See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236589566

A Thousand Problems in Cosmology. Chapter 4:

Black holes

Article · May 2013

Source: arXiv

CITATIONS READS

0 24

3 authors:

Yu. L. Bolotin I. V. Tanatarov

National Science Center Kharkov Institute of … V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University
90 PUBLICATIONS 154 CITATIONS 26 PUBLICATIONS 59 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

O. B. Zaslavskii
V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University
88 PUBLICATIONS 949 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by I. V. Tanatarov on 09 January 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document
and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
 A Thousand Problems in Cosmology
Chapter 4: Black holes

Yu.L. Bolotin,1, ∗ I. V. Tanatarov,1, 2, † and O. B. Zaslavskii2, ‡

1
Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology,
1 Akademicheskaya, Kharkov 61108, Ukraine
2
Department of Physics and Technology,
Kharkov V.N. Karazin National University,
4 Svoboda Square, Kharkov 61077, Ukraine

The fourth chapter of the collection of problems in cosmology, devoted to black

arXiv:1305.0259v1 [gr-qc] 1 May 2013

holes. Consists of basic introduction, sections on Schwarzschild and Kerr black holes,
a section on particles’ motion and collisions in general black hole space-times, and
the astrophysical part. This version contains only formulations of 137 problems.
The full collection, with solutions included, is available in the form of a wiki-based
resource at www.universeinproblems.com. The cosmological community is welcome
to contribute to its development.

∗
[email protected]
†
[email protected]
‡
[email protected]
 2

CONTENTS

I. Technical warm-up 3
A. Uniformly accelerated observer, Rindler metric 3
B. Metric in curved spacetime 3

II. Schwarzschild black hole 4

A. Simple problems 4
B. Symmetries and integrals of motion of Schwarzschild metric 5
C. Radial motion in Schwarzchild metric 5
D. Blackness of black holes 6
E. Orbital motion, effective potential 6
F. Miscellaneous problems 7
G. Different coordinates, maximal extension 8

III. Kerr black hole 9

A. General axially symmetric metric 9
B. Limiting cases 10
C. Horizons and singularity 10
D. Stationary limit 11
E. Ergosphere and the Penrose process 11
F. Integrals of motion 12
G. The laws of mechanics of black holes 12
H. Particles’ motion in the equatorial plane 13

IV. Physics in general black hole spacetimes 14

A. Frames, time intervals and distances 14
B. Fiducial observers 15
C. Collision of particles: general relationships 15

V. Astrophysical black holes 17

A. Preliminary 17
B. Quantum effects 18

References 19
 3

I. TECHNICAL WARM-UP

The problems collected here introduce the tools needed for solving problems in the
following sections. They can be solved in succession, or one can return to them if and when
questions arise. For more background see the section “Equations of General Relativity”
of chapter 2.

A. Uniformly accelerated observer, Rindler metric

Einstein’s equivalence principle states that locally a gravitational field cannot be distin-
guished from a non-inertial frame of reference. Therefore a number of effects of General
Relativity, such as time dilation in a gravitational field and formation of horizons, can be
studied in the frame of Special Theory of Relativity when considering uniformly accelerated
observers.
1. Derive the equation of motion x(t) of a charged particle in Minkowski space in a
uniform electric field without initial velocity. Show that its acceleration is constant.

2. What region of spacetime is unobservable for such an accelerated observer? In what

region is this observer unobservable?

3. Consider the set of particles, which move with constant accelerations a = const > 0
in Minkowski space, with initial conditions at time t = 0 set as x = ρ = c2 /a. Let τ
be the proper time of these particles in the units of ρ/c. What region of spacetime
is parametrized by the pair of positive numbers (τ, ρ)? Express the metric in this
region in the coordinates (ρ, ϕ), where ϕ = cτ /ρ. This is the Rindler metric.

B. Metric in curved spacetime

We see here, how, given an arbitrary metric tensor, to determine physical distance
between points, local time and physical velocity of a particle in an arbitrary frame of
reference.
This problem, though fundamentally important, is necessary in full form only for con-
sideration of particle dynamics in the Kerr metric. In order to analyze the dynamics
in the Schwarzschild metric, it suffices to answer all the questions with a substantially
simplifying condition g0i = 0, where i = 1, 2, 3 (see the last of the problems).
Let the spacetime metric have the general form

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν .

Coordinates are arbitrary and do not carry direct metrical meaning. An observer, sta-
tionary in a given coordinate frame, has 4-velocity uµ = (u0 , 0, 0, 0), and the interval
determines his proper “local” time

c2 dτ 2 = ds2 = g00 (dx0 )2 .

 4

An observer in point A, with coordinates xµ , determines the physical “radar” distance to

an infinitely close point B, with coordinates xµ + dxµ , in the following way. She sends a
light beam to B and measures the time it takes for the reflected beam to come back. Then
distance to B is half the proper time she waited from emission to detection times c. It is
also natural for her to consider the event of the beam reflection in B to be simultaneous
with the middle of the infinitely small 4-distance between the events of emission and
detection of light beam in A.

4. Find the physical distance dl between two events with coordinates xµ and xµ + dxµ .

5. Find the difference between coordinate times of two infinitely close simultaneous
events.

6. Let a particle’s world line be xµ (λ). What is the proper time interval δτ of a
stationary observer, in which this particle covers distance from xµ to xµ + dxµ ?

7. Physical velocity v of the particle is defined as dl/δτ . Express it through the 4-

velocity of the particle and through its coordinate velocity dxi /dx0 ; find the interval
along the world line ds in terms of v and local time dτ .

8. How are all the previous answers simplified if g0i = 0?

II. SCHWARZSCHILD BLACK HOLE

The spherically symmetric solution of Einstein’s equations in vacuum for the spacetime
metric has the form [1]

ds2 = h(r) dt2 − h−1 (r) dr 2 − r 2 dΩ2 , where h(r) = 1 − rg =

rg 2GM
; ; (1)
r c2
dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 – metric of unit sphere.

The Birkhoff’s theorem (1923) [2, 3] states, that this solution is unique up to coordinate
transformations. The quantity rg is called the Schwarzschild radius, or gravitational
radius, M is the mass of the central body or black hole.

A. Simple problems

9. Find the interval of local time (proper time of stationary observer) at a point
(r, θ, ϕ) in terms of coordinate time t, and show that t is the proper time of an
observer at infinity. What happens when r → rg ?

10. What is the physical distance between two points with coordinates (r1 , θ, ϕ) and
(r2 , θ, ϕ)? Between (r, θ, ϕ1 ) and (r, θ, ϕ2 )? How do these distances behave in the
limit r1 , r → rg ?
 5

11. What would be the answers to the previous two questions for r < rg and why1 ?
Why the Schwarzschild metric cannot be imagined as a system of “welded” rigid
rods in r < rg , as it can be in the external region?

12. Calculate the acceleration of a test particle with zero velocity.

13. Show that Schwarzschild metric is a solution to Einstein’s equations.

B. Symmetries and integrals of motion of Schwarzschild metric

14. What integral of motion arises due to existance of a timelike Killing vector? Express
it through the physical velocity of the particle.

15. Derive the Killing vectors for a sphere in Cartesian coordinate system; in spherical
coordinates.

16. Verify that in coordinates (t, r, θ, ϕ) vectors

Ωµ = (1, 0, 0, 0),
Rµ = (0, 0, 0, 1),
S µ = (0, 0, cos ϕ, − cot θ sin ϕ),
T µ = (0, 0, − sin ϕ, − cot θ cos ϕ)

are the Killing vectors of the Schwarzschild metric.

17. Show that existence of Killing vectors S µ and T µ leads to motion of particles in a
plane.

18. Show that the particles’ motion in the plane is stable.

19. Write down explicitly the conserved quantities pµ Ωµ and pµ Rµ for movement in the
plane θ = π/2.

20. What is the work needed to pull a particle from the horizon to infinity? Will a black
hole’s mass change if we drop a particle with zero initial velocity from immediate
proximity of the horizon?

C. Radial motion in Schwarzchild metric

Consider a particle’s radial motion: ϕ̇ = θ̇ = 0. In this problem one is especially

interested in asymptotes of all functions as r → rg .

21. Derive the equation for null geodesics (worldlines of massless particles).

1
It is actually not a very simple problem
 6

22. Use energy conservation to derive v(r), ṙ(r) = dr/dt, r(t) for a massive particle.
Initial conditions: g00 ∣ṙ=0 = h0 (the limiting case h0 → 1 is especially interesting and
simple).

23. Show that the equation of radial motion in terms of proper time of the particle is the
same as in the non-relativistic Newtonian theory. Calculate the proper time of the
fall from r = r0 to the center. Derive the first correction in rg /r to the Newtonian
result. Initial velocity is zero.

24. Derive the equations of radial motion in the ultra-relativistic limit.

25. A particle (observer) falling into a black hole is emitting photons, which are detected
on the same radial line far away from the horizon (i.e. the photons travel from
emitter to detector radially). Find r, v and ṙ as functions of the signal’s detection
time in the limit r → rg .

D. Blackness of black holes

A source radiates photons of frequency ωi , its radial coordinate at the time of emission
is r = rem . Find the frequency of photons registered by a detector situated at r = rdet on
the same radial line in different situations described below. By stationary observers here,
we mean stationary in the static Schwarzschild metric; “radius” is the radial coordinate
r.

26. The source and detector are stationary.

27. The source is falling freely without initial velocity from radius r0 ; it flies by the
stationary detector at the moment of emission.

28. The source is freely falling the same way, while the detector is stationary at rdet >
rem .

29. The source is falling freely and emitting continuously photons with constant fre-
quency, the detector is stationary far away from the horizon rdet ≫ rg . How does
the detected light’s intensity depend on rem at the moment of emission? On the
proper time of detector?

E. Orbital motion, effective potential

Due to high symmetry of the Schwarzschild metric, a particle’s worldline is completely

determined by the normalizing condition uµ uµ = ǫ, where ǫ = 1 for a massive particle and
ǫ = 0 for a massless one, plus two conservation laws—of energy and angular momentum.

30. Show that the ratio of specific energy to specific angular momentum of a particle
equals to rg /b, where b is the impact parameter at infinity (for unbounded motion).
 7

31. Derive the geodesics’ equations; bring the equation for r(λ) to the form

( ) + Vǫ (r) = ε,
1 dr 2
2 dλ
where Vǫ (r) is a function conventionally termed as effective potential.

32. Plot and investigate the function V (r). Find the radii of circular orbits and analyze
their stability; find the regions of parameters (E, L) corresponding to bound and
unbound motion, fall into the black hole. Consider the cases of a) massless, b)
massive particles.

33. Derive the gravitational capture cross-section for a massless particle; the first cor-
rection to it for a massive particle ultra-relativistic at infinity. Find the cross-section
for a non-relativistic particle to the first order in v 2 /c2 .

34. Find the minimal radius of stable circular orbit and its parameters. What is the
maximum gravitational binding energy of a particle in the Schwarzschild spacetime?

F. Miscellaneous problems

35. Gravitational lensing is the effect of deflection of a light beam’s (photon’s) trajec-
tory in the gravitational field. Derive the deflection of a photon’s trajectory in
Schwarzschild metric in the limit L/rg ≫ 1. Show that it is twice the value for a
massive particle with velocity close to c in the Newtonian theory.

36. Show that the 4-acceleration of a stationary particle in the Schwarzschild metric
can be presented in the form
√
aµ = −∂µ Φ, where Φ = ln g00 = 12 ln g00

is some generalization of the Newtonian gravitational potential.

37. Let us reformulate the problem in a coordinate-independent manner. Suppose we

have an arbitrary stationary metric with timelike Killing vector ξ µ , and we denote
the 4-velocity of a stationary observer by uµ = ξ µ /V . What is the 4-force per unit
mass that we need to apply to a test particle in order to make it stay stationary?
Show in coordinate-independent way that the answer coincides with ∂µ Φ (up to the
sign), and rewrite Φ in coordinate-independent form.

38. Surface gravity κ of the Schwarzschild horizon can be defined as acceleration of

a stationary particle at the horizon, measured in the proper time of a stationary
observer at infinity. Find κ.

Solving Einstein’s equations for a spherically symmetric metric of general form in

vacuum (energy-momentum tensor equals to zero), one can reduce the metric to

ds2 = f (t)(1 − )dt2 − (1 − ) dr 2 − r 2 dΩ2 ,

C C −1
r r
 8

where C is some integration constant, and f (t) an arbitrary function of time t.

39. Suppose all the matter is distributed around the center of symmetry, and its energy-
momentum tensor is spherically symmetric, so that the form of gµν written above is
correct. Show that the solution in the exterior region is reduced to the Schwarzschild
metric and find the relation between C and the system’s mass M.

40. Let there be a spherically symmetric void r < r0 in the spherically symmetric matter
distribution. Show that spacetime in the void is flat.

41. Let the matter distribution be spherically symmetric and filling regions r < r0 and
r1 < r < r2 (r0 < r1 ). Can one affirm, that the solution in the layer of empty space
r0 < r < r1 is also the Schwarzschild metric?

G. Different coordinates, maximal extension

We saw that a particle’s proper time of reaching the singularity is finite. However,
the Schwarzschild metric has a (removable) coordinate singularity at r = rg . In order to
eliminate it and analyze the casual structure of the full solution, it is convenient to use
other coordinate frames. Everywhere below we transform the coordinates r and t, while
leaving the angular part unchanged.

42. Make coordinate transformation in the Schwarzschild metric near the horizon (r −
rg ) ≪ rg by using physical distance to the horizon as a new radial coordinate instead
of r, and show that in the new coordinates it reduces near the horizon to the Rindler
metric.

43. Derive the Schwarzschild metric in coordinates t and r ⋆ = r + rg ln ∣r − rg ∣. How do

the null geodesics falling to the center look like in (t, r ⋆ )? What range of values of
r ⋆ corresponds to the region r > rg ?

44. Rewrite the metric in coordinates r and u = t−r ⋆ , find the equations of null geodesics
and the value of g = det(gµν ) at r = rg . Likewise in coordinates r and v = t + r ⋆ ; in
coordinates (u, v). The coordinate frames (v, r) and (u, r) are called the ingoing
and outgoing Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates.

45. Rewrite the Schwarzschild metric in coordinates (u′ , v ′ ) and in the Kruskal coordi-
nates (T, R) (Kruskal solution), defined as follows:
u′ + v ′ v ′ − u′
v ′ = ev/2rg , u′ = −e−u/2rg ; T= , R= .
2 2
What are the equations of null geodesics, surfaces r = const and t = const, of the
horizon r = rg , singularity r = 0, in the coordinates (T, R)? What is the range
space of (T, R)? Which regions in the Schwarzschild coordinates do the regions
{I ∶ R > ∣T ∣}, {II ∶ T > ∣R∣}, {III ∶ R < −∣T ∣} and {IV ∶ T < −∣R∣} correspond to?
 9

Which of them are casually connected and which are not? What is the geometry
of the spacelike slice T = const and how does it evolve with time T ?

46. Pass to coordinates

v ′′ = arctan √ , u′′ = arctan √

v′ u′
rg rg
and draw the spacetime diagram of the Kruskal solution in them.

47. The Kruskal solution describes an eternal black hole. Suppose, for simplicity, that
some black hole is formed as a result of radial collapse of a spherically symmetric
shell of massless particles. What part of the Kruskal solution will be realized, and
what will not be? What is the casual structure of the resulting spacetime?

III. KERR BLACK HOLE

Kerr solution is the solution of Einstein’s equations in vacuum that describes a rotating
black hole (or the metric outside of a rotating axially symmetric body) [4]. In the Boyer-
Lindquist coordinates [5] it takes the form
4µa r sin2 θ
ds = (1 − 2 )dt + − dr − ρ2 dθ2 +
2 2µr 2 ρ2 2
dt dϕ
ρ ρ 2 ∆
2µr a2 sin2 θ
−(r 2 + a2 + ) sin2 θ dϕ2 ; (2)
ρ2
where ρ2 = r 2 + a2 cos2 θ, ∆ = r 2 − 2µr + a2 . (3)

Here µ is the black hole’s mass, J its angular momentum, a = J/µ; t and ϕ are time
and usual azimuth angle, while r and θ are some coordinates that become the other two
coordinates of the spherical coordinate system at r → ∞.

A. General axially symmetric metric

A number of properties of the Kerr solution can be understood qualitatively without

use of its specific form. In this problem we consider the axially symmetric metric of quite
general kind
ds2 = Adt2 − B(dϕ − ωdt)2 − C dr 2 − D dθ2 , (4)
where functions A, B, C, D, ω depend only on r and θ.
48. Find the components of metric tensor gµν and its inverse g µν .

49. Write down the integrals of motion corresponding to Killing vectors ∂t and ∂ϕ .

50. Find the coordinate angular velocity Ω = dϕ

dt of a particle with zero angular momen-
tum uµ (∂ϕ )µ = 0.

51. Calculate A, B, C, D, ω for the Kerr metric.

 10

B. Limiting cases

52. Show that in the limit a → 0 the Kerr metric turns into Schwarzschild with rg = 2µ.

53. Show that in the limit µ → 0 the Kerr metric describes Minkowski space with the
spatial part in coordinates that are related to Cartesian as
√
x = r 2 + a2 sin θ cos ϕ,
√
y = r 2 + a2 sin θ sin ϕ,
z = r cos θ,
where r ∈ [0, ∞), θ ∈ [0, π], ϕ ∈ [0, 2π).

Find equations of surfaces r = const and θ = const in coordinates (x, y, z). What is
the surface r = 0?

54. Write the Kerr metric in the limit a/r → 0 up to linear terms.

C. Horizons and singularity

Event horizon is a closed null surface. A null surface is a surface with null normal
vector nµ :
nµ nµ = 0.
This same notation means that nµ belongs to the considered surface (which is not to be
wondered at, as a null vector is always orthogonal to self). It can be shown further, that
a null surface can be divided into a set of null geodesics. Thus the light cone touches it in
each point: the future light cone turns out to be on one side of the surface and the past
cone on the other side. This means that world lines of particles, directed in the future,
can only cross the null surface in one direction, and the latter works as a one-way valve,
– “event horizon”.

55. Show that if a surface is defined by equation f (r) = 0, and on it g rr = 0, it is a null

surface.

56. Find the surfaces g rr = 0 for the Kerr metric. Are they spheres?

57. Calculate surface areas of the outer and inner horizons.

58. What values of a lead to existence of horizons?

On calculating curvature invariants, one can see they are regular on the horizons and
diverge only at ρ2 → 0. Thus only the latter surface is a genuine singularity.

59. Derive the internal metric of the surface r = 0 in Kerr solution.

60. Show that the set of points ρ = 0 is a circle. How it it situated relative to the inner
horizon?
 11

D. Stationary limit

Stationary limit is a surface that delimits areas in which particles can be stationary
and those in which they cannot. An infinite redshift surface is a surface such that a
phonon emitted on it escapes to infinity with frequency tending to zero (and thus its
redshift tends to infinity). The event horizon of the Schwarzschild solution is both a
stationary limit and an infinite redshift surface (see problems 26-29). In the general case
the two do not necessarily have to coincide.

61. Find the equations of surfaces gtt = 0 for the Kerr metric. How are they situated
relative to the horizons? Are they spheres?

62. Calculate the coordinate angular velocity of a massless particle moving along ϕ in
the general axially symmetric metric (4). There should be two solutions, corre-
sponding to light traveling in two opposite directions. Show that both solutions
have the same sign on the surface gtt = 0. What does it mean? Show that on the
horizon g rr = 0 the two solutions merge into one. Which one?

63. What values of angular velocity can be realized for a massive particle? In what
region angular velocity cannot be zero? What can it be equal to near the horizon?

64. A stationary source radiates light of frequency ωem . What frequency will a station-
ary detector register? What happens if the source is close to the surface gtt = 0?
What happens if the detector is close to this surface?

E. Ergosphere and the Penrose process

Ergosphere is the area between the outer stationary limit and the outer horizon. As
it lies before the horizon, a particle can enter it and escape back to infinity, but gtt < 0
there. This leads to the possibility of a particle’s energy in ergosphere to be also negative,
which leads in turn to interesting effects.
All we need to know of the Kerr solution in this problem is that it has an ergosphere,
i.e. the outer horizon lies beyond the outer static limit, and that on the external side of
the horizon all the parameters A, B, C, D, ω are positive (you can check!). Otherwise, it
is enough to consider the axially symmetric metric of general form.

65. Let a massive particle move along the azimuth angle ϕ, with fixed r and θ. Express
the first integral of motion ut through the second one2 uϕ (tip: use the normalizing
condition uµ uµ = 1).

66. Under what condition a particle can have ut < 0? In what area can it be fulfilled?
Can such a particle escape to infinity?

2
Relations problem 7 and 14) do not hold, as they were derived in assumption that g00 > 0.
 12

67. What is the meaning of negative energy? Why in this case (and in GR in general)
energy is not defined up to an additive constant?

68. Let a particle A fall into the ergosphere, decay into two particles B and C there,
and particle C escape to infinity. Suppose C’s energy turns out to be greater than
A’s. Find the bounds on energy and angular momentum carried by the particle B.

F. Integrals of motion

69. Find the integrals of motion for a massless particle moving along the azimuth angle
ϕ (i.e. dr = dθ = 0). What signs of energy E and angular momentum L are possible
for particles in the exterior region and in ergosphere?

70. Calculate the same integrals for massive particles. Derive the condition for nega-
tivity of energy in terms of its angular velocity dϕ/dt. In what region can it be
fulfilled? Show that it is equivalent to the condition on angular momentum found
in problem 66.

71. Derive the integrals of motion for particles with arbitrary 4-velocity uµ . What is
the allowed interval of angular velocities Ω = dϕ/dt? Show that for any particle
(E − Ω̃L) > 0 for any Ω̃ ∈ (Ω− , Ω+ ).

G. The laws of mechanics of black holes

If a Killing vector is null on some null hypersurface Σ, Σ is called a Killing horizon.

72. Show that vector K = ∂t + ΩH ∂ϕ is a Killing vector for the Kerr solution, and it is
null on the outer horizon r = r+ . Here ΩH = ω∣r=r is the angular velocity of the
+
horizon.

73. Let us define the surface gravity for the Kerr black hole as the limit
√ µ
κ = lim
a aµ
r→r+ u0
for a particle near the horizon with 4-velocity u = ut (∂t + ω∂ϕ ). In the particular
case of Schwarzschild metric this definition reduces to the one given in problem 38.
Calculate κ for particles with zero angular momentum in the Kerr metric. What is
it for the critical black hole, with a = µ?

74. Find the change of (outer) horizon area of a black hole when a particle with energy
E and angular momentum L falls into it. Show that it is always positive.

75. Let us define the irreducible mass Mirr of Kerr black hole as the mass of Schwarzschild
black hole with the same horizon area. Find Mirr (µ, J) and µ(Mirr , J). Which
part of the total mass of a black hole can be extracted from it with the help of
Penrose process?
 13

76. Show that an underextremal Kerr black hole (with a < µ) cannot be turned into
the extremal one in any continuous accretion process.
This problem’s results can be presented in the form that provides far-reaching analogy
with the laws of thermodynamics.
0: Surface gravity κ is constant on the horizon of a stationary black hole. The ze-
roth law of thermodynamics: a system in thermodynamic equilibrium has constant
temperature T .

1: The relation
δµ = δA+ + ΩH δJ
κ
8π
gives an analogy of the first law of thermodynamics, energy conservation.

2: Horizon area A+ is nondecreasing. This analogy with the second law of thermody-
namics hints at a correspondence between the horizon area and entropy.

3: There exists no such continuous process, which can lead as a result to zero surface
gravity. This is an analogy to the third law of thermodynamics: absolute zero is
unreachable.

H. Particles’ motion in the equatorial plane

The following questions refer to a particle’s motion in the equatorial plane θ = π/2 of
the Kerr metric.
77. Put down explicit expressions for the metric components and parameters A, B, C, D, ω.

78. What is the angular velocity of a particle with zero energy?

79. Use the normalizing conditions for the 4-velocity uµ uµ = ǫ2 and two conservation
laws to derive geodesic equations for particles, determine the effective potential for
radial motion.

80. Integrate the equations of motion for null geodesics with L = aE, investigate the
asymptotes close to the horizons, limits a → 0 and a → µ.

81. Find the minimal radii of circular geodesics for massless particles, the corresponding
values of integrals of motion and angular velocities. Show that of the three solutions
one lies beyond the horizon, one describes motion in positive direction and one in
negative direction. Explore the limiting cases of Schwarzschild a → 0 and extreme
Kerr a → µ.

82. Find L2 and E 2 as functions of radii for circular geodesics of the massive particles.

83. Derive equation for the minimal radius of a stable circular orbit; find the energy
and angular momentum of a particle on it, the minimal radius in the limiting cases
a/µ → 0, 1.
 14

IV. PHYSICS IN GENERAL BLACK HOLE SPACETIMES

In this section we use the (− + ++) signature, Greek letters for spacetime indices and
Latin letters for spatial indices.

A. Frames, time intervals and distances

In the next several problems we again consider the procedure of measuring time and
space intervals by different observers, but in a different, more formal and powerful ap-
proach.

84. Let a particle move with the four-velocity U µ . It can be viewed as some observer
carrying a frame attached to him. Locally, it defines the hypersurface orthogonal
to it. Show that
hµν = gµν + Uµ Uν (5)

is (i) the projection operator onto this hypersurface, and at the same time (ii) the
induced metric of the hypersurface. This means that (i) for any vector projected at
this hypersurface by means of hµν , only the components orthogonal to U µ survive,
(ii) the repeated application of the projection operation leaves the vector within
the hypersurface unchanged. In other words, hµν satisfies

hµν U ν = 0; (6)
hµν hνλ = hµλ . (7)

85. Let us consider a particle moving with the four-velocity U µ . The interval ds2
between two close events is defined in terms of differentials of coordinates,

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν . (8)

For given dxµ , what is the value of the proper time dτobs between the corresponding
events measured by this observer? How can one define locally the notions of simul-
taneity and proper distance dl for the observer in terms of its four-velocity and the
corresponding projection operator hµν ? How is the interval ds2 related to dτobs and
dl?

86. Let our observer measure the velocity of some other particle passing in its immediate
vicinity. Relate the interval to dτobs and the particle’s velocity w.

87. Analyze the formulas derived in the previous three problems applied to the case
of flat spacetime (Minkovskii space) and compare them to the known formulas of
special relativity.
 15

88. Consider an observer being at rest with respect to a given coordinate frame: xi =
const (i = 1, 2, 3). Find hµν , dτobs , the condition of simultaneity and dl2 for this
case. Show that the corresponding formulas are equivalent to eqs. (84.6), (84.7) of
[8], where they are derived in a different way.

89. Consider two events at the same point of space but at different values of time. Find
the relation between dxµ and dτobs for such an observer.

B. Fiducial observers

90. Consider an observer with

Uµ = −Nδµ0 = −N(1, 0, 0, 0). (9)

We call it a fiducial observer (FidO) in accordance with [14]. This notion is applied
in [14] mainly to static or axially symmetric rotating black holes. In the latter case
it is usually called the ZAMO (zero angular momentum observer). We will use
FidO in a more general context.
Show that a FidO’s world-line is orthogonal to hypersurfaces of constant time t =
const.

91. Find the explicit form of the metric coefficients in terms of the components of
the FidO’s four-velocity. Analyze the specific case of axially symmetric metric in
coordinates (t, φ, r, θ) with g0i = gtφ δiφ .

92. Consider a stationary metric with the time-like Killing vector field ξ µ = (1, 0, 0, 0).
Relate the energy E of a particle with four-velocity uµ as measured at infinity by
a stationary observer to that measured by a local observer with 4-velocity U µ .

93. Express Erel and E in terms of the relative velocity w between a particle and the
observer (i.e. velocity of the particle in the frame of the observer and vice versa).

94. Show that in the flat spacetime the formulas derived in the previous problem are
reduced to the usual ones of the Lorentz transformation.

95. Find the expression for E for the case of a static observer (U i = 0).

96. Find the expression for E for the case of the ZAMO observer and, in particular, in
case of axially symmetric metric.

C. Collision of particles: general relationships

97. Let two particles collide. Define the energy in the center of mass (CM) frame Ec.m.
at the point of collision and relate it to Erel and the Lorentz factor of relative
motion of the two particles.
 16

98. Let us consider a collision of particles 1 and 2 viewed from the frame attached
to some other particle 0. How are different Lorentz factors related to each other?
Analyze the case when the laboratory frame coincides with that of particle 0.

99. When can the relative Lorentz factor of two particles γ as a function of their in-
dividual Lorentz factors in some frame γ1 and γ2 grow unbounded? How can the
answer be interpreted in terms of relative velocities?

100. A tetrad basis, or the orthonormal tetrad, is the set of four unit vectors hµ(a) (sub-
scripts in parenthesis a = 0, 1, 2, 3 enumerate these vectors), of which one, hµ(0) , is
timelike, and three vectors hµ(i) (i = 1, 2, 3) are spacelike, so that
gµν hµ(a) hν(b) = ηab , a, b = 0, 1, 2, 3. (10)
A vector’s tetrad components are
u(a) = uµ hµ(a) , u(b) = η ab u(b) . (11)

Define the local three-velocities with the help of the tetrad basis attached to the
observer, which would generalize the corresponding formulas of special relativity.

101. Derive the analogues of the results of problems 92 and 93 for massless particles
(photons). Analyze the cases of static and ZAMO observers.

102. The ergosphere is a surface defined by equation g00 = 0. Show that it is the surface
of infinite redshift for an (almost) static observer.

103. Consider an observer orbiting with a constant angular velocity Ω in the equatorial
plane of the axially symmetric back hole. Analyze what happens to redshift when
the angular velocity approaches the minimum or maximum values Ω± .

104. Let two massive particle 1 and 2 collide. Express the energy of each particle in the
centre of mass (CM) frame in terms of their relative Lorentz factor γ(1, 2). Analyze
the limiting cases of ultra-relativistic γ(1, 2) → ∞ and non-relativistic γ(1, 2) ≈ 1
collisions.

105. For a stationary observer in a stationary space-time the quantity α = (U 0 )−1 is the
redshifting factor: if this observer emits a ptoton with frequency ωem , it is detected
at infinity by another stationary observer with frequency ωdet = αωem . For a generic
observer this interpretation is invalid, however, α = ds/dt still determines the time
dilation for this observer, and thus can still be called the same way. Express the
redshifting factor of the center of mass frame αc.m. through the redshifting factors
of the colliding particles α1 and α2 .

106. Relate the energy of a particle at infinity E1 , its energy at the point of collision in
the C.M. frame (E1 )c.m. and µ.

107. Solve the same problem when both particles are massless (photons). Write down
formulas for the ZAMO observer and for the C.M. frame.
 17

V. ASTROPHYSICAL BLACK HOLES

A. Preliminary

108. Calculate in the frame of Newtonian mechanics the time of collapse of a uniformly
distributed spherical mass with density ρ0 .

109. Why are stars of a certain type called “white dwarfs”?

110. What is the physical reason for the stopping of thermonuclear reactions in the stars
of white dwarf type?

111. Estimate the radius and mass of a white dwarf.

112. What is the average density of a white dwarf of one solar mass, luminosity one
thousandth of solar luminosity and surface temperature twice that of the Sun?

113. Explain the mechanism of explosion of massive enough white dwarfs, with masses
close to the Chandrasekhar limit.

114. Thermonuclear explosions of white dwarfs with masses close to the Chandrasekhar
limit lead to the phenomenon of supernova explosions of type I. Those have lines of
helium and other relatively heavy elements in the spectrum, but no hydrogen lines.
Why is that?

115. A supernova explosion of type II is related to the gravitational collapse of a neutron

star. There are powerful hydrogen lines in their spectrum. Why?

116. Estimate the radius and mass of a neutron star.

117. Why do neutron stars have to possess strong magnetic fields?

118. Find the maximum redshift of a spectral line emitted from the surface of a neutron
star.

119. What is the gravitational radius of the Universe? Compare it with the size of the
observable Universe.

120. What is the time (the Salpeter time) needed for a black hole, radiating at its
Eddington limit, to radiate away all of its mass?

121. The time scales of radiation variability of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are from
several days to several years. Estimate the linear sizes of AGNs.

122. What mechanisms can be responsible for the supermassive black hole (SMBH) in
the center of a galaxy to acquire angular momentum?
 18

123. The Galactic Center is so “close” to us, that one can discern individual stars there
and examine in detail their movement. Thus, observations carried out in 1992-2002
allowed one to reconstruct the orbit of motion of one of the stars (S2) around the
hypothetical SMBH at the galactic center of the Milky Way. The parameters of
the orbit are: period 15.2 years, maximum distance from the black hole 120 a.u.,
eccentricity 0.87. Using this data, estimate the mass of the black hole.

124. Using the results of the previous problem, determine the density of the SMBH at
the Galactic Center.

125. Show that for a black hole of mass M the temperature of the surrounding hot gas
in thermal equilibrium is proportional to

T ∼ M −1/4 .

126. Show that luminosity of a compact object (neutron star or black hole) of several
solar masses is mostly realized in the X-rays.

127. In order to remain bound while subject to the rebound from gigantic radiative
power, AGNs should have masses M > 106 M⊙ . Make estimates.

128. AGNs remain active for more than tens of millions of years. They must have
tremendous masses to maintain the luminosity

L ∼ 1047 erg/sec

during such periods. Make estimates for the mass of an AGN.

129. What maximum energy can be released at the merger of two black holes with masses
M1 = M2 = M2 ?

130. Show that it is impossible to divide a black hole into two black holes.

131. J. Wheeler noticed that in the frame of classical theory of gravity the existence of
black holes itself contradicts the law of entropy’s increase. Why is that?

132. What is the reason we cannot attribute the observed entropy’s decrease (see the
previous problem) to the interior of the black hole?

133. Find the surface area of a stationary black hole as a function of its parameters:
mass, angular momentum and charge.

B. Quantum effects

134. Estimate the maximum density of an astrophysical black hole, taking into account
that black holes with masses M < 1015 g would not have lived to our time due to
the quantum mechanism of evaporation.
 19

135. Determine the lifetime of a black hole with respect to thermal radiation.

136. Determine the temperature of a black hole (Hawking temperature) of one solar
mass, and the temperature of the supermassive black hole at the center of our
Galaxy.

137. Particles and antiparticles of given mass m (neutrinos, electrons and so on) can be
emitted only if the mass M of the black hole is less than some critical mass Mcr .
Estimate the critical mass of a black hole Mcr (m).

[1] K. Schwarzschild, On the gravitational field of a mass point according to Einstein’s theory,
Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Phys. Math. Kl., p.189 (1916) [arXiv:physics/9905030v1].
[2] G.D. Birkhoff, Relativity and Modern Physics, p.253, Harvard University Press, Cambridge
(1923).
[3] J.T. Jebsen, Ark. Mat. Ast. Fys. (Stockholm) 15, nr.18 (1921), see also
arXiv:physics/0508163v2.
[4] R.P. Kerr, Gravitational field of a spinning mass as an example of algebraically special
metrics. Phys. Rev. Lett. 11 (5), 237 (1963).
[5] R.H. Boyer, R.W. Lindquist. Maximal Analytic Extension of the Kerr Metric. J. Math.
Phys 8, 265281 (1967).
[6] Wald R.M, General relativity. U. Chicago, 1984, 505p (ISBN 0226870332).
[7] Carroll S., Spacetime and geometry: an introduction to General Relativity. AW, 2003,
525p (ISBN 0805387323).
[8] Landau L.D., Lifshitz E.M. Vol. 2. The classical theory of fields [4ed., Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1994].
[9] G. ‘t Hooft, Introduction to General Relativity, Caputcollege 1998.
[10] Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne. John Archibald Wheeler, Gravitation. W.H. Freeman
and Company, 1973.
[11] Hobson M., Efstathiou G., Lasenby A. General relativity: an introduction for physicists.
CUP, 2006 (ISBN 0521536391).
[12] Padmanabhan T. Gravitation: Foundations and Frontiers. CUP, 2010 (ISBN
9780521882231).
[13] A. P. Lightman, W. H. Press, R. H. Price, and S. A. Teukolsky, Problem book in Relativity
and Gravitation (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1975).
[14] Black Holes: The Membrane Paradigm. Edited by Kip S. Thorne, Richard H. Price, Dou-
glas A. Macdonald. Yale University Press New Haven and London, 1986.