of conservatism by advocating state-controlled modernization that
promotes orderly change while resisting the dangers to order in society of pluralism and independent
initiative.[26]
Fascists tend to support a "third position" in economic policy, which they believe superior to both
the rampant individualism of laissez-faire capitalism and the severe control of state socialism.[27][28] Italian
Fascism and most other fascist movements promote a corporatist economy whereby, in theory,
representatives of capital and labour interest groups work together within sectoral corporations to create
both harmonious labour relations and maximization of production that would serve the national interest.
[29]
However, other fascist movements and ideologies, such as Nazism, did not use this form of economy.[
he term fascismo is derived from the Italian word fascio, which means "bundle" or group, and from
theLatin word fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods that were tied around an axe, was
anancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrate. They were carried by his lictors and
could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command.[30][31] The word fascismo also relates
to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates.
The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the
bundle is difficult to break.[32] Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements. For
example the Falange symbol is a bunch of arrows joined together by a yoke.
DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a political form of government in which governing power is derived from the people,
by consensus (consensus democracy), by direct referendum (direct democracy), or by means of elected
representatives of the people (representative democracy).[1] The term comes from
the Greek: δημοκρατία – (dēmokratía) "rule of the people",[2] which was coined from δῆμος (dêmos)
"people" and κράτος (Kratos) "power", in the middle of the 5th-4th century BC to denote the political
systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC.
[3]
 Even though there is no specific, universally accepted definition of 'democracy',[4] equality and freedom
have been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times.[5] These principles are
reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to power. For example, in a
representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no restrictions can apply to anyone wanting to
become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties
which are generally protected by a constitution.[6][7]
There are several varieties of democracy, some of which provide better representation and more
freedoms for their citizens than others.[8][9] However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated – through
the use of balances – to avoid an uneven distribution of political power, such as the separation of powers,
then a branch of the system of rule could accumulate power, thus become undemocratic.[10][11][12]
The "majority rule" is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without governmental
or constitutional protections of individual liberties, it is possible for a minority of individuals to be
oppressed by the "tyranny of the majority". An essential process in "ideal" representative democracies is
competitiveelections that are fair both substantively[13] and procedurally.[14] Furthermore, freedom of
political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered by some to be essential
so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests.[15][16]
Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating subject for establishing a democracy. [17] In
some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the
term "democracy" as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such
aspolitical pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials for redress of
grievances;due process; civil liberties; human rights; and elements of civil society outside the
government.
In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries,
such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in
practicejudicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, "democracy" is used to
mean direct democracy. Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state,
the principles are applicable to private organizations and other groups also.
Democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece.[18][19] However other cultures have significantly contributed to
the evolution of democracy such as Ancient Rome,[18] Europe,[18] and North and South America.[20]The concept of
representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle
Ages and the Age of Enlightenment and in the American and French Revolutions.[21]Democracy has been called the
"last form of government" and has spread considerably across the globe. [22] The right to vote has been expanded in
many Jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group),
with New Zealand the first nation to grantuniversal suffrage for all its citizens in 1893. The term democracy first
appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought. The philosopher Platocontrasted democracy, the
system of "rule by the governed", with the alternative systems of monarchy (rule by one individual), oligarchy (rule by
a small élite class) and timocracy (ruling class of property owners).[23] AlthoughAthenian democracy is today
considered by many to have been a form of direct democracy, originally it had two distinguishing features: first
the allotment (selection by lot) of ordinary citizens to government offices and courts,[24]and secondarily the assembly
of all the citizens.[25]
All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the Assembly, which set the laws of the city-state. However, the
Athenian citizenship was only for males born from a father who was citizen and who had been doing their "military
service" between 18 and 20 years old; this excluded women, slaves, foreigners (μέτοικοι / metoikoi) and males under
20 years old. Of the 250,000 inhabitants only some 30,000 on average were citizens. Of those 30,000 perhaps 5,000
might regularly attend one or more meetings of the popular Assembly. Most of the officers and magistrates of
Athenian government were allotted; only the generals (strategoi) and a few other officers were elected.[3]
TOTALITARIANISM

Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a political system where the state, usually under the

control of a single political person, faction, or class, recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to
regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. [2] Totalitarianism is generally
characterized by the coincidence of authoritarianism (where ordinary citizens have less significant share
in state decision-making) and ideology (a pervasive scheme of values promulgated by institutional means
to direct most if not all aspects of public and private life).[3]
Totalitarian regimes or movements stay in political power through an all-
encompassing propagandadisseminated through the state-controlled mass media, a single party that is
often marked by personality cultism, control over the economy, regulation and restriction of speech, mass
surveillance, and widespread use of state terrorism. The notion of "Totalitarianism" a "total" political power
by state was formulated in 1923 by Giovanni Amendola who described Italian Fascism as a system
fundamentally different from conventionaldictatorships.[4] The term was later assigned a positive meaning
in the writings of Giovanni Gentile, Italy’s most prominent philosopher and leading theorist of fascism. He
used the term “totalitario” to refer to the structure and goals of the new state. The new state was to
provide the “total representation of the nation and total guidance of national goals.” [5] He described
totalitarianism as a society in which the ideology of the state had influence, if not power, over most of its
citizens.[6] According to Benito Mussolini, this system politicizes everything spiritual and human.
Non-political aspects of the culture and motifs of totalitarian countries have themselves often
been labeled innately "totalitarian". For example,Theodore Dalrymple, a British author, physician, and
political commentator, has written for City Journal that brutalist structures are an expression of
totalitarianism given that their grand, concrete-based design involves destroying gentler, more-human
places such asgardens.[24] In 1984, author George Orwell described the Ministry of Truth as an
"enormous, pyramidal structure of white concrete, soaring up terrace after terrace, three hundred metres
into the air"; columnist Ben Macintyre of The Times has stated that that was "a prescient description of
the sort of totalitarian architecture that would soon dominate the Communist bloc".
SOCIALISM
Socialism is an economic and political theory advocating public or common ownership and
cooperative management of the means of production and allocation of resources.[1][2][3] A socialist society
is a social structure organized on the basis of relatively equal power-relations, self-management,
dispersed decision-making (adhocracy) and a reduction or elimination of hierarchical and bureaucratic
forms of administration and governance; the extent of which varies in different types of socialism.[4][5] This
ranges from the establishment of cooperative management structures in the economy to the abolition of
allhierarchical structures in favor of free association.
As an economic system, socialism is a system of production and allocation based on the direct production
of use-values by allocating economic inputs, the means of production and investment throughplanning to
directly satisfy economic demand.[clarification needed] Economic calculation is based on either calculation-in-kind,
some physical magnitude or a direct measure of labour time.[6][7][clarification needed] Output for individual
consumption is distributed through markets, and distribution of income is based on individual
merit or individual contribution.[8]
As a political movement, socialism includes a diverse array of political philosophies, ranging
fromreformism to revolutionary socialism. Some currents of socialism advocate
complete nationalisation of the means of production, distribution and exchange, while others
advocate state control of capital within the framework of a market economy. Libertarian
socialists and anarchists reject using the state to build socialism, arguing that socialism will, and must,
arise spontaneously. They advocate direct worker-ownership of the means of production alternatively
through independent syndicates, workplace democracies, or worker cooperatives.
Modern socialism originated from an 18th-century intellectual and working class political movement that
criticised the effects ofindustrialisation and private property on society. Utopian socialists such as Robert
Owen (1771–1858), tried to found self-sustaining communes by secession from a capitalist society. Henri
de Saint Simon (1760–1825), who coined the term socialisme, advocatedtechnocracy and industrial
planning.[9] Saint-Simon, Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx advocated the creation of a society that allows
for the widespread application of modern technology to rationalise economic activity by eliminating
the anarchy of capitalist production that results in instability and cyclical crises of overproduction.[10][11]
Socialists inspired by the Soviet model of economic development, such as Marxist-Leninists, have
advocated the creation of centrally planned economies directed by a state that owns all the means of
production. Others, including Yugoslavian, Hungarian, East German and Chinesecommunist
governments in the 1970s and 1980s, instituted various forms of market socialism[citation needed], combining
co-operative and state ownership models with the free market exchange and free price system (but not
free prices for the means of production). The socialist perspective is generally based on materialism and
the understanding that human behavior is largely shaped by the social environment. In
particular, scientific socialism holds that social mores, values, cultural traits and economic practices are
social creations, and are not the property of an immutable natural law.[13] The ultimate goal
for Marxist socialists is the emancipation of labour from alienating work. Marxists argue that freeing the
individual from the necessity of performing alienating work in order to receive goods would allow people to
pursue their own interests and develop their own talents without being coerced into performing labour for
others. For Marxists, the stage of economic development in which this is possible is contingent upon
advances in the productive capabilities of society. As an economic system, socialism is based on the
direct production of use-value to satisfy economic demand by coordinating the use of economic inputs
(the means of production) through planning of production. Production is therefore planned and does not
suffer from the cyclical fluctuations[citation needed] inherent to economies based on capital accumulation.
Accounting for the use of economic inputs is based on calculation in-natura, while final goods and
services are distributed through markets.
 PROJECT
In
ARALIN PANLIPUNAN

Submitted by:
Lexin Joy M. Panganoron
III-24

Submitted to:
Mrs Quinones
-Teacher-