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FIBER OPTICS & HOLOGRAPHY
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Optical fiber works based on the principle of total internal reflection of light.
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Total Internal Reflection of Light:

When light passes from denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away form the normal drawn
at the point of incidence. For an increase in angle of incidence i, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular value of incidence refracted ray grazes (touches) the surface separating
both media. That is angle of refraction becomes 900, which is maximum. The angle of incidence
for which angle of refraction becomes 900 is called critical angle. Further increase in angle of
incidence, there is no possibility for refraction into the rarer medium, since the limits of variation
for refraction are only from 00 to 900. So instead of refraction into the rarer medium once again
light ray enter into the same denser medium.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection of light. Therefore an angle of incidence
greater than the critical angle, the light is bounded to the denser medium.

At the critical angle of incidence, according to Snell’s law of refraction,

n1sin c = n2sin 900 or c = sin-1(n2/ n1) where µ 1 is refractive index of the first medium, i.e. denser
medium and µ 2 is refractive index of the second medium i.e. rarer medium

Construction of Optical Fiber:

An optical fiber is a long cylindrical

transparent structure made up of a high
quality of glass or plastic usually with a
circular cross section.
Inner region A is called light guiding core having refractive index n1 1.7.core

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acts as denser medium. core is surrounded by a second cylindrical shell called cladding having
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The cladding is surrounded by a circular shell which is made up of polyurethane to protect fiber
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from sun light and shocks.

Acceptance Angle of Fiber:

Let us consider an optical fiber into which light is launched. The end in which light enters into
the fiber is called launching end.
Let the refractive index of the core be n1 and the cladding be n2 where n1>n2. Let n0 be the
refractive index of the medium from which light is launched into the fiber.
Let a light ray enter the fiber at an angle θ i with the axis of the fiber. The ray refracts at an angle
θr and strikes the core and cladding interface at an angleφ. If φ is greater than critical angle φc the
ray undergoes total internal reflection.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction to the launching face of the fiber, we get
n0 sin θ i = n1sinθr
n1
or sin θ i =
sinθr -----------(1)
n0
From the fig. in ∆ ABC sinθr = sin (90- φ) = cosφ
Sub. The above value in equ.(1), we get

n1
sin θ i = cosφ ----------(2).
n0
When φ = φc, the angle of incidence θ i becomes maximum
n1
∴ sin θ i max. = cosφc ----------- (3)
n0
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at point B, we have
n1 sinφc = n2 sin90 or

sinφc =
n2
or cosφc =
(n12 − n22 )
n n1
Substitute the above value in equation (3), we get

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sin θ i max =
(n 2
1 − n22 )
--------------(4)
n0
for air medium n0 = 1 so the above equation becomes

θ 0 = sin-1( (n
2
1 )
− n22 )------------ (5) where θ 0 = θ i max

Equation (5) gives the expression for the acceptance angle of the fiber.
Any angle of incidence of light is always less than the θ 0 .

∴Acceptance angle of fiber can be defined as “The maximum angle of incidence for which
light confines to the denser medium”

Acceptance Cone: The light rays contained

within the cone having a full angle 2 θ 0 are
accepted and transmitted along the fiber.
Therefore, the cone is called acceptance cone.

Fractional Refractive Index Change:

The fractional difference ∆ between the refractive indices of the core and the cladding is known
as fractional refractive index change. It is expressed as
n − n2
∆= 1
n1
This parameter is always positive because n1 must be greater than n2 for the total internal
reflection condition. In order to guide light rays effectively through a fiber, ∆ <<1. typically ∆ is
of the order of 0.01.

Numerical Aperture (NA):

The numerical aperture is defined as the sine of acceptance angle. Thus,

NA = sin θ 0
NA = (n 2
1 )
− n22 ----------- (1)
2 2
n1 - n = (n1 + n2)(n1 – n2)
2

 n + n2   n1 − n 2 
=2  1  n1  
 2   n1 

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n + n2
Approximating 1 ≈ n1, we can express the above relation as
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NA = n1 2∆ ----------- (2)

Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. NA ranges from 0.13 to
0.50.

Types of Fibers:

Based on refractive index profile optical fibers are classified into two categories.
i. Step index fibers
ii. Graded index fibers
Step Index Fibers:
In step index fibers refractive index of the core is constant
throughout the diameter of the core. At the core and
cladding boundary the refractive index suddenly changes
which is shown in fig.
Single Mode Step Index Fiber (SMF):

In single mode fiber the core diameter is of the order of 4µm. so it can support few wavelengths
of light only. Light travels in SMF along a single path that is along the axis of the fiber. This is
known as zero order propagation. A SMF has very small value of ∆. It is of the order of 0.002.

Multi Mode Step Index Fiber (MMF):

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has larger core diameter of the order of 100 µm. so it can support multi wavelengths. Light
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follows zigzag paths inside the fiber. Many zigzag paths are permitted in MMF by changing the
frequency of the light.
The NA of the MMF is of the order of 0.3.

Graded Index Fiber:

A graded index fiber is a multimode fiber with a core consisting of concentric layers of different
refractive indices. Therefore the refractive index of the core is not constant throughout the
diameter of core. Refractive Index of the core varies in parabolic path. It is maximum at the
centre of the core and decreases away from the center which is shown in fig.
The refractive index of the central zone of the
fiber can be written as
α

n(r) = n1 2∆ 1 −  r  ------------(1)
a
where α is grading parameter. If α = 1, grading is
linear. α =2 grading is parabolic. For graded index
fibers α = 2 is preferred. When α = ∞ grading is step
index fiber.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS OVER ORDINARY CABLES:

i. Optical Fibers are Cheaper: The optical fibers are made from silica (SiO2) which is
one of the most abundant (more availability) materials on the earth.

ii. Optical fibers are small in size, light in weight, flexible and mechanically strong:
The cross section of an optical fiber is about a few hundred micrometers whereas wires
are bigger in size and heavy weight. Typically an RG-19/U coaxial cable weighs about
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1100kg/km whereas a fiber weighs 60kgs/km only. Therefore fiber cables are easier to
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iii.Optical fibers reduce cross talk susceptibility: The light in the fiber is completely confined
to the core medium only and it cannot leak out from the fiber. Similarly light cannot couple with
another fiber from sides of fiber. Because of this feature cross talk susceptibility greatly reduced.

iv.Optical fibers are immune to EMI (electro magnetic interference): In optical fibers
information carried by photons. Photons are electrically neutral and cannot be disturbed by high
voltages and lightning etc. so fibers are immune to externally caused back ground noise
generated by electro magnetic interference and radio frequency interference

v. Optical fibers have a wider bandwidth: A telephone cable composed of 900 pairs of wire
can handle 10,000 calls whereas 1mm fiber can transmit 50,000 calls simultaneously. Thus fibers
have ability to carry large amounts of information.

OPTICAL FIBER IN COMMUNICATIONS:

The important application of the optical fiber in the field of communication as transmission
medium. The block diagram of the basic communication system is shown in figure. It consists of
transmitter, receiver and an information channel.
In general the information to be communicated is non electrical form which must be
converted into electrical form. A drive circuit converts the audio or video signal into electrical
signal.
This drive circuit is connected to light source. Here the signal is converted into corresponding
light signal. This light is fed to optical fiber. The optical signal traveling through the fiber will be
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attenuated gradually because of losses and dispersion of signal in fiber. Therefore repeaters are
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At the receiver end light emerging from the fiber channel is detected by photo detector.
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The detector converts the light wave into electrical current. In the next step the detector output
current is filtered and is amplified. The amplifier does this task. The amplifier output is fed to the
signal restorer which restores the signal. Finally this electrical signal is fed to transducer which
converts signal into audio or video form.

Transducer: it is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.

ATTENUATION:

An optical signal attenuated progressively in the fiber due to losses. The attenuation coefficient α
can be written as
10 p
α= log i
L p0
Where L is length of the fiber. Pi is input power of light and P0 is output power of light.

Fiber Losses:
The losses occurring in fibers may be mainly due to
a) Absorption losses b) Scattering losses
a) Absorption losses: Even highly pure glass also absorbs light in specific wavelength regions.
Absorption losses are due to the presence of impurities in the fiber. During the preparation of the
fiber OH- ions
are left inside the fiber. These ions are
caused electronic absorption of light
at wavelengths 0.95µm, 1.25µm and
1.39µm as shown in figure. Another
absorption peak appears at 8µm which
is in IR region, not shown fig.
Absorption of light is also due to the
presence of transition metal ions like
chromium, manganese, iron and copper etc.,

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During the preparation of the fiber

some impurities are added to change
the refractive index. So in some regions
the refractive index of the core is not
uniform due to the change in the density
of the impurities added to the fiber.
So light scatters while it is passing through the fiber. This scattering is called Rayleigh’s
1
scattering loss. Rayleigh’s scattering is proportional to the . As the wavelength increases
λ4
scattering losses decrease.

OPTICAL FIBERS AS SENSORS:

Smoke Detector and Pollution Detector:
When a beam of light is subjected into fiber from one end, it can be collected by other end of
fiber. If foreign particles are present, they scatter light and the variation in intensity of light
shows that presence of foreign particles such as smoke etc.
Level Detector:

Fiber dip stick is used to detect the level of liquid in containers. Initially the dip stick is placed
above the liquid. Light is allowed into the fiber, it undergoes total internal reflection, and light
can be collected at the other end of the dip stick as shown in fig.a.

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In the second step dip stick is immersed into the liquid. Now light is allowed into the dip stick.
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Because refractive index of liquid is different from the air medium.
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By measuring the length of the dip stick, level of the liquid can be determined.

Temperature / Pressure Sensor:

If the fiber is subjected is to heat, the tempera-

ture causes a change in the R.I of the fiber.
As the temperature increases, the difference
Between the R.I of core and cladding reduces,
leading to the leakage of light into cladding.
As shown in the fig., the laser beam is split
Into two rays be placing a glass plate at angle 450 to the light beam. So that light split into two
rays, one of them is allowed to pass through the reference fiber, while the other is to pass through
the sensing fiber. Sensing fiber is placed in the region where we have to find the temperature.
These two light rays( one from the reference fiber and the other from sensing fiber) superimpose
and gives interference pattern. The change in the fringe width gives the temperature of the given
region.
Optical Fiber in Medical Endoscope:

An endoscope is an instrument designed to see the internal parts of the body.

This instrument transmits the images from inaccessible areas such as food path, stomach, heart
and lungs through a long flexible fiber.

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Fig. shows the instrument of endoscope. Light is allowed into the fiber form the outer fiber and
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through the inner fiber as shown in fig. Reflected light contains the image of the inner object of
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the body.

HOLOGRAPHY:
In greek language Holos means “complete” and gramma means “writing”. Thus a hologram
means a complete recording. This hologram is developed and stored.
Basic Principle of Holography:
In conventional photography a negative is made first and using it a positive print is produced. In
this positive print we have only a two dimensional image of the object, because the amplitude of
the light wave only recorded and the phase is lost.
In 1947 Gabor introduced a new technique of photography called “wave front
construction”. According to this technique both the phase and intensity (square of the
amplitude) of the wave are recorded and this photograph shows a three dimensional image of
object. This technique is called “holography”.

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Construction of Hologram:
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Fig. shows the principle of holography.
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A beam of laser is split into two beams
namely reference beam and object beam.
The reference beam is made to incident
on photo plate directly while the object
beam is illuminates the object and is
Reflected to photo plate.
So the object beam and reference beam are interfere
and produces an interference pattern on photo plate. The photographic plate which contains the
interference pattern is called “hologram”
The interference pattern on the hologram consists of a complex pattern of alternate regions of
dark and bright fringes. By the honors of scientist Gabour hologram is also called “Gabor Zone
Plate”.
Reconstruction or Viewing of Hologram:

A laser beam identical to the

reference beam is used for reconstruction
of the object. The reconstruction beam
illuminates the hologram at the same
angle as the reference beam.
the hologram acts as diffraction
grating and secondary waves
from the hologram interfere constructively in certain directions and interfere destructively in
other directions. They form a real image in front of the hologram and virtual image behind the
hologram.
During the construction of hologram, each point of the hologram has full information
about the object. Hence the hologram is cut into pieces; each piece contains full information of
the object that is from each piece full image can be reconstructed.
Holography is thus two stage processes. In the first stage a hologram is recorded in the
form of interference pattern. In the second stage the hologram acts as a diffraction grating for the
reconstruction beam.
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Advantages / Applications:
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individual part of the original object. Therefore destruction of any part of image leads to an
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irreparable loss of information corresponding to destroyed object. In hologram each part contains
information about the entire object. Therefore form each piece full image can be reconstructed.
2. Image holding capacity is high: several images can be recorded on a single hologram therefore
image holding capacity of hologram is extremely high. For ex. A 6x9 mm photograph can hold
one printed page; a hologram of the same page can store up to 300 such pages.
3. Holographic Diffraction Grating: Holographic gratings are obtained by interference of two
laser beams on a hologram. This method produces rulings more uniform than the ordinary ruling
engine method.
4. Acoustical holography: Ultrasonic sound waves are used to scan the human body and
produces hologram for human body. This hologram can provide a three dimensional view of
internal structures of human body.
5. Information security: in this process the reference beam is passed through an encoding mask
which generates a special wave front. To view this hologram we have to use the same type of
reference beam and the encoding mask details are kept secret. So the information in the
hologram is also secured.

J Anindhya Kiran
9866281324

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