Hindawi Publishing Corporation

International Journal of Biomaterials

Volume 2015, Article ID 485275, 9 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/485275

Review Article
Silver Nanoparticles in Dental Biomaterials

Juliana Mattos Corrêa,1 Matsuyoshi Mori,2 Heloísa Lajas Sanches,3 Adriana Dibo da Cruz,1
Edgard Poiate Jr.,1 and Isis Andréa Venturini Pola Poiate1
1
Department of Operative Dentistry, Fluminense Federal University, 28625-650 Nova Friburgo, RJ, Brazil
2
Prosthodontics Department, University of São Paulo, 05508-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
3
School of Chemistry, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, 21941-909 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Correspondence should be addressed to Isis Andréa Venturini Pola Poiate; [email protected]

Received 16 September 2014; Revised 23 December 2014; Accepted 23 December 2014

Academic Editor: Abdelwahab Omri

Copyright © 2015 Juliana Mattos Corrêa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Silver has been used in medicine for centuries because of its antimicrobial properties. More recently, silver nanoparticles have
been synthesized and incorporated into several biomaterials, since their small size provides great antimicrobial effect, at low filler
level. Hence, these nanoparticles have been applied in dentistry, in order to prevent or reduce biofilm formation over dental
materials surfaces. This review aims to discuss the current progress in this field, highlighting aspects regarding silver nanoparticles
incorporation, such as antimicrobial potential, mechanical properties, cytotoxicity, and long-term effectiveness. We also emphasize
the need for more studies to determine the optimal concentration of silver nanoparticle and its release over time.

1. Introduction Because of their small size, AgNPs possess chemical,

physical, and biological properties distinctive from those
Silver (Ag) ions or salts are known to have a wide antimi- presented by traditional bulk materials [27]. Their smaller
crobial effect [1–4] and they have been used for years [5], particles and large surface area provide potent antibacterial
in different fields in medicine, including wound dressings effects at a low filler level, diminishing Ag particle concen-
[6], catheters [7], and prostheses [8]. Besides being a potent tration necessary for its efficacy [25, 28–30] and avoiding
antimicrobial, Ag has many advantages, such as low toxicity negative influence on mechanical properties [10, 31, 32].
and good biocompatibility with human cells [9], long-term Other advantage provided by the small size is the possi-
antibacterial activity, due to sustained ion release [10], and bility of AgNPs to penetrate through cell membranes more
low bacterial resistance [11]. readily, resulting in higher antimicrobial activity [33], which
With the advent of nanotechnology, silver nanoparticles is especially important since microorganisms in biofilms
(AgNPs) have been synthesized, and they have shown potent are more resistant to antimicrobial agents than planktonic
antimicrobial properties [12, 13]. AgNPs have demonstrated pathogens [34].
unique interactions with bacteria and fungi species [12, 14]; The antimicrobial mechanism of AgNPs has been exten-
thereafter, they are widely used in medical arena, such as sively investigated but it remains unclear [35]. It seems that
in wound sutures [15], endotracheal tubes [16], surgical silver ions interact with the peptidoglycan cell wall [34] caus-
instruments [17], and bone prostheses [18]. ing structural changes, increased membrane permeability
AgNPs have also been applied in several areas of dentistry, and, finally, cell death [3]. Further, AgNPs could interact with
as endodontics [19, 20], dental prostheses [21], implantology the exposed sulfhydryl groups in bacterial proteins, avoiding
[22, 23], and restorative dentistry [24–26]. AgNPs incorpo- DNA replication [36].
ration aims to avoid or at least to decrease the microbial Another important aspect to be studied is the toxicity
colonization over dental materials, increasing oral health and biocompatibility of AgNPs. Considering their unique
levels and improving life quality. physical and chemical properties, it is likely that these
2 International Journal of Biomaterials

nanoparticles also possess unique toxicity mechanisms [37]. solutions, rinsed with deionized water, dried, and irradiated
Because of that, a better understanding of AgNPs safety is with UV light from a high-pressure Hg lamp. This process
need, in order to increase their clinical use [38]. allows producing samples with different Ag concentrations,
Nanotechnology provides a wide range of possibilities depending on the AgNO3 solution concentration [49].
to develop new antimicrobial materials [3]. However, there Another difference is related to the form of AgNP obtain-
are disadvantages, for example, color change, an important ment. In some studies the particles are commercially avail-
property of dental materials [39]. In this review, we dis- able, so they are obtained directly from the producer [50–52].
cuss AgNPs incorporation into dental materials, such as In others, AgNPs are prepared by reduction of AgNO3 , with
composite resin and adhesive systems, acrylic resin, root NaBO4 [22], polyvinylpyrrolidone [21], sodium citrate [44],
canal fillings, and implants, highlighting aspects regarding and gallic acid [48], among others.
microorganism growth inhibition, cytotoxicity, and physical
properties of these modified materials.
4. Composite Resin and Adhesive System
2. AgNPs Characterization Dental caries is still the most common and widespread oral
disease, having as the main etiologic agent the acidic attack
One important step for the development of AgNPs- from cariogenic bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans and
containing materials is their characterization. Many studies Lactobacillus spp. [51]. Currently, the most widely dental
have analyzed the Ag dispersion [26, 28, 32, 40], through material used to treat caries lesions is composite resin,
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). This technique especially because of its esthetics and load-bearing properties
allows visualizing how AgNPs spread into the tested material, [53–55]. Hence, many studies have been performed, in order
as well as to verify the particle size. to improve quality and durability of polymeric restorative
According to Cheng et al. [28], NAg particles of ∼3 nm materials [56–58].
were clearly visible and well dispersed throughout the poly- In spite of the notable advances obtained, composite
mer matrix. These results were confirmed in a subsequent restorations accumulate more biofilm than other restorative
study [29], in which authors reported NAg sizes ranging from materials [59–62]. This is especially important in cases of
2 to 5 nm. This very small size allows NAg penetration on failures on restoration margin [63]. Actually, although it is
dentinal tubules [40], which can represent the possibility wanted, the perfect sealing between the restorative material
of inactivating residual bacteria on dentine. Besides that, it and the cavity wall often does not occur [32]. It has been
has also been shown that AgNPs were well dispersed in the shown that there is microleakage on restoration margins, and
material with minimal appearance of nanoparticle aggregates these gaps can be colonized by oral bacteria, resulting in
[26, 32]. secondary caries [64], which makes necessary the restoration
Another important feature to be analyzed is the minimum replacement.
inhibitory concentration (MIC) of AgNPs. MIC is defined as In order to prevent or to diminish biofilm accumulation
the lowest concentration of antimicrobial agent at which 90% over composite and in the restorations margins, antimicrobial
growth is observed in the medium [46]. Hernández-Sierra restorative materials have been developed, especially through
et al. [47] used the liquid dilution method to find the MIC the incorporation of AgNPs to composite resins [24–26]
of 25 nm-AgNPs against S. mutans strains, and the results and adhesive systems [29, 32, 40–42, 50, 52, 65, 66]. These
showed an average MIC of 4.86 ± 2.71 𝜇g/mL, suggesting a materials are multiphase substances composed of an organic
higher antimicrobial effect of AgNPs. polymer matrix, filler particles, coupling agent (silane), and
In a similar study, Espinosa-Cristóbal et al. [48] tested the initiator-accelerator of polymerization [67], and AgNPs
different AgNPs sizes (8.4 nm, 16.1 nm, and 98 nm) and incorporation is based on the modification in the filler
they reported higher MICs than the abovementioned study: components [61].
101.98 ± 72.03 𝜇g/mL, 145.64 ± 104.88 𝜇g/mL, and 320.63 ±
A research developed by Cheng et al. [26] reported the
172.83 𝜇g/mL, respectively. This probably occurred because
effect of AgNPs incorporation, at different concentrations,
of the methodology, which included sucrose for S. mutans
to a composite resin, in order to investigate its mechanical
growing. Authors also verified that MICs were directly
properties and biofilm formation. In this study, composites
proportional to the particle size; it means, as bigger the size
were synthesized with AgNPs at 0.028, 0.042, 0.088, and
as higher the MIC.
0.175%. Mechanical properties of composites with AgNPs at
0.028% and 0.042% were similar to those with no AgNPs.
3. Forms of Incorporation Besides that, counts of colony forming units (CFU) for total
streptococci and S. mutans, using AgNPs at 0.042%, were 75%
AgNPs used in dental materials are incorporated through smaller than the control group without AgNPs. These data
distinct ways, depending on the type of material. For com- suggest that AgNPs incorporation to composite resins enables
posite resin and adhesive systems, the most common tech- good mechanical properties and notable antimicrobial poten-
nique is adding a monomer, usually 2-(tert-butylamino)ethyl tial, even at low concentration.
methacrylate, in order to improve Ag salt solubility in the In order to evaluate the influence of AgNPs incorporation
resin solution [28, 32, 40]. For dental implants, the process on bond strength to dental substrate, Melo et al. [41] added
is totally different: Titanium samples are soaked in AgNO3 AgNPs, at 0.1% by mass, to an adhesive system. The results
International Journal of Biomaterials 3

have shown that AgNPs did not compromise the bond have been satisfactorily incorporated into polymers used as
strength (𝑃 > 0.1), at the same time that it decreased tissue conditioners and as denture base [82–84]. The action
metabolic activity on biofilm, compared to control group mechanisms of AgNPs-incorporated polymers is still unclear,
without AgNPs. In this study it was also observed reduction of since some authors attribute the antimicrobial effectiveness to
CFU for total microorganisms, total streptococci, and mutans the silver ions release [85, 86] and others to the direct contact
streptococci (𝑃 < 0.05). between the material and the microorganisms [87].
Li et al. [32] performed a study incorporating of AgNPs, Acosta-Torres et al. [43] developed a PMMA containing
at 0.05% by mass, to an adhesive system, aiming to assess 1 𝜇g/mL of AgNPs and they compared this new compound
bacterial inhibition provided by this antimicrobial, in both to unmodified PMMA. It has been observed that PMMA-
short and long distance. It has been reported that AgNPs AgNPs specimens showed significantly less Candida albicans
reduced CFU number and acid lactic production on biofilm adherence compared to PMMA (𝑃 < 0.05), demonstrating
over and away to the adhesive surface, evidencing that the antifungical potential of AgNPs incorporated to acrylic
AgNPs-containing adhesives enable long-distance antibacte- resin. Besides that, they evaluated the activity of mouse
rial potential. fibroblasts and human lymphocytes, and it has been shown
Another important aspect to be assessed is the biocom- that PMMA-AgNP compound does not present cytotoxity or
patibility of AgNPs-containing restorative materials. Accord- genotoxicity. These results suggest that the novel acrylic resin
ingly, Zhang et al. [42] have studied the effects of AgNPs incorporated with AgNPs could be developed as a denture
incorporation, at 0.05% by mass, to a primer and an adhesive, base.
regarding human gingival fibroblast viability. It has been In a study performed by Monteiro et al. [44] AgNPs
shown that AgNPs addition did not affect the cytotoxicity of were incorporated in a commercial acrylic resin, in different
primer and adhesive tested, evidencing the clinical applica- concentrations (0.05%, 0.5%, and 5% of AgNPs, by mass). The
bility of this antimicrobial. authors evaluated the mechanical properties of the modified
Based on abovementioned studies, it is possible to say resin, as well of the unmodified one (0% of AgNPs). There-
that the antibacterial effects of AgNPs-containing restorative unto, the flexural strength test was performed, and it was
materials might decrease the development of recurrent caries, observed that all the groups presented very similar flexural
to increase the longevity of tooth restorations, and to be resistance values, suggesting that AgNPs incorporation does
effective in decreasing the formation of bacterial biofilms not affect the mechanical properties of acrylic resin.
on teeth and restorations, without compromising mechanical When dentures are ill-fitted is recommended recovering
properties and cytotoxicity of composite resins and adhesive his base with tissue conditioners, which are easily degradable
systems. with time and occasionally susceptible to microbial coloniza-
tion [88]. Thus, AgNPs incorporation could also be profitable
in this material and not only in dentures base.
5. Acrylic Resin Accordingly, Nam [21] has incorporated AgNPs into a
Dentures, mostly constituted by poly(methyl methacrylate) commercial tissue conditioner, in the following concentra-
(PMMA) acrylic resin [68], have their inner surface con- tions: 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and 3.0%. Their inhibitory effect
siderably rough [69], and this roughness, allied to other was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
factors (e.g., poor hygiene, xerostomy, and HIV infection), mutans, and Candida albicans after 24 h and 72 h. The authors
contributes to the emergence of denture stomatitis [70, have reported that the modified tissue conditioner presented
71]. This pathology, characterized by red focal area, mostly antimicrobial properties even at lower concentrations, that is,
localized in palatal mucosa, is present in 50–70% of complete 0.1% (for S. mutans and S. aureus) and 0.5% (for C. albicans).
denture wearers [72, 73], and it is frequently associated with
Candida species colonization. These fungi colonize denture 6. Endodontic Materials
surfaces forming a biofilm [74], which acts as a key-factor to
denture stomatitis development [75]. Several studies have demonstrated that bacteria are the main
The treatment of denture stomatitis is based on topical or etiologic agent of pulpal infection and periradicular lesion
systemic antifungical drugs, for example, fluoconazole and formation [89–91]. The microbiota of infected root canals is
nystatin [76–78]. However, this infection is often persistent, polymicrobial and is dominated by Gram-negative anaerobes
since antifungical resistance has been reported in Candida [92, 93]. It has been demonstrated that the presence of
biofilms [75]. Moreover, it has been observed that Candida residual bacteria in root canal is connected with significantly
species present in biofilms are less susceptible to antifungical higher rates of treatment failure [94].
drugs than planktonic cells [79–81]. Another problem related Since elimination of bacteria in root canals is the key to
to denture stomatitis is that many geriatric prosthetic wearers treatment success [95], endodontic materials should ideally
present difficulties on keeping the denture clean, due to provide some antimicrobial activity [96, 97], in order to
their reduced motor dexterity, memory loss, and cognitive improve the prognosis of endodontically treated teeth [98].
impairment [21]. Various materials have been used as root canal fillings, among
Considering the aforementioned factors, denture stom- which gutta-percha is one of the most used [95]. This material
atitis represents a challenge for dentistry, and methods for has been proved to present slight antibacterial property,
its prevention, should be encouraged. Accordingly, AgNPs provided by the zinc oxide in its components; however, this
4 International Journal of Biomaterials

does not provide to gutta-percha an effective bactericidal Several measures have been proposed to avoid bacterial con-
potential [98]. tamination, such as implant disinfection and aseptic surgical
Accordingly, Iranian researchers [45] have introduced protocols; nevertheless, bacterial invasion often occurs after
nanosilver-gutta-percha, as an attempt to improve the surgery [109].
antibacterial effect of gutta-percha. The new material, which In order to prevent biofilm formation over implants
is standard gutta-percha coated with AgNPs, has demon- surface, antibacterial coatings have been developed; however,
strated significant effect against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphy- most of them present poor long-term antibacterial action
lococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and Escherichia coli. and also the possibility of generating resistant strains after
Besides that, Shantiaee et al. [99] have tested the biocom- prolonged use [110–112]. In this context, AgNPs incorporation
patibility of this new material, by comparing the cytotoxicity to implant surface has been suggested [109, 113], since it would
of nanosilver-coated gutta-percha and normal gutta-percha be possible to produce coatings with long-term antibacterial
on mouse fibroblasts. In this study, after 24 hours, nanosilver- properties by controlling Ag release [23].
coated gutta-percha presented cytotoxicity similar to normal In study performed by Zhao et al. [23], AgNPs were incor-
gutta-percha and, after one week, it reached the lowest level porated into titania nanotubes (TiO2-NTs) on Ti implants,
of cytotoxicity among the tested materials. in a process involving silver nitrate immersion and ultravio-
Other important step in the endodontic treatment is let radiation. The antibacterial effect against Staphylococcus
the chemomechanical debridement of pulpal tissue and aureus was assessed, and results have shown inhibition of
pathogenic bacteria. In this stage, irrigant solutions should planktonic bacteria during the first several days. Moreover,
be used, for dissolving tissue and disinfecting the root canal AgNPs-coating Ti implants have presented ability to prevent
system [100]. For this purpose, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) bacteria adhesion for up to 30 days, which are considered
has been used for more than 70 years, and it remains as one of sufficient time to prevent post-infection in early stages.
the most common solutions [101]. However, if NaOCl passes In a similar study, Flores et al. [22] have evaluated the
beyond the apex, it is extremely toxic to the periapical tissues antibacterial activity of AgNPs against Pseudomonas aerugi-
[102]. nosa. It has been reported that the number of total cells found
In this context, Lotfi et al. [20] performed a study com- on AgNP-modified implants represents only 20% of those
paring the antibacterial effect of NaOCl and AgNP solution attached to unmodified surfaces. This data suggests that the
against Enterococcus faecalis, which is a bacterium often iso- incorporation of AgNPs on Ti implants is an efficient method
lated from failed endodontic treatment cases [103]. Authors to protect implant surface against pathogen colonization.
have observed that there were no significant differences As important as the antibacterial potential is the biocom-
among 5.25% NaOCl and 0.005% AgNPs, suggesting that this patibility of these modified implants. Aiming to evaluate this
solution, in a remarkably lower concentration, possesses the property, Lu et al. [114] have tested Ti implants incorporated
same bactericidal effect as 5.25% NaOCl; hence, it could be with different concentrations of AgNPs (0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 M). For
used as a new intracanal irrigant. all the tested concentrations, osteoblasts started to adhere on
Another important endodontic material is the mineral the coatings after 1 day of culture and spread well until 7
trioxide aggregate (MTA), used in many indications such as days of culture. However, after this, the inhibitory effect of
perforations sealing, external/internal root resorption repair, 1 M Ag on cell proliferation became significant, suggesting
and apexification [104, 105]. In spite of being a material of that AgNP coatings with low amounts of silver were more
wide application, the antimicrobial properties of MTA are favorable for osteoblasts growth.
controversial, and they seem to be limited [106, 107].
Aiming to improve its antimicrobial potential, Samiei et 8. Future Perspectives
al. [19] modified MTA by adding AgNPs, at 1% weight. Its
effect against oral bacteria and fungi species was assessed. As shown in the previous paragraphs, AgNPs-containing
Results have showed that AgNPs-containing MTA possesses dental materials present good antimicrobial properties
higher antimicrobial effect against Enterococcus faecalis, Can- (Table 1). However, much is still to be discovered. One of
dida albicans, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, compared to the most important experiments to be performed is to apply
unmodified MTA. the bench results on in vivo studies [29, 52], since laboratory
Although AgNP is a promising antimicrobial, there are conditions do not exactly reproduce oral conditions. Other
only a few studies employing it in endodontic materials. aspect to be investigated is the long term effectiveness of
And considering that endodontic treatment success is highly AgNPs applied on dental materials [32, 51], whereas a long
connected to the bacteria elimination, researches involving lasting antimicrobial potential of them is desirable.
AgNPs incorporation to root canal filling materials and
intracanal irrigators should be encouraged. 9. Conclusions
7. Titanium Implants In this review, the antimicrobial effect of AgNPs incorpora-
tion into dental materials was investigated, such as composite
Titanium (Ti) implants, widely used in dentistry, usually resin, endodontic materials, acrylic resin, and implants.
present infection around their surface, which remains one of Several studies have shown that silver, in its nanoparticulated
the most important complications in Implantology [49, 108]. form, possesses an inhibitory effect against many bacteria
International Journal of Biomaterials 5

Table 1: Antimicrobial activity of AgNPs-containing dental materials.

Material studied AgNPs concentration Antimicrobial effectiveness Reference

Composite resin 0.028 wt%, 0.042 wt%, [25]

Good inhibitory activity against S. mutans, at 0.042 wt%
0.088 wt%, 0.175 wt%
Adhesive system Reduction of CFU for total microorganisms, total [41]
0.1 wt%
streptococci, and S. mutans
Adhesive system Reduction of CFU and acid lactic production for [32]
0.05 wt%
S. mutans
Primer and adhesive Good inhibitory activity against total microorganisms, [42]
0.05 wt%
total streptococci, and S. mutans
Acrylic resin 1 𝜇g/mL Reduction on C. albicans adherence [43]
Acrylic resin 0.05 vol%, 0.5 vol% and [44]
Good efficacy against C. albicans, at 5 vol%
5 vol%
Tissue conditioner 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% and Antimicrobial properties against S. mutans and [21]
3.0%. S. aureus at 0.1% and against C. albicans at 0.5%
Intracanal irrigant 0.005% Bactericidal effect against E. faecalis [20]
Gutta-percha Significant effect against E. faecalis, S. aureus, [45]
Not mentioned
C. albicans and E. coli.
MTA High antimicrobial effect against E. faecalis, C. [19]
1 wt%
albicans,and P. aeruginosa
Titanium implants 0.5 M, 1.0 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M Prevention of S. aureus adhesion for up to 30 days [23]
Titanium implants 3.16 × 10−2 mg Ag/mL Reduction of P. aeruginosa adhesion [22]

and fungi, including S. mutans, C. albicans, P. aeruginosa, E. [2] J. S. Kim, E. Kuk, K. N. Yu et al., “Antimicrobial effects of
faecalis, and S. aureus, among others, which could decrease silver nanoparticles,” Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology,
the occurrence of secondary caries, fungical infection, fails on and Medicine, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 95–101, 2007.
endodontic treatment, and dental implant losses. Although [3] S. Pal, Y. K. Tak, and J. M. Song, “Does the antibacterial activity
AgNP is a promising antimicrobial to be used in dentistry, its of silver nanoparticles depend on the shape of the nanoparticle?
application on some areas, as endodontics and implantology, A study of the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli,”
remains scarce; thereafter, we mostly encourage studies on Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 73, no. 6, pp. 1712–
these fields. 1720, 2007.
AgNP has also been proved to be biocompatible with [4] K.-J. Kim, W. S. Sung, S.-K. Moon, J.-S. Choi, J. G. Kim,
mammalian cells, suggesting that its application on dental and D. G. Lee, “Antifungal effect of silver nanoparticles on
materials does not represent a threat to human health. How- dermatophytes,” Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol.
ever, more studies are necessary to determine the optimal 18, no. 8, pp. 1482–1484, 2008.
concentration of this silver compound, in order to guarantee [5] I. Chopra, “The increasing use of silver-based products as
the antimicrobial effect without increasing its cytotoxicity. antimicrobial agents: a useful development or a cause for
Moreover, further studies are needed to investigate the Ag concern?” Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 59, no.
ion release and long-term properties of the new AgNP- 4, pp. 587–590, 2007.
containing dental materials. We also encourage researchers [6] V. Alt, T. Bechert, P. Steinrücke et al., “An in vitro assessment of
to study and elucidate the best ways of silver incorporation as the antibacterial properties and cytotoxicity of nanoparticulate
well as the possible negative influence of its addition in dental silver bone cement,” Biomaterials, vol. 25, no. 18, pp. 4383–4391,
materials, especially regarding color changes and mechanical 2004.
properties.
[7] U. Samuel and J. P. Guggenbichler, “Prevention of catheter-
related infections: the potential of a new nano-silver impreg-
Conflict of Interests nated catheter,” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents,
vol. 23, no. 1, pp. S75–S78, 2004.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests [8] G. Gosheger, J. Hardes, H. Ahrens et al., “Silver-coated megaen-
regarding the publication of this paper. doprostheses in a rabbit model—an analysis of the infection rate
and toxicological side effects,” Biomaterials, vol. 25, no. 24, pp.
5547–5556, 2004.
References
[9] T. V. Slenters, I. Hauser-Gerspach, A. U. Daniels, and K. M.
[1] A. Panáček, L. Kvı́tek, R. Prucek et al., “Silver colloid nanoparti- Fromm, “Silver coordination compounds as light-stable, nano-
cles: synthesis, characterization, and their antibacterial activity,” structured and anti-bacterial coatings for dental implant and
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, vol. 110, no. 33, pp. 16248– restorative materials,” Journal of Materials Chemistry, vol. 18, no.
16253, 2006. 44, pp. 5359–5362, 2008.
6 International Journal of Biomaterials

[10] C. Damm, H. Münstedt, and A. Rösch, “Long-term antimicro- and bacteria, and its uses in medicine,” Chemical Reviews, vol.
bial polyamide 6/silver-nanocomposites,” Journal of Materials 113, no. 7, pp. 4708–4754, 2013.
Science, vol. 42, no. 15, pp. 6067–6073, 2007. [28] Y. J. Cheng, D. N. Zeiger, J. A. Howarter et al., “In situ formation
[11] S. L. Percival, P. G. Bowler, and D. Russell, “Bacterial resistance of silver nanoparticles in photocrosslinking polymers,” Journal
to silver in wound care,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 60, no. of Biomedical Materials Research–Part B Applied Biomaterials,
1, pp. 1–7, 2005. vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 124–131, 2011.
[12] J. R. Morones, J. L. Elechiguerra, A. Camacho et al., “The [29] L. Cheng, K. Zhang, M. A. S. Melo, M. D. Weir, X. Zhou, and H.
bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles,” Nanotechnology, vol. H. K. Xu, “Anti-biofilm dentin primer with quaternary ammo-
16, no. 10, pp. 2346–2353, 2005. nium and silver nanoparticles,” Journal of Dental Research, vol.
[13] M. Rai, A. Yadav, and A. Gade, “Silver nanoparticles as a new 91, no. 6, pp. 598–604, 2012.
generation of antimicrobials,” Biotechnology Advances, vol. 27, [30] C. Fan, L. Chu, H. R. Rawls, B. K. Norling, H. L. Cardenas,
no. 1, pp. 76–83, 2009. and K. Whang, “Development of an antimicrobial resin—a pilot
[14] C.-N. Lok, C.-M. Ho, R. Chen et al., “Proteomic analysis of the study,” Dental Materials, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 322–328, 2011.
mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles,” Journal of [31] T.-O. Peulen and K. J. Wilkinson, “Diffusion of nanoparticles in
Proteome Research, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 916–924, 2006. a biofilm,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 45, no. 8,
[15] C. Damm, H. Münstedt, and A. Rösch, “The antimicrobial pp. 3367–3373, 2011.
efficacy of polyamide 6/silver-nano- and microcomposites,” [32] F. Li, M. D. Weir, J. Chen, and H. H. K. Xu, “Comparison of qua-
Materials Chemistry and Physics, vol. 108, no. 1, pp. 61–66, 2008. ternary ammonium-containing with nano-silver-containing
[16] D. J. Stickler, “Biomaterials to prevent nosocomial infections: adhesive in antibacterial properties and cytotoxicity,” Dental
is silver the gold standard?” Current Opinion in Infectious Materials, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 450–461, 2013.
Diseases, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 389–393, 2000. [33] H.-J. Park, S. Park, J. Roh et al., “Biofilm-inactivating activity of
[17] M. S. Cohen, J. M. Stern, A. J. Vanni et al., “In vitro analysis of a silver nanoparticles: a comparison with silver ions,” Journal of
nanocrystalline silver-coated surgical mesh,” Surgical Infections, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 614–619,
vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 397–403, 2007. 2013.
[18] Z. Zhang, M. Yang, M. Huang, Y. Hu, and J. Xie, “Study on [34] K. Chaloupka, Y. Malam, and A. M. Seifalian, “Nanosilver as
germicidal efficacy and toxicity of compound disinfectant gel a new generation of nanoproduct in biomedical applications,”
of nanometer silver and chlorhexidine acelate,” Chinese Journal Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 28, no. 11, pp. 580–588, 2010.
of Health Laboratory Technology, vol. 17, pp. 1403–1406, 2007. [35] E. T. Hwang, J. H. Lee, Y. J. Chae et al., “Analysis of the
[19] M. Samiei, M. Aghazadeh, M. Lotfi, S. Shakoei, Z. Aghazadeh, toxic mode of action of silver nanoparticles using stress-specific
and S. M. V. Pakdel, “Antimicrobial efficacy of mineral triox- bioluminescent bacteria,” Small, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 746–750, 2008.
ide aggregate with and without silver nanoparticles,” Iranian [36] D. Seth, S. R. Choudhury, S. Pradhan et al., “Nature-inspired
Endodontic Journal, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 166–170, 2013. novel drug design paradigm using nanosilver: efficacy on
[20] M. Lotfi, S. Vosoughhosseini, B. Ranjkesh, S. Khani, M. Saghiri, multi-drug-resistant clinical isolates of tuberculosis,” Current
and V. Zand, “Antimicrobial efficacy of nanosilver, sodium Microbiology, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 715–726, 2011.
hypochlorite and chlorhexidine gluconate against Enterococcus [37] X. Chen and H. J. Schluesener, “Nanosilver: a nanoproduct in
faecalis,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 10, no. 35, pp. medical application,” Toxicology Letters, vol. 176, no. 1, pp. 1–12,
6799–6803, 2011. 2008.
[21] K.-Y. Nam, “In vitro antimicrobial effect of the tissue con- [38] A. G. R. Targino, M. A. P. Flores, V. E. dos Santos Junior et al.,
ditioner containing silver nanoparticles,” Journal of Advanced “An innovative approach to treating dental decay in children. A
Prosthodontics, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 20–24, 2011. new anti-caries agent,” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in
[22] C. Y. Flores, C. Diaz, A. Rubert et al., “Spontaneous adsorption Medicine, vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 2041–2047, 2014.
of silver nanoparticles on Ti/TiO2 surfaces. Antibacterial effect [39] G. Chladek, A. Mertas, I. Barszczewska-Rybarek et al., “Anti-
on Pseudomonas aeruginosa,” Journal of Colloid and Interface fungal activity of denture soft lining material modified by silver
Science, vol. 350, no. 2, pp. 402–408, 2010. nanoparticles—a pilot study,” International Journal of Molecular
[23] L. Zhao, H. Wang, K. Huo et al., “Antibacterial nano-structured Sciences, vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 4735–4744, 2011.
titania coating incorporated with silver nanoparticles,” Bioma- [40] M. A. S. Melo, L. Cheng, M. D. Weir, R.-C. Hsia, L. K. A.
terials, vol. 32, no. 24, pp. 5706–5716, 2011. Rodrigues, and H. H. K. Xu, “Novel dental adhesive containing
[24] J. Durner, M. Stojanovic, E. Urcan, R. Hickel, and F.-X. Reichl, antibacterial agents and calcium phosphate nanoparticles,”
“Influence of silver nano-particles on monomer elution from Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, Part B: Applied Bio-
light-cured composites,” Dental Materials, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 631– materials, vol. 101, no. 4, pp. 620–629, 2013.
636, 2011. [41] M. A. S. Melo, L. Cheng, K. Zhang, M. D. Weir, L. K. A.
[25] L. Cheng, M. D. Weir, H. H. K. Xu et al., “Antibacterial amor- Rodrigues, and H. H. K. Xu, “Novel dental adhesives containing
phous calcium phosphate nanocomposites with a quaternary nanoparticles of silver and amorphous calcium phosphate,”
ammonium dimethacrylate and silver nanoparticles,” Dental Dental Materials, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 199–210, 2013.
Materials, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 561–572, 2012. [42] K. Zhang, F. Li, S. Imazato et al., “Dual antibacterial agents
[26] L. Cheng, M. D. Weir, H. H. K. Xu et al., “Effect of amorphous of nano-silver and 12-methacryloyloxydodecylpyridinium bro-
calcium phosphate and silver nanocomposites on dental plaque mide in dental adhesive to inhibit caries,” Journal of Biomedical
microcosm biofilms,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials, vol. 101, no. 6,
Part B: Applied Biomaterials, vol. 100, no. 5, pp. 1378–1386, 2012. pp. 929–938, 2013.
[27] S. Eckhardt, P. S. Brunetto, J. Gagnon, M. Priebe, B. Giese, and [43] L. S. Acosta-Torres, I. Mendieta, R. E. Nuñez-Anita, M. Cajero-
K. M. Fromm, “Nanobio silver: its interactions with peptides Juárez, and V. M. Castaño, “Cytocompatible antifungal acrylic
International Journal of Biomaterials 7

resin containing silver nanoparticles for dentures,” International [58] J. L. Drummond, “Degradation, fatigue, and failure of resin
Journal of Nanomedicine, vol. 7, pp. 4777–4786, 2012. dental composite materials,” Journal of Dental Research, vol. 87,
[44] D. R. Monteiro, L. F. Gorup, A. S. Takamiya, E. R. de Camargo, no. 8, pp. 710–719, 2008.
A. C. R. Filho, and D. B. Barbosa, “Silver distribution and [59] M. M. Zalkind, O. Keisar, P. Ever-Hadani, R. Grinberg, and M.
release from an antimicrobial denture base resin containing N. Sela, “Accumulation of Streptococcus mutans on light-cured
silver colloidal nanoparticles,” Journal of Prosthodontics, vol. 21, composites and amalgam: an in vitro study,” Journal of Esthetic
no. 1, pp. 7–15, 2012. Dentistry, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 187–190, 1998.
[45] O. Dianat and M. Ataie, “Gutta-percha coated with nanosilver [60] L. Papagiannoulis, A. Kakaboura, and G. Eliades, “In vivo vs
particles,” Invention registered number: 56019, 2008. in vitro anticariogenic behavior of glass-ionomer and resin
[46] T. Liu, X. Song, Z. Guo, Y. Dong, N. Guo, and X. Chang, composite restorative materials,” Dental Materials, vol. 18, no.
“Prolonged antibacterial effect of silver nanocomposites with 8, pp. 561–569, 2002.
different structures,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, vol. [61] S. Imazato, “Antibacterial properties of resin composites and
116, pp. 793–796, 2014. dentin bonding systems,” Dental Materials, vol. 19, no. 6, pp.
[47] J. F. Hernández-Sierra, F. Ruiz, D. C. Cruz Pena et al., “The 449–457, 2003.
antimicrobial sensitivity of Streptococcus mutans to nanopar- [62] N. Beyth, A. J. Domb, and E. I. Weiss, “An in vitro quantitative
ticles of silver, zinc oxide, and gold,” Nanomedicine: Nanotech- antibacterial analysis of amalgam and composite resins,” Journal
nology, Biology, and Medicine, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 237–240, 2008. of Dentistry, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 201–206, 2007.
[48] L. F. Espinosa-Cristóbal, G. A. Martı́nez-Castañón, R. E. [63] J. M. Antonucci, D. N. Zeiger, K. Tang, S. Lin-Gibson, B.
Martı́nez-Martı́nez, J. P. Loyola-Rodrı́guez, J. F. Reyes-Macı́as, O. Fowler, and N. J. Lin, “Synthesis and characterization of
and F. Ruiz, “Antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles against dimethacrylates containing quaternary ammonium functional-
Streptococcus mutans,” Materials Letters, vol. 63, no. 29, pp. ities for dental applications,” Dental Materials, vol. 28, no. 2, pp.
2603–2606, 2009. 219–228, 2012.
[49] L. Zhao, P. K. Chu, Y. Zhang, and Z. Wu, “Antibacterial coatings [64] E. A. Kidd, F. Toffenetti, and I. A. Mjör, “Secondary caries,”
on titanium implants,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research International Dental Journal, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 127–138, 1992.
Part B: Applied Biomaterials, vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 470–480, 2009. [65] K. Zhang, L. Cheng, S. Imazato et al., “Effects of dual antibac-
[50] K. Zhang, M. A. S. Melo, L. Cheng, M. D. Weir, Y. Bai, and terial agents MDPB and nano-silver in primer on microcosm
H. H. K. Xu, “Effect of quaternary ammonium and silver biofilm, cytotoxicity and dentine bond properties,” Journal of
nanoparticle-containing adhesives on dentin bond strength and Dentistry, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 464–474, 2013.
dental plaque microcosm biofilms,” Dental Materials, vol. 28, [66] F. Li, M. D. Weir, A. F. Fouad, and H. H. K. Xu, “Effect of salivary
no. 8, pp. 842–852, 2012. pellicle on antibacterial activity of novel antibacterial dental
[51] M. A. S. Melo, S. F. F. Guedes, H. H. K. Xu, and L. K. A. adhesives using a dental plaque microcosm biofilm model,”
Rodrigues, “Nanotechnology-based restorative materials for Dental Materials, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 182–191, 2014.
dental caries management,” Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 31, no. [67] J. L. Ferracane, “Resin composite—state of the art,” Dental
8, pp. 459–467, 2013. Materials, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 29–38, 2011.
[52] L. Cheng, K. Zhang, M. D. Weir, H. Liu, X. Zhou, and H. H. [68] A. M. Diaz-Arnold, M. A. Vargas, K. L. Shaull, J. E. Laffoon, and
K. Xu, “Effects of antibacterial primers with quaternary ammo- F. Qian, “Flexural and fatigue strengths of denture base resin,”
nium and nano-silver on Streptococcus mutans impregnated in Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 100, no. 1, pp. 47–51, 2008.
human dentin blocks,” Dental Materials, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 462– [69] K. Bulad, R. L. Taylor, J. Verran, and J. Fraser McCord,
472, 2013. “Colonization and penetration of denture soft lining materials
[53] T. J. Fruits, J. A. Knapp, and S. S. Khajotia, “Microleakage in by Candida albicans,” Dental Materials, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 167–
the proximal walls of direct and indirect posterior resin slot 175, 2004.
restorations,” Operative Dentistry, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 719–727, [70] N. Boscato, A. Radavelli, D. Faccio, and A. D. Loguercio,
2006. “Biofilm formation of Candida albicans on the surface of a soft
[54] F. H. Coelho-de-Souza, G. B. Camacho, F. F. Demarco, and J. denture-lining material,” Gerodontology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 210–
M. Powers, “Fracture resistance and gap formation of MOD 213, 2009.
restorations: influence of restorative technique, bevel prepara- [71] H. F. Oliveira Paranhos, C. H. Silva-Lovato, R. F. de Souza et
tion and water storage,” Operative Dentistry, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. al., “Effect of three methods for cleaning dentures on biofilms
37–43, 2008. formed in vitro on acrylic resin,” Journal of Prosthodontics, vol.
[55] S. P. Samuel, S. Li, I. Mukherjee et al., “Mechanical properties 18, no. 5, pp. 427–431, 2009.
of experimental dental composites containing a combination [72] E. Budtz-Jørgensen, P. Mojon, J. M. Banon-Clément, and P.
of mesoporous and nonporous spherical silica as fillers,” Dental Bachni, “Oral candidosis in long-term hospital care: compari-
Materials, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 296–301, 2009. son of edentulous and dentate subjects,” Oral Diseases, vol. 2,
[56] S. C. Bayne, J. Y. Thompson, E. J. Swift Jr., P. Stamatiades, and no. 4, pp. 285–290, 1996.
M. Wilkerson, “A characterization of first-generation flowable [73] Z. N. Al-Dwairi, “Prevalence and risk factors associated with
composites,” The Journal of the American Dental Association, denture-related stomatitis in healthy subjects attending a dental
vol. 129, no. 5, pp. 567–577, 1998. teaching hospital in North Jordan,” Journal of the Irish Dental
[57] D. C. Watts, A. S. Marouf, and A. M. Al-Hindi, “Photo- Association, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 80–83, 2008.
polymerization shrinkage-stress kinetics in resin-composites: [74] L. P. Samaranayake and R. G. Nair, “Oral Candida infections—a
methods development,” Dental Materials, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1–11, review,” Indian Journal of Dental Research, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 69–
2003. 82, 1995.
8 International Journal of Biomaterials

[75] J. Chandra, P. K. Mukherjee, S. D. Leidich et al., “Antifungal the outcome of conservative re-treatment,” Oral Surgery, Oral
resistance of Candidal biofilms formed on denture acrylic in Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics, vol.
vitro,” Journal of Dental Research, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 903–908, 85, no. 1, pp. 86–93, 1998.
2001. [92] J. C. Baumgartner and W. A. Falkler, “Bacteria in the apical 5
[76] L. F. Perezous, C. M. Flaitz, M. E. Goldschmidt, and R. mm of infected root canals,” Journal of Endodontics, vol. 17, no.
L. Engelmeier, “Colonization of Candida species in denture 8, pp. 380–383, 1991.
wearers with emphasis on HIV infection: a literature review,” [93] J. C. Baumgartner, S.-U. Khemaleelakul, and T. Xia, “Identifi-
Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 288–293, 2005. cation of spirochetes (treponemes) in endodontic infections,”
[77] C. R. Sims, L. Ostrosky-Zeichner, and J. H. Rex, “Invasive Journal of Endodontics, vol. 29, no. 12, pp. 794–797, 2003.
candidiasis in immunocompromised hospitalized patients,” [94] U. Sjögren, D. Figdor, S. Persson, and G. Sundqvist, “Influence of
Archives of Medical Research, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 660–671, 2005. infection at the time of root filling on the outcome of endodon-
[78] R. Rowan, M. McCann, and K. Kavanagh, “Analysis of the tic treatment of teeth with apical periodontitis,” International
response of Candida albicans cells to Silver(I),” Medical Mycol- Endodontic Journal, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 297–306, 1997.
ogy, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 498–505, 2010.
[95] Y. Shantiaee, F. Maziar, O. Dianat, and F. Mahjour, “Comparing
[79] L. J. Douglas, “Candida biofilms and their role in infection,” microleakage in root canals obturated with nanosilver coated
Trends in Microbiology, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 30–36, 2003. gutta-percha to standard gutta-percha by two different meth-
[80] C. J. Seneviratne, L. Jin, and L. P. Samaranayake, “Biofilm ods,” Iranian Endodontic Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 140–145, 2011.
lifestyle of Candida: a mini review,” Oral Diseases, vol. 14, no. [96] M. Torabinejad, C. U. Hong, F. McDonald, and T. R. Pitt Ford,
7, pp. 582–590, 2008. “Physical and chemical properties of a new root-end filling
[81] D. R. Monteiro, L. F. Gorup, A. S. Takamiya, A. C. Ruvollo-Filho, material,” Journal of Endodontics, vol. 21, no. 7, pp. 349–353,
E. R. de Camargo, and D. B. Barbosa, “The growing importance 1995.
of materials that prevent microbial adhesion: antimicrobial
[97] M. Torabinejad, C. U. Hong, T. R. P. Ford, and J. D. Kettering,
effect of medical devices containing silver,” International Journal
“Antibacterial effects of some root end filling materials,” Journal
of Antimicrobial Agents, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 103–110, 2009.
of Endodontics, vol. 21, no. 8, pp. 403–406, 1995.
[82] G. Dhir, D. W. Berzins, V. B. Dhuru, A. R. Periathamby, and A.
[98] J. Kreth, D. Kim, M. Nguyen et al., “The antimicrobial effect
Dentino, “Physical properties of denture base resins potentially
of silver ion impregnation into endodontic sealer against
resistant to candida adhesion,” Journal of Prosthodontics, vol. 16,
Streptococcus mutans,” The Open Dentistry Journal, vol. 2, pp.
no. 6, pp. 465–472, 2007.
18–23, 2008.
[83] L. A. Casemiro, C. H. G. Martins, F. D. C. P. Pires-de-Souza,
and H. Panzeri, “Antimicrobial and mechanical properties of [99] Y. Shantiaee, O. Dianat, H. Mohammad Khani, and A.
acrylic resins with incorporated silver-zinc zeolite—part I,” Akbarzadeh Baghban, “Cytotoxicity comparison of nanosilver
Gerodontology, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 187–194, 2008. coated gutta-percha with Guttaflow and normal gutta-percha
on L929 fibroblast with MTT assay,” Beheshti University Dental
[84] Y. Abe, M. Ishii, M. Takeuchi, M. Ueshige, S. Tanaka, and Y.
Journal, vol. 29, pp. 62–68, 2011.
Akagawa, “Effect of saliva on an antimicrobial tissue condi-
tioner containing silver-zeolite,” Journal of Oral Rehabilitation, [100] D. Kandaswamy and N. Venkateshbabu, “Root canal irrigants,”
vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 568–573, 2004. Journal of Conservative Dentistry, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 256–264,
2010.
[85] M. Z. Kassaee, A. Akhavan, N. Sheikh, and A. Sodagar,
“Antibacterial effects of a new dental acrylic resin containing [101] R. M. Clarkson and A. J. Moule, “Sodium hypochlorite and its
silver nanoparticles,” Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 110, use as an endodontic irrigant,” Australian Dental Journal, vol.
no. 3, pp. 1699–1703, 2008. 43, no. 4, pp. 250–256, 1998.
[86] H. Kong and J. Jang, “Antibacterial properties of novel [102] J. W. Harrison, T. A. Svec, and J. C. Baumgartner, “Analysis of
poly(methyl methacrylate) nanofiber containing silver clinical toxicity of endodontic irrigants,” Journal of Endodontics,
nanoparticles,” Langmuir, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 2051–2056, 2008. vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 6–11, 1978.
[87] S.-J. Ahn, S.-J. Lee, J.-K. Kook, and B.-S. Lim, “Experimental [103] I. N. Rôças, J. F. Siqueira Jr., and K. R. N. Santos, “Association
antimicrobial orthodontic adhesives using nanofillers and silver of Enterococcus faecalis with different forms of periradicular
nanoparticles,” Dental Materials, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 206–213, diseases,” Journal of Endodontics, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 315–320,
2009. 2004.
[88] N. Okita, D. Ørstavik, J. Ørstavik, and K. Østby, “In vivo and in [104] F. Abbasipour, V. Akheshteh, A. Rastqar, H. Khalilkhani, S.
vitro studies on soft denture materials: microbial adhesion and Asgari, and M. Janahmadi, “Comparing the effects of mineral
tests for antibacterial activity,” Dental Materials, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. trioxide aggregate and calcium enriched mixture on neuronal
155–160, 1991. cells using an electrophysiological approach,” Iranian Endodon-
[89] A. Byström and G. Sundqvist, “Bacteriologic evaluation of the tic Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 79–87, 2012.
efficacy of mechanical root canal instrumentation in endodon- [105] S. Sahebi, M. Nabavizade, V. Dolatkhah, and D. Jamshidi, “Short
tic therapy,” Scandinavian Journal of Dental Research, vol. 89, no. term effect of calcium hydroxide, mineral trioxide aggregate
4, pp. 321–328, 1981. and calcium-enriched mixture cement on the strength of bovine
[90] L. Fabricius, G. Dahlén, A. E. Ohman, and A. J. Möller, root dentin,” Iranian Endodontic Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 68–73,
“Predominant indigenous oral bacteria isolated from infected 2012.
root canals after varied times of closure,” Scandinavian Journal [106] T. J. Stowe, C. M. Sedgley, B. Stowe, and J. C. Fenno, “The effects
of Dental Research, vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 134–144, 1982. of chlorhexidine gluconate (0.12%) on the antimicrobial prop-
[91] G. Sundqvist, D. Figdor, S. Persson, and U. Sjögren, “Microbi- erties of tooth-colored ProRoot mineral trioxide aggregate,”
ologic analysis of teeth with failed endodontic treatment and Journal of Endodontics, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 429–431, 2004.
 International Journal of Biomaterials 9

[107] E. P. Hernandez, T. M. Botero, M. G. Mantellini, N. J. McDonald,

and J. E. Nör, “Effect of ProRoot MTA mixed with chlorhexidine
on apoptosis and cell cycle of fibroblasts and macrophages in
vitro,” International Endodontic Journal, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 137–
143, 2005.
[108] R. O. Darouiche, “Treatment of infections associated with
surgical implants,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol.
350, no. 14, pp. 1422–1429, 2004.
[109] J. Hardes, H. Ahrens, C. Gebert et al., “Lack of toxicological
side-effects in silver-coated megaprostheses in humans,” Bioma-
terials, vol. 28, no. 18, pp. 2869–2875, 2007.
[110] J. G. E. Hendriks, J. R. Van Horn, H. C. Van Der Mei, and
H. J. Busscher, “Backgrounds of antibiotic-loaded bone cement
and prosthesis-related infection,” Biomaterials, vol. 25, no. 3, pp.
545–556, 2004.
[111] D. Campoccia, L. Montanaro, and C. R. Arciola, “The signifi-
cance of infection related to orthopedic devices and issues of
antibiotic resistance,” Biomaterials, vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 2331–2339,
2006.
[112] C. R. Arciola, L. Baldassarri, D. Campoccia et al., “Strong
biofilm production, antibiotic multi-resistance and high gelE
expression in epidemic clones of Enterococcus faecalis from
orthopaedic implant infections,” Biomaterials, vol. 29, no. 5, pp.
580–586, 2008.
[113] W. Chen, Y. Liu, H. S. Courtney et al., “In vitro anti-bacterial
and biological properties of magnetron co-sputtered silver-
containing hydroxyapatite coating,” Biomaterials, vol. 27, no. 32,
pp. 5512–5517, 2006.
[114] X. Lu, B. Zhang, Y. Wang et al., “Nano-Ag-loaded hydroxyap-
atite coatings on titanium surfaces by electrochemical deposi-
tion,” Journal of the Royal Society Interface, vol. 8, no. 57, pp.
529–539, 2011.
Journal of International Journal of International Journal of Smart Materials Journal of
Nanotechnology
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Corrosion
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Polymer Science
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Research
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Composites
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Journal of
Metallurgy

BioMed
Research International
Hindawi Publishing Corporation Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Nanomaterials
Submit your manuscripts at
http://www.hindawi.com

Journal of Journal of
Materials
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Nanoparticles
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Nanomaterials
Journal of

Advances in The Scientific International Journal of

Materials Science and Engineering
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Scientifica
Hindawi Publishing Corporation Hindawi Publishing Corporation
World Journal
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Biomaterials
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of

Nanoscience
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Coatings
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Crystallography
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Ceramics
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Textiles
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Volume 2014