solutionS MANUAL FOR

Introduction to Biomass
Energy Conversions

by
Sergio Capareda
solutionS MANUAL FOR
Introduction to Biomass
Energy Conversions

by
Sergio Capareda

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Solu
ution
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Manu
ual
for
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Chapter 1
Biomass as an Energy Source

Problems and Discussion Issues

Simple Definitions

1.1 Define or explain the following terms and list their common English and metric units:

(a) Energy

(b) Power

(c) Heating value

Answers:

a. Energy – is the ability to do work and the common unit is Joule or Btu

b. Power – is the rate of doing work and the common unit is Watt (J/s) or Btu/hr

c. Heating value is the amount of energy contained in a biomass resource per unit of

weight. The common unit used is MJ/kg in metric units or Btu/lb in the English

system of units

Energy Units

1.2 Convert the world's energy consumption of 424 EJ into units of BTU. Convert the BTU units

into Quads, since BTU is a relatively smaller unit.

Solution:

a. Convert 424 EJ into Btu

424 EJ BTU 1x1018 J

BTU  x x  4.02 x 1017 BTU
1055 J EJ
 2 
 

b. Btu units into Quads

4.02 x 1017 BTU Quads

Quad  x  401.9 Quads
15
1x10 BTU

Net Energy Trends in US

1.3 Plot the net energy use in the US from 2001 to 2009 using data from Table 1 (consumption

minus production). Describe the trends in net energy use in the US.

Solution:

a. Subtract consumption from production column from Table 1 and plot the net energy. The

net energy graph follows:

Net Energy
40
Net Energy USe (Quads) 

30
20
10

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Year

b. The net energy has increased from 2001 to 2005 and started to decrease.
 3 
 

Contribution of Energy Sources in the US Economy

1.4 Make a pie chart showing the percentage contribution of each energy source for the energy

consumed in the US in 2009. Discuss the source (or sources) that comprised the majority of

use.

Solution:

a. The energy sources are added and a percentage is calculated. The result is shown in

the graph below.

Energy Consumption in the US in 2009
(EIA, 2010)
Solar Wind Biomass
0.16% 1.00% 5.56%

Geo
0.53%
Nuclear Coal
11.83% 30.78%
NGPL**
3.56%

NGD* Oil
30.64% 15.96%

b. About 31% of consumption is coal and NGD followed by oil at 16%.

 4 
 

Moisture Removal in Biomass

1.5 Algae biomass is harvested with around 87% moisture (wet basis). Determine the amount of

moisture to be removed per 1000 kg of algae if the ideal safe storage moisture content is

13%.

Solution:

a. The total amount of moisture in this algae biomass is 870 kg and the dry weight is 130

kg. These results can also be calculated from the equation provided in this chapter as

shown below:

1000 kg  Dry weight

87%  x100% Dry weight  130 kg
1000 kg
b. However, not all of this moisture will be removed to keep the biomass at 13% moisture

content. The dry weight of the final product will be calculated using the above equation,

and with the moisture content of 13% to estimate the new total weight of the product at

13% MC as shown below:

X kg  130 kg
13%  x100% Wet weight ( X )  149 .4 kg
X kg

c. The wet weight of the 13% MC product is 149.4 kg and of this, the amount of moisture

will be 19.4 kg. Thus, the amount of moisture to be removed will be (870 - 19.4) = 850.6

kg. This problem is a little bit tricky.

Energy from Imported Crude Oil

1.6 The United States currently imports 11.7 million barrels of oil per day. How many Quads

does this represent for the year? How many EJ per year? Assume one gallon of crude oil

contains 138,095 Btu. There are 42 gallons to a barrel.

 5 
 

Solution:

a. This is a pretty straightforward conversion problem as shown below.

11.7 x10 6 barrels 138,095 BTU 42 gallons Quads 365 days

Quad  x x x x  24.8 Quads
day 1gallon barrel 1x1015 BTU year

b. The equivalent EJ is then calculated.

24.8 Quads 1x1015 Btu 1055 J EJ

EJ  x x x  26.1EJ
1Quad Btu 1x1018 J
c. One should now be familiar that Quads and EJ are about the same order of magnitude.

Pure Sugar to Ethanol Conversion

1.7 Determine the amount of pure sucrose sugar (in kg) to generate a liter of ethanol using the

idealized equation shown. The density of ethanol is 0.8 kg/liter. Convert this unit into its English

equivalent (lbs/gallon).

C12H22O11 + H2O + yeast  4 C2H5OH + 4 CO2 + heat

Sucrose + Water + yeast  ethanol + carbon dioxide + heat

Solution:

a. The ratio of sucrose to ethanol is given as follows:

Sucrose C12 H 22O11 (12) * (12)  (1) * (22)  (16) * (11) 342kg 0.8kg ethanol
   x  1.5kg / L
Ethanol 4C2 H 6O 4 * [(12) * (2)  (1) * (6)  (16) * (1) 184kg L

b. Converting this into the English system of units is shown here:

Sucrose 1.5 kg sucrose 2.2lbs 3.785L

 x x  12.5 lbs / gallon
Ethanol L ethanol kg gallon
 6 
 

Biogas Utilization in Households

1.8 The average rural household in the US consumes around 25 kWh of electricity per day.

Biogas will be used to fuel an engine-generator to produce the needed electrical power for

this household. The thermal efficiency of the engine is 30% and the electrical to mechanical

efficiency is 85%. Thirty liters (1 ft3) of biogas with a methane content of 65% will provide

0.63 MJ (600 Btu) of energy. Determine the volume of biogas required (in cubic meters and

cubic feet per day) for this purpose. Note that kWh = 3.6 MJ.

Solution:

a. Volume of gas required can be calculated by simple conversion as follows:

25kWh 3.6 MJ 30 L m3 1
Volume(m3 )       16.8m3d
day 1kWh 0.63MJ 1000 L (0.30)  (0.85)

b. Thus, the volume of gas required is 16.8 m3/day or 593 ft3/day as shown below.

3
16.8m 3  3.28 ft  ft 3
Volume( ft ) 
3
   593
day  1m  day

Acreage Needed to Build Power Plants

1.9 A 50 MW biomass-based power plant is being built in Nagadoches County, Texas, which

will be fueled by wood residue. This power plant will be operated for 333 days a year and 24

hrs/day. The heating value of the woodwaste is 22 MJ/kg (9,480 Btu/lb). The wood waste

yield in tonnes per hectare per year is about 25. Assume an overall conversion efficiency of

50%. How many hectares (or acres) of land is required for this power plant?

Solution:
 7 
 

a. First calculate the amount of input energy required assuming an overall conversion

efficiency of 50%.

Energy Output ( MW ) 50MW

Energy Input ( MW )    100MW
Efficiency (decimal) 0.5

b. Next, calculate the amount of biomass needed per unit of time.

tonnes 100MW 1MJ kg tonne 3600s 24h 333d tonnes

Biomass ( )        130,778
yr 1MW  s 22MJ 1000kg hr day yr yr

c. Then, calculate the acreage needed assuming land productivity.

130,778tonnes ha  yr
Acreage (ha)    5,231 hectares [12,921acres]
yr 25tonnes

Air-to-Fuel Ratios for the Combustion of Fuel

1.10 Determine the air-to-fuel ratio for the complete combustion of methane (CH4) gas in air.

Note that air contains 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume. The main products are

water and carbon dioxide.

Solution:

a. Balance the combustion equation with air to yield CO2 and H2O

CH 4  2  O2  3.76 N 2   CO2  2 H 2O  2  3.76 N 2 

b. With the molecular weights of each compound known, calculate the air to fuel ratio using

coefficients from the above balanced equation.

Air 2  O2  3.76 N 2  2  16  2  3.76  14  2 274.56

    17.16
Fuel CH 4 12  4 1 16
 8 
 

Chapter 2
Biomass Conversion Processes

Problems and Discussion Issues

Heat Energy Conversion Efficiency

2.1 One tonne [1.1 tons] of dried manure is converted into heat energy. Determine the efficiency

if this biomass is converted into heat. The total amount of heat produced during the process is

15,000 MJ. The heating value of the manure was reported at 19.7 MJ/kg [8,500 Btu/lb].

Solution:

a. Efficiency equation as presented in Equation 2.1 is given as follows:

output
Efficiency (%)  x100
input

b. Substituting for the variables with correct units to estimate efficiency as follows:

15,0000 MJ 1 1metric ton

Efficiency (%)  x x x100  76.1%
19.7 MJ / kg 1metric ton 1000kg

Energy of Feedstock and Biofuel Product

2.2 One hundred kg [220 lbs] of soybean oil was converted into biodiesel. Assuming 100%

conversion efficiency, compare the energy of the biodiesel with that of the vegetable oil if the

energy content of refined soybean oil was found to be 27.87 MJ/L [100,000 Btu/gallon].

How much energy in units of Joules with appropriate prefixes (or in million Btu or MMBtu)

was in the biodiesel that was produced if the resulting energy content of the ester was 32.94

MJ/L [118,170 Btu/gal]. The density of bodiesel product was 888.7 kg/m3 [7.4 lb/gal] and the

density of refined soybean oil was 912.7 kg/m3 [7.6 lb/gal].

 9 
 

Solution.

a. Energy content of refined oil

100kg oil 27.87 MJ m3 1000L

Energy ( MJ )      3.054 MJ
L 912.7kg m3

GJ
Energy (GJ )  3,054MJ   3.1 GJ
1000MJ

220 lbs oil 100,000 Btu gal 1MMBtu

Energy ( MMBtu)      2.97 MMBtu
gal 7.4lbs 1,000,000 Btu

b. Energy content of the ester of oil is calculated from

100kg oil 32.94MJ m3 1000L GJ

Energy (GJ )     3
  3.71 GJ
L 888.7kg m 1,000MJ

220 lbs oil 118,170 Btu gal 1MMBtu

Energy ( MMBtu )      3.42 MMBtu
gal 7.6lbs 1,000,000 Btu

Note that there is more energy contained in the ester product than the refined oil.

Methanol was also added as a reactant containing additional amounts of energy. This

calculation does not imply that more energy is produced than the energy in the refined

vegetable oil. The yield of biodiesel may also be less than 100%.

Ethanol Yield Per Unit of Area

2.3 A certain variety of sweet sorghum has a sugar content 15.9% by weight and the biomass

yield is 57.8 tonnes/hectare [25.74 tons/acre] and a stalk sugar yield of around 9.2 tonnes/ha

[4.1 tons/acre] (ICRISAT Data, 2007. ICSA 749, SSV 74 variety). Estimate the ethanol yield

per hectare based on rules of thumb presented in this chapter (i.e. 1.8 kg sugar/L or 15 lbs
 10 
 

sugar/gallon). Compare this with the 5,000 L/ha [ 535 gal/acre] yield reported in some

literatures.

Solution:

a. As rule of thumb recommended in this chapter, 1.8 kg/L [15 lbs of sugar per gallon] of

ethanol will be used as conversion factor.

9.2 tonnes 1,000kg L ethanol L

   5,111
ha 1tonne 1.8kg ha

b. This is slighly higher than the reported 5,000 L/ha ethanol yield [535 gal/acre].

Number of Animals Needed for Power Generation

2.4 An irrigation pump is to be powered by biogas using methane-driven internal combustion

engine. 540 watts of power is required to the pump. The biogas engine has an overall

conversion efficiency of 24% (thermal and mechanical) and the irrigation must be completed

in ten hours each day. Estimate the number of swine animals needed for this application.

Assume the energy content of biogas of 19.3 MJ/m3 [550 Btu/ft3]. Further assume that each

mature swine will produce 164 L biogas/day.

Solution.

a. From the efficiency equation, we have the following energy required from the biogas

% Efficiency 
output 540Watts
input Input   2,250Watts
(0.24)

b. If the biogas will be needed in 10 hours the energy required will be calculated as follows:

10hrs 22.5kWh
c. 2,250Watts  
day day
 11 
 

d. If this is to be the input energy required, then the number of animals can be calculated as

follows:

22.5kWh hd  day m3 3.6MJ 1000L

e. Animals (heads)       26 hds
day 164L 19.3MJ 1kWh m3

Pyrolysis Conversion Efficiency

2.5 Determine the conversion efficiency for the pyrolysis of one tonne [1.1 ton] of switchgrass

using the following resulting data (please neglect the electrical and heat energy to the

pyrolyzer). The energy content of the switchgrass is 19.77 MJ/kg [8,520 Btu/lb]. Determine

also the overall system losses.

a. The amount of biochar produced is 227 kg [500 lbs] with a heating value of 28.97 MJ/kg

[12,480 Btu/lb]

b. The amount of bio-oil produced is 227 liters [60 gallons] with a heating value of 30.66

MJ/L [110,000 Btu/gal]

c. The amount of syngas produced is 110.5 cubic meter [3,900 cubic feet] with an energy

content of 11.17 MJ/m3 [300 Btu/ft3]

Convert the units into its equivalent English units.

Solution.

a. The energy balance may simply be written as energy from the biomass being equal to the

energy in the biochar, bio-oil, syngas, and system losses

Eb  Ebc  Ebo  Esg  El

The energy input is calculated first
 12 
 

1tonne 19.77 MJ 1,000kg

   19.77GJ
kg tonne
1.1ton 8,520 Btu 2,000lb
   18.74 MMBtu
lb ton

b. The energy output is calculated next

Biochar

227kg 28.97MJ 500lbs 12,480 Btu

  6.58GJ   6.24 MMBtu
kg lb

Biooil

227 L 30.66MJ 60 gal 110,000Btu

  6.96GJ   6.6MMBtu
L gal

Syngas

110.5m3 11.17MJ 3900 ft 3 300Btu

  1.23GJ   1.17 MMBtu
m3 ft 3

19.77GJ  6.58GJ  6.96GJ  1.23GJ  Losses

Losses = 5 GJ

18.74 MMBtu  6.24 MMBtu  6.6 MMBtu  1.17 MMBtu  Losses

Losses = 4.73MMBtu

c. The overall conversion efficiency (metric) is calculated as follows:

E  Ebo  Esg
Overall Conversion Efficiency  bc  100%
Eb

6.58  6.96  1.23

Overall ConversionEfficiency   100%  74.7%
19.77
Note that there will be slight discrepancies in converting to English due to rounding

errors.
 13 
 

Gasification Carbon Efficiency

2.6 Determine the carbon efficiency for a gasification conversion process using the following

data:

- The ultimate analysis of manure biomass showed that carbon content is 45% and manure

char carbon content of 31%

- The biomass was gasified at a rate of 4.5 kg/min.

- The char production rate was measured at 1.14 kg/min

- Assume that (tar production is negligible).

Solution.

a. The carbon in synthesis gas is calculated from the difference between the fuel amd the

char as follows:

4.5kg 1.14kg
Csyngas  Cbiomass  Cchar Csyngas   0.45   0.31  1.67kg / min
min min

b. Carbon conversion efficiency will be calculated based on carbon in syngas divided by the

carbon in the biomass as follows:

Carbon in Synthesis Gas

c. Carbon Conversion Efficiency   100%
Carbon in Original Biomass

1.67
Carbon Conversion Efficiency   100%  82.5%
4.5  0.45
Area Required for a Power Plant

2.7 How many acres would be required to build a 50 MW (energy output) biomass power plant

(operated 365 days a year and 24 hrs/day) if the heating value of the biomass (dry) is 17.4

MJ/kg [7,500 Btu/lb]. The biomass yield is 9 tonnes/ha [4 tons (dry)/acre/yr]. Assume a

conversion efficiency of 50%.

 14 
 

Solution:

a. The energy input must be equal to (50 MW/0.5 = 100 MW)

This is a simple conversion process using dimensional analysis to the correct units of acres

as follows:

100 MW MJ kg 3600 s 24hrs 365d tonne ha

x x x x x x x  20,138 hectacres
MW  s 17.4 MJ hr day yr 1000kg 9tonnes

100MW 1x106 W J Btu lb 3600s 24hrs 365d ton acre

x x x x x x x x x  49,820 acres
MW W  s 1055J 7500Btu hr day yr 2000lbs 4tons

b. Answer = 20,138 hectares. There will be rounding off errors from converting into English

System of units.

Energy Required to Raise Water Temperature

2.8 How much energy is needed to raise the temperature of a liter of water from an initial

temperature of 25oC to a final temperature of 100oC (boiling point of water) at standard

temperature and pressure (STP). Compare this energy to the energy content of a kg of rice

hull waste with an energy content of 17 MJ/kg. Assume the density of water at STP is 1.0.

Solution:

a. The heat capacity equation is used to arrive at the following values (note a liter of water

is equal to a kg of water at STP).

4.19kJ
Q( MJ )  1kg  o
 (100  25) o C  314.3 kJ  0.3143MJ
kg C

b. Thus, a kg of rice hull has several times more energy than that required to boil a liter of

water. In short, this is only equivalent to 1.85% of the energy of the rice hull.
 15 
 

Biogas Conversion Efficiency

2.9 Determine the conversion efficiency of a biogas for power generation facility with the

following data: electrical power output is 300kW, gas consumption is around 0.96 million

cubic meters of methane each year. Landfill gas has approximately 60% methane. Assume

about 8000 hrs of operation each year with a biogas heating value of 5 kWh/Nm3. Note that

N stands for normal in this HV unit.

Solution:

a. This problem is again a simple efficiency and input and output energy or power equation.

The output power will be 300 kW.

b. The input power will be the total amount of biogas used assuming 60% is methane and is

calculated from the following:

0.96 106 m3
Biogas (m ) 
3
 1.6 106 m3
0.6
c. The energy efficiency equation is used to estimate efficiency as follows:
output 300 kW m3
Efficiency (%)   100%    8,000 hrs  100%  30%
input 1.6 x10 6 m 3 5kWh

d. Thus, the conversion efficiency is approximately 30% .

Steam Cycle Conversion Efficiency

2.10 A biomass (wood) power plant uses steam to generate electrical power. Around 160,000

kg of water per hour enters the boiler at a pressure of 12.5 MPa and a temperature of 200oC.

Steam leaves the boiler at 9 Mpa and at 500oC. The power output of the turbine is 40,000

kW. The rate of biomass input is 30,000 kg/hr with a heating value of 22 MJ/kg. Determine

the efficiency of steam generator and the overall thermal efficiency of the plant. Hint: In
 16 
 

calculating the energy absorbed by the steam, you may use the enthalpy equation, E =

m*(h2-h1). The enthalpy values are found from steam tables at 9 Mpa and 500oC and at 12.5

Mpa and 200oC.

Solution:

a. The heat transferred to the water to generate steam can be calculated by the enthalpy

changes at the different pressure and temperature combinations. From steam tables, the

enthalpy at 12.5 MPa and 200oC was 857.1 kJ/kg while the enthalpy at the other

condition is 3386.1 kJ/kg.

Energy transferred to water ( E H 2O )  m * (h9 MPa,500C  h12.5 MPa, 200C )

E H 2O  160,000 kg / hr * (3.3861  0.8571) MJ / kg  404,640 MJ / hr

E fuel  30,000 kg / hr * 22 MJ / kg  660,000 MJ / hr

b. Equation 2.8 may then be used to calculate the efficiency of the steam generator as

follows:

404,640MJ / hr
 steam generator (%)  100%  61.3%
660,000MJ / hr

c. Equation 2.9 will be used to estimate the overall thermal efficiency of the system as

follows (or simply output divided by the biomass input fuel)

kg hr 3.6MJ
th (%)  40,000 kW     100%  21.8%
22MJ 30,000kg kWh
 17 
 

Chapter 3
Biomass Properties for Thermal Conversion

Problems and Discussion Issues

Sustainability of Biomass Use

3.1 List and discuss the major factors that limit the removal of crop residues from the land.

Answers:

a. The nutrients from harvested biomass must be returned to the land for land-nutrient

sustainability as recommended by USDA NRCS.

b. Some machinery is not equipped to return the biomass to the field

c. There are no direct incentives for gathering the remaining biomass on the field

d. There is very limited economical utilization options available at present

e. There are no regulations nor penalties at present to keep the biomass on theland

Proximate Analysis Calculations

3.2 Ground Jatropha hull samples were used to estimate the proximate analysis. The following

are the data from the experiment:

a. An initial sample weighing 2.9657 g was used and placed in the drying oven set at 103oC

overnight until the final weight became 2.6938 g.

b. About 0.9101 gram of bone-dry samples were placed in the tube furnace set at 950oC for

7 minutes and the resulting weight of the product was 0.2659 g.

 18 
 

c. The same sample was then placed in a muffle furnace set at 600oC for 4 hours with a

resulting final ash weight of 0.0142 grams.

Calculate the proximate analysis for this sample and also repot the values on an “as receivedˮ

basis as well.

Solution:

a. The moisture content is calculated from the following equation to report a 9.17%

moisture content.

mi  m f 2.9657  2.6938
% MC   100%   100%  9.17%
mi 2.9657

b. The volatile combustible matter is calculated from the following equation resulting to a

VCM value of 70.78%.

vi  v f 0.9101  0.2659
%VCM   100%   100%  70.78%
vi 0.9101

c. The fixed carbon is calculated from the following equation to get an FC value of 10.1%.

fi  f f 0.0142
% Ash   100%   100  5.34%
vi 0.2659

d. Finally, fixed carbon is calculated by difference as shown:

% FC  100  %VCM  % Ash  100  70.78  5.34  23.88%

e. If the values are to be reconstituted on an “as received“ basis the data will be as follows:

MC=9.17%, VCM=64.29%, FC=21.69% and Ash = 4.85% = 100%

Air-to-Fuel Ratio Calculations

3.3 Calculate the air-to-fuel ratio for the complete combustion of propane (C3H8) in air.
 19 
 

Solution:

a. Balance the equation as shown.

C3 H 8  5O2  5(3.76) N 2  3CO2  4 H 2O  18.80 N 2

b. Compute the weight of air using the molecular weights of each element

Air: 5*(32)+5*3.76*(28) = 160+526.4=686.4

c. Compute weight of fuel similarly

Fuel: 3*12+1*8=44

d. Compute the ratio as follows:

Air/Fuel = 686.4/44 = 15.6 kg/kg or lb/lb

Heating Value Equivalents

3.4 How much cotton gin trash (in kgs or in lbs) is required to provide the same heating value as

a kg (or lb) of gasoline?

Solution:

a. CGT Equivalents HV = 15.5 MJ/kg

b. Gasoline HV = 47 MJ/kg

c. Thus, the ratio is 47/15.5 = 3 kg CGT equals 1 kg gasoline.

d. Unfortunately, you cannot put 3 kg of CGT in your engine fuel tank to provide the energy

of 1 kg gasoline which is 47 MJ. Some conversion is needed to turn CGT into liquid fuel

that may be placed in an engine‘s gas tank.

 20 
 

Biomass Requirements for Power Generation

3.5 A gasifier is used to generate 1 MW of electrical power from municipal solid wastes.

Determine the amount of MSW needed per day (tonnes/day) if the conversion efficiency is

around 15%. The unit will be operated for 350 days in a year at 24 hrs/day. The heating value

of MSW is 24.9 MJ/kg.

Solution:

a. The energy input must be equal to (1 MW/0.15 = 6.7 MW)

b.This is a simple conversion process using dimensional analysis to the proper unit as folows:

6.7MW MJ kg tonne 3600s 24hr

x x x x x  23.3 tonnes / day
MW  s 24.9MJ 1000kg hr day

c. Thus, around 23.3 tonnes/day is required to produce this power output from MSW.

Heating Value Calculations

3.6 The heating value of animal manure was reported as 19.7 MJ/kg [8500 Btu/lb] on a dry ash-

free basis. Convert this value on an “as received basisˮ and dry basis if the moisture content

of this biomass was 15% and the ash was 20%. Convert the units in the English system.

Solution:

a. Use equation 3.8 for this calculation with the ash content of 20% transformed into

decimal equivalent.

HHV (dry basis) HHV (dry basis)

HHV (dry ash freebasis)    19.7MJ / kg
1  ash content( fraction) 1  0.20

HHV (dry basis )  19.7 MJ / kg  (1  0.20)  15.76 MJ / kg

 21 
 

b. Use equation 3.7 for the “as receivedˮ basis calculation.

HV ( wet basis) HV ( wet basis)

HHV (dry basis)    15.76MJ / kg
1  moisture content ( fraction) (1  0.15)

HV (wet basis)  15.76MJ / kg  1  0.15  13.4MJ / kg

13.4MJ 1x10 6 J Btu 1kg

HV ( wet basis)      5773Btu / lb
kg 1MJ 1055 J 2.2lbs

Heating Value Calculations: Carbon Basis

3.7 Determine the heating value of sawdust based on carbon basis and ash basis. Use the data in

Table 3.6 for the carbon content. Compare this with the reported value in the table.

Solution:

a. The carbon content of rice straw is 49.7%, thus substitution in the equation above will

result in the following.

HHV(dry)=2.549+34.9*(0.497) = 19.9 MJ/kg

b. The reported heating value for sawdust is 20.0MJ/kg so the estimate is very close.

c. The ash content of sawdust is 0.7%, thus substitution in the ash equation above will result

to the following.

HHV (dry) = 20.067 - 23.4*(0.7/100)= 19.9 MJ/kg

d. This estimate is also close. Thus, the ash content of this biomass material will be a good

parameter to use to estimate the heating value.

 22 
 

Dulong and Boie Equations

3.8 Determine the heating value of sawdust based on the Boie and Dulong Equation. Use the data

in Table 3.6 for the ultimate analysis. Compare this with reported value in the table.

Solution:

a. The ultimate analysis for sawdust is as follows: C=49.7%; H=6.2%, O=42.6%, N=0.7%

and S=0.17%. Thus substitution in the equation above will result in the following.

HHV(kJ/kg)=35,160*(0.497)+116,225*(0.062)–11,090*(0.426)

+6,280*(0.007)+10,465*(0.0017) =20.0 MJ/kg

The reported heating value for sawdust is 20.0 MJ/kg so the estimate is very accurate.

b. The Dolung equation estimate was 18.1 MJ/kg and off by about 9%.

HV (kJ/kg) = 33,823*(0.497) + 144,250*(0.062-(0.426)/8) + 9,419*(0.0017) = 18.1

MJ/kg.

Empirical Relations for Estimating Heating Values of Biomass

3.9 Use the data in Table 3.6 (Ultimate Analysis) to calculate the heating value of the biomass

using the various empirical relationships as follows:

a. Carbon Basis

b. Ash Basis

c. BOIE Equation

d. Dulong Equation

Compare the values with the reported heating value data (also from Table 3.6) and discuss the

accuracy of your results.

Solution.
 23 
 

a. The table shows the summary of results and percentage deviations.

b. Carbon basis is excellent for most biomass except charcoal (due to high carbon content)

and corn cobs with average deviations of only 3%. Note that this equation is valid for 30-

50% carbon content and charcoal has a higher carbon content.

c. Ash basis is good for non-coal materials only and corb cobs. Coal estimates are way off

and thus this empirical relationship would not be suitable for coal samples. Average

deviation is 10%.

d. Boie equation has an average deviation of only 1%, although some biomass and charcoal

values are far off. Corn cobs and rice hulls are off the mark by more than 20%.

e. The Dulong equation is very similar to the Boie equation but has a larger deviation of

5%. This empirical equation is also not suitable for charcoal and some biomass (i.e. corn

cobs and rice hulls).

 24 
 
Material Carbon Basis Ash Basis Reported HV
(MJ/kg)
MJ/kg %Dev MJ/kg %Dev

Pittsburgh seam coal 28.9 9% 18.1 43% 31.7

West Kentucky coal 28.5 9% 18.7 40% 31.3

Utah coal 29.7 10% 19.3 42% 32.9

Wyoming Elkol coal 27.5 7% 19.2 35% 29.5

Lignite 24.9 0% 18.1 27% 24.9

Charcoal 30.6 47% 19.4 66% 57.4

Douglas fir 20.8 1% 19.9 6% 21.0

Douglas fir bark 20.1 0% 19.8 10% 22.1

Pine bark 21.2 -2% 19.5 5% 20.4

Western hemlock 20.6 -1% 19.6 2% 20.0

Redwood 19.9 -1% 19.9 5% 21.0

Beech 20.2 -1% 19.9 2% 20.4

Hickory 19.9 1% 19.9 1% 20.1

Maple 20.2 -1% 19.7 1% 19.9

Poplar 20.6 1% 19.9 4% 20.7

Rice hulls 16.0 -4% 17.2 12% 15.4

Rice straw 16.2 -7% 16.5 -9% 15.2

Sawdust pellets 19.0 7% 19.8 3% 20.5

Paper 17.7 -1% 18.9 -8% 17.6

Redwood wastewood 21.2 1% 19.9 7% 21.3

Alabama oak (waste) 19.8 -3% 19.4 -1% 19.2

Animal waste 17.5 -2% 16.8 2% 17.2

 25 
 

Municipal solid waste 19.2 4% 17.8 10% 19.9

Cotton gin trash 17.2 -11% 17.4 12% 15.5

Sorghum stalks 16.5 -7% 17.8 15% 15.4

Feedlot manure (fresh) 18.4 -6% 17.1 1% 17.4

Feedlot manure (aged) 14.0 7% 12.5 17% 15.1

Corn cobs 18.7 29% 19.6 26% 26.3

Sawdust 19.9 0% 19.9 0% 20.0

Material Boie Equation Dulong Reported

Equation HV
(MJ/kg)
MJ/kg %Dev MJ/kg %Dev

Pittsburgh seam coal 32.2 -2% 32.2 -1% 31.7

West Kentucky coal 31.7 -1% 31.5 -1% 31.3

Utah coal 33.4 -1% 33.3 -1% 32.9

Wyoming Elkol coal 29.6 0% 28.9 2% 29.5

Lignite 25.4 -2% 24.4 2% 24.9

Charcoal 30.6 47% 29.6 48% 57.4

Douglas fir 21.2 -1% 19.5 7% 21.0

Douglas fir bark 22.5 -2% 20.9 5% 22.1

Pine bark 20.8 -2% 19.1 7% 20.4

Western hemlock 19.9 1% 18.0 10% 20.0

Redwood 21.2 -1% 19.3 8% 21.0

Beech 20.9 -2% 19.1 6% 20.4

Hickory 20.2 -1% 18.4 9% 20.1

 26 
 

Maple 20.2 -1% 18.3 8% 19.9

Poplar 20.9 -1% 19.1 8% 20.7

Rice hulls 15.8 -3% 14.1 8% 15.4

Rice straw 15.8 -4% 14.2 7% 15.2

Sawdust pellets 19.1 7% 17.2 16% 20.5

Paper 17.1 3% 15.1 14% 17.6

Redwood wastewood 29.9 41% 30.5 43% 21.3

Alabama oak (waste) 19.5 -1% 17.5 9% 19.2

Animal waste 18.1 -6% 16.7 2% 17.2

Municipal solid waste 20.2 -2% 18.9 5% 19.9

Cotton gin trash 17.3 12% 15.7 -1% 15.5

Sorghum stalks 15.7 -2% 13.7 11% 15.4

Feedlot manure (fresh) 18.9 -9% 17.6 -1% 17.4

Feedlot manure (aged) 15.5 -2% 15.2 0% 15.1

Corn cobs 20.5 22% 19.0 28% 26.3

Sawdust 20.0 0% 18.1 9% 20.0

 27 
 

Slagging and Fouling Factors

3.10 Determine the slagging (Rs) and fouling factor (Rf) for sorghum stalks ash data shown in

Table 3.8. Discuss the slagging and fouling potential based on these indices.

Solution:

a. The acid components include the following: SiO2 (73.2%), Al2O3 (5.1%), and TiO2 (0%)

and amounting to 78.3%

b. The basic components include the followng: Fe2O3 (1.0%), CaO (5.0%), MgO (1.5%),

Na2O (0.4%) and K2O (8.4%) and this amounted to 16.3%.

c. Thus, the slagging factor is calculated from the equation shown. Note that the percentage

of sulfur in SO3 is 40%, based on their molecular weights (i.e., 1 mole sulfur = 32g/mol

and 3 moles oxygen = 16x3=48 g/mol to get 32/(32+48) x 100%= 40% sulfur in SO3) and

40% of 0.5% = 0.2%.

 Base   16.3% 
Rs     %S     0.2%  0.042
 Acid   78.3% 

d. The fouling factor is calculated in the same way.

 Base   16.3% 
Rf     % Na 2O     0.4%  0.083
 Acid   78.3% 

e. Based on Table 3.7, this material has very low potential for slagging and fouling. Note

that cotton gin waste is thought to be of low potential as well. However, previous

examples showed it is not indicating that the Rs and Rf may not be suitable for some

biomass materials.
 28 
 

Chapter 4
Biomass Properties for Biological Conversion

Problems and Discussion Issues

The problems in the succeeding section are patterned after the examples presented in this chapter

with particular focus on the use of corn stover as the feedstock. Figure 4.1 will also be utilized to

guide the reader of each step of the process. The data used are actual values from laboratory

experiments so that the reader will be familiar with the range of weights and samples that will be

used.

Compositional Analysis of Corn Stover

Calculation of Percent Total Solids

4.1 Determine the percentage of total solids in a corn stover sample. Refer to Figure 4.1 for the

flow chart for analysis. The weight of the empty crucible used for the analysis was 18.1119

grams. A corn stover sample was placed in this crucible and was re-weighed and found to

have a total weight of 19.2048 grams. The sample was then placed in the forced convection

dryer oven until the weight became constant. The final weight after drying was 19.1189

grams.

Solution

a. The percent total solids is simply calculated from the difference between the wet sample

and the dry sample as follows:

%Total Solids 
Weightdry pan  dry sample  Weightdry pan 
100%
Weight sample as received
 29 
 

%Total Solids 
19.1189  18.1129   100%  92.13%
19.2048  18.1129 

b. Thus, the percent total solids was 92.13%.

Calculation of Percent Ash Content (dry basis)

4.2 A bone-dry corn stover sample used in Problem 1 was placed in a crucible (that was dried

completely) and then placed in a muffle furnace with a temperature setting of 575oC. The

oven dry weight of the sample was already established to be 0.9845 grams. Determine the

percent ash of this sample (dry basis) if the weight of the crucible that is dry was 14.832

grams and the weight of this crucible plus ash was 14.8702 grams.

Solution:

a. The equation for the percent ash content is given in Equation 4.12 as follows:

(Weightdry crucible ash  Weightdry crucible )

% Ash(db)  100%
ODWsample
(14.8702  14.832)
% Ash(db)  100%  4.03%
0.9485
b. Thus, the percent ash on a dry basis was 4.03%.

Calculation of Percent Extractives

4.3 Determine the following:

a. percent water extractives,

b. percent ethanol extractives and

 30 
 

c. percent total extractives from the following laboratory data:

Part A. WATER EXTRACTION DATA

1. Weight of sample = 10.7204 grams

2. Weight of flask = 154.9616 grams

3. Weight of flask + sample after extraction = 156.565 grams

4. The percent total solids from Example 3.1 was established to be = 92.13%

Part B. ETHANOL EXTRACTION DATA

1. Weight of sample = 10.7204 grams

2. Weight of flask = 154.5637 grams

3. Weight of flask + sample after extraction = 154.7824 grams

Solution:

Part A.

a. The percent water extractives is calculated from the following equation:

Weight flask extractives  Weight flask

%Water Extractives(db)  100%
ODWsample

b. But the ODW must be established first as follows:

ODW sample  Weight sample  %Total Solids  / 100

ODW sample  10 .7204  92 .13  / 100  9.8767 g

c. Thus, the percent Water extractives will be

156.565  154.9616
%Water Extractives (db)  100%  16.23%
9.8767
 31 
 

Part B.

a. The percent ethanol extractives is calculated from the following equation:

Weight flask extractives  Weight flask
% Ethanol Extractives(db)  100%
ODWsample

154.7824  154.5637
% Ethanol Extractives (db)  100%  2.21%
9.8767

Part C.

a. The percent total extractives is simply the sum of the water and ethanol extractives as

follows:

Percent Total Extractives = 16.23 + 2.21 = 18.44 %

Calculation of Percent Total Solids (extractives- free biomass)

4.4 Calculate the percent total solids from an extractives-free biomass sample. The following are

the laboratory data:

Weight of dry pan = 1.3425 grams

Weight of dry pan + sample = 1.9707 grams, and

Weight of dry pan + dry sample = 1.925 grams

Solution:

a. The percent total solids will be calculated from the following equation:

%Total Solids 
Weight
dry pan  dry sample  Weightdry pan 
100%
Weight sample as received

%Total Solids 
1.925  1.3425 100%  92.73%
1.9707  1.3425
b. Thus, the percent total solids from the extractive-free biomass is 92.73%
 32 
 

Calculation of Percent Acid Insoluble Lignin (AIL) from Extractives-Free Sample.

4.5 Determine the percent AIL from the extractives-free sample with the following given

laboratory data:

a. The weight of sample = 305.3 mg or 0.3053 grams

b. The percent total solids (extractives-free) had already been established from Problem

4.4 and is equal to 92.73%.

c. The weight of dry crucible + acid insoluble residue (AIR) = A = 43.229 grams

d. The weight of dry crucible = 43.1811 grams (B)

e. The weight of dry crucible + ash, grams = 43.1852 grams (C)

f. The protein content = 4.2% (as received)

Solution:

a. The oven dry weight of the sample is first determined from the following equation:

ODWsample  Weightsample  %Total Solids  / 100

ODWsample  0.3053  92.73 / 100  0.2831g

b. Then, the weight of protein is calculated from the protein content data as follows:

Weight protein  Weight AIR  % Pr otein / 100 

Weight protein  43 .229  43 .1811 4.2% / 100   2.0118  10 3 g

c. Then the percent AIL is calculated from the following equation.

(Wtcrucible  AIR  Wtcrucible )  (Wtcrucible  ash  Wtcrucible )  Wt protein

% AIL   100
ODWsample
 33 
 

(43.229  43.1811)  (43.1852  43.1811)  2.0118x10 3

% AIL  100
0.2831

% AIL  14.76%

d. Thus, the percent AIL is 14.76%

Calculation of percent Acid Soluble Lignin (ASL) (extractives-free) and %Lignin (extractives-

free)

4.6 Determine the (a) percent acid soluble lignin and (b) the percent lignin (extractives free) from

the laboratory data given as follows:

a. Weight of sample = 305.3 mg or 0.3053 grams

b. % Total Solids (extractives-free biomass) (established from Example 3.4) = 92.73%

c. The UV absorbance = 0.991

d. The volume of filtrate = 86.73 mL

e. The absorptivity at 320 nm, ε, = 30 L/(g-cm)

f. Dilution = 1

Solution:

a. The percent oven dry weight of the sample is first established from the following

equation:

ODW sample  Weight sample  %Total Solids  / 100

ODW sample  0.3053  92.73 / 100  0.2831 g

b. Then, the percent ASL is calculated next from the following equation:
 34 
 

UVabs  Volume filtrate  Dilution

% ASL   100%
  ODWsample

0.991  86.73 / 1000 1

% ASL  100%  1.01%
30  0.2831

c. The percent lignin (extractives-free) is calculated from the following equation:

%Ligninext free  % AILext free   % ASLext free 

%Ligninext free  14.76  1.01  15.77%

d. Thus, the percent lignin is about 15.77%

Calculation of percent Lignin (on as received basis)

4.7 Calculate the percent lignin if the extractives were found to be 18.44% and lignin of 15.77%

(as established from Examples 4.3 and 4.6).

Solution:

a. The percent lignin is calculated using Equation 4.18, as follows:


% Lignin as received  % Lignin ext  free   100  % Extractive s 
100

% Ligninas received  15.77  

100  18.44  12.86%
100
b. Thus, the percent lignin is 12.86%

Calculation of Percent Sugars

4.8 You are given the following calibration curve data for various sugar standards and at various

concentrations. The retention time for each sugar sample is also given as well as the areas
 35 
 

under the curve (or peak) and the slope of the calibration curve for each sugar standards.

Determine the % glucose (as received) for this sample. The data for the injected sample in an

HPLC is shown in the succeeding table:

Calibration Curve Data

Concentration, mg/mL Area

Sugar Arabinose Mannose Galactose Xylose Glucose

0.16 NA 18022 12100 12062 17027

0.5 37092 42955 35034 35104 42724

1 70770 77349 70145 69942 76843

2 140300 147187 140477 138829 146944

4 276747 286068 281520 275603 290733

Retention time 11.88 12.26 10.86 10.11 9.39

Slope (y = mx; y = 69501 72400 70345 69069 73218

area, x =
concentration)

\
 36 
 

Data for Samples

Sugar Area %Recovery

from
HPLC

Glucose 103541 98.41

Xylose 60332 97.58

Galactose 2916 94.44

Arabinose 7120 98.13

Mannose 8053 94.00

Solution:

The sample calculation for glucose follows:

a. C HPLC  concentrat ion of sugar detected from HPLC , mg / mL

Area
C glu cos e, HPLC 
Slope of Calibration Curve

103541
C glu cos e, HPLC   1.41 mg / mL
73218
b. The corrected xylose concentration is then calculated as follows.

Ccorr  corrected sugar concentrat ion , mg / mL

C HPLC  Dilution Factor

Ccorr 
% Rave.sugar / 100

1.41  1
Ccorr   1.44 mg / mL
98.41 / 100
 37 
 

c. The anhydro correction will be calculated as follows:

Canhydro  Ccorr  Anhydro correction

Note that correction for C6 sugars is 0.90, thus,

Canhydro  1.44  0.90  1.29mg / mL

C glu cos e , anhydro  1.29 mg / mL

d. The percent Xylan on extractives-free basis will be calculated as follows:

1g
Canhydro  V filtrate 
1,000mg
%Sugarext  free   100
ODWsample

1g
1.29  86.73 
1,000mg
% Sugarext  free   100  39.52%
0.2831

e. The percent Glucan on as received basis will be calculated as follows:

%Glucanas received  %Gluanext  free 

100  % Extractives 
100

%Glucanas received  39.52%  

100  18.44  32.23%
100
 38 
 

f. The results are tabulated in the table below.

Sugar CHPLC, Ccorr, Canhydro, %Sugar %Sugar (as

mg/ml mg/ml mg/ml (extractives free) received)

Glucose 1.41 1.44 1.29 39.14 32.23

4.9 You are given the calibration curve data given in Problem 4.8 for various sugar standards and

at various concentrations. The retention time for each sugar sample is also given as well as

the areas under the curve (or peak) and the slope of the calibration curve for each sugar

standards. Determine the % xylose sugars (as received) for this sample. The data for the

injected sample in an HPLC is also shown in the previous problem. Complete also the

analysis for the remaining sugars and tabulate your results including totals.

Solution:

The sample calculation for xylose follows:

a. C HPLC  concentrat ion of sugar detected from HPLC , mg / mL

Area
Cxylose, HPLC 
Slope of Calibration Curve

60322
C xylose, HPLC   0.873 mg / mL
69069

b. The corrected xylose concentration is then calculated as follows.

Ccorr  corrected sugar concentrat ion , mg / mL

C HPLC  Dilution Factor

C corr 
% Rave .sugar / 100
 39 
 

0.873  1
Ccorr   0.895mg / mL
97.6 / 100
c. The anhydro correction will be calculated as follows:

C anhydro  C corr  Anhydro correction

Note that correction for C5 sugars is 0.88, thus,

C anhydro  0 .895  0 .88  0.788 mg / mL

C xylose , anhydro  0.788 mg / mL

d. The percent Xylan on extractives-free basis will be calculated as follows:

1g
Canhydro  V filtrate 
1,000mg
%Sugarext  free   100
ODWsample

1g
0.788  86.73 
1,000mg
% Sugarext  free  100  24.14%
0.2831
e. The percent Xylan on as received basis will be calculated as follows:

% Xylanas received  % Xylanext  free 

100  % Extractives 
100

% Xylanas received  24.14%  

100  18.44  19.69%
100
 40 
 

Repeating the above calculations for the rest of the sugars will yield the following results:

Sugar CHPLC, Ccorr, Canhydro, %Sugar %Sugar

mg/ml mg/ml mg/ml (extractives (as
free) received)

Glucose 1.41 1.44 1.29 39.14 32.23

Xylose 0.87 0.90 0.79 23.84 19.69

Galactose 0.04 0.04 0.04 1.20 0.98

Arabinose 0.10 0.10 0.09 2.78 2.29

Mannose 0.11 0.12 0.11 3.22 2.65

Total 57.8%

Biomass Compositional Analysis Summary

4.10 Summarize the total composition of the corn stover sample from Problems 1 to 9 and

calculate the overall total composition. Note that the percentage of protein is 5.8%.

Breakdown the %lignin (as received) into its acid soluble and acid insoluble components.

Solution:

a. The percent Ash is taken from Problem #2 and is equal to 4.03%

b. The percent Extractives is the sum of water (16.23%) and ethanol (2.21%) extractives as

calculated from Problem #4 and is equal to 18.44%

c. The percent Protein is given as 5.8%

d. The percent Lignin is 12.86% which is the sum of acid soluble (12.04%) and acid

insoluble (0.82%) components as shown below.

 41 
 

% AILas received  % AILext  free 

100  % Extractive s 
100

% AILas received  14.76% 

100  18.44   12.03%
100

% ASLas received  % ASLext  free 

100  % Extractive s 
100

% ASLas received  1.01 

100  18.44   0.82%
100
e. The percent Structural Carbohydrates is the sum of all sugars and amounted to 57.8%

f. Thus, the closure was calculated to be 98.93% as shown in the table below.

g. Mass closures for corn stover are close to 100% since this is an established biofuels crop

and calibration curves have already been established for this crop.
 42 
 

Total Composition Summary

Component %w/w (as received,

dry basis)

Ash 4.03

Extractives 18.44

Water 16.23

Ethanol 2.21

Lignin 12.86

Acid soluble 12.04

Acid insoluble 0.82

rotein 5.80

Structural Carbohydrates 57.8

Glucan 32.23

Xylan 19.69

Galactan 0.98

Arabinan 2.29

Mannan 2.65

Total 98.93%
 43 
 

Chapter 5
Biodiesel Production

Problems and Discussion Issues

Various Types of Fatty Acids

5.1 Differentiate the following fatty acids and provide an example for each: saturated,

unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acid.

Answers:

a. Saturated fatty acid: There are no double bonds on the carbon atom. Only single bonds

between carbon atoms are present.

b. Unsaturated fatty acid: At least one double bond on the carbon atom

c. Polyunsaturated fatty acid: Numerous double bonds on the carbon (i.e., more than one)

Unsaturated fats generally have lower melting points than saturated fats and are often

liquid at room temperature.

Examples are shown below:

 44 
 

Percent Fatty Acid Present in triglycerides

Fat/Oil Saturated Unsaturated

Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Other

Animal Origin

Butter 29 9 27 4 31

Lard 30 18 41 6 5

Beef 32 25 38 3 2

Vegetable Origin

Corn Oil 10 4 34 48 4

Soybean oil 7 3 25 56 9

Peanut oil 7 5 60 21 7

Olive Oil 6 4 83 7 -

Note that any type of oil may have both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

Oil Refining Processes

5.2 In 2010, The U.S. produced 190.11 Million pounds of crude peanut oil (Source: NASS,

Crops Branch, (202) 720–2127, ERS, and Bureau of the Census.). ON the basis of the pie

chart given in Figure 5.9, how much refined peanut oil, in metric tonnes, can be produced

after the RBD process? How much by-products (i.e., wax, gum, soap, and oxidation

products) can be formed?

Solution:
 45 
 

190.00 10 6 lbs 1 tonne

Refined peanut oil   0.54   46,566 tonnes
2204.6 lbs

190.00  106 lbs 1tonne

Wax   0.18   15,522 tonnes
2204.6lbs

190.00  106 lbs 1tonne

Gum   0.02   1,724 tonnes
2204.6lbs
190 .00  10 6 lbs 1tonne
Soap or Oxidation Products   0.13   11,208 tonnes
2204 .6lbs

Acreage to Establish 100 MGY Biodiesel Plant

5.3 Calculate the area (acres) needed to produce oil feedstock that will satisfy the requirements

of a 100 million gallon per year (100 MGY) biodiesel facility based on peanuts. It was

reported that peanuts could generate 151.4 lbs peanut oil/acre. Assume: every 100 gallons of

oil and 10 gallons of methanol, 100 gallons of biodiesel and 10 gallons of glycerin are

produced. The density of crude peanut oil is at 7.66 lbs/gallon.

Solution:

a. The amount of refined peanut oil needed for biodiesel production is calculated using

refining efficiency of 54% as follows:

100  106 gallons

Crude Peanut Oil ( MG )   185.2 MG
0.54
185.2  106 gallons 7.66lbs 1acre
Area Needed (acres)     9.37 million acres
gal 151.4lbs
 46 
 

Refining Processes

5.4 How important is bleaching in the vegetable oil refining process? Please list the important

reasons for bleaching vegetable oils.

Answer:

Bleaching vegetable oils after dewaxing removes a wide variety of impurities, which include:

 certain pigments such as carotenoids and chlorophyll

 oxidation products

 contaminants such as soaps and trace metals

 traces of phosphatides

 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other pollutants

For engine use, this is really not an important treatment process. However, bleaching does

remove other impurities other than color such as metals, soaps, residual gums and other

additives. The main reason is perhaps aesthetic as well as a clear whitish liquid after

bleaching.

Refining Efficiency Calculations

5.5 Use Table 5.6 to estimate the overall refining efficiency for safflower oil. Plot your results to

show the refining efficiency for this type of oil.

Solution:

a. The degumming efficiency is calculated the ratio of oil recovered without wax divided by

the amount of crude oil used at the start of the dewaxing process as previously shown in

Example 5.5 and reiterated here.

 47 
 

972.5
% Degumming Efficiency  100%   100%  2.75%
1000

b. The amount of soap are measured during the neutralization step and calculated as

follows:

902.7
% Soap  100%  100%  9.73%
1000
c. The dewaxing efficiency is calculated accordingly as shown:

896.8
% Dewaxing Efficiency  100%  100%  10.32%
1000

d. Finally, the amount of oxidation products are removed after the bleaching step and

calculated as follows:

930.3
%Oxidation Products  100%  100%  6.97%
1000

e. Thus, the amount of refined oil recovered is to add all those components that are removed

and subtracted from 100% as follows:

Refined oil = 100% -(Degumming%-Netralization%-Dewaxing%-bleaching%) = 100-

(2.75-9.73-10.32-6.97)=70.2%

f. When the calculations are done for all the other oils, one will be able to come up with

those values shown in Figure 5.9. There are slight changes in the values due to rounding

errors.

ASTM Fuel Properties

5.6 By following the procedure in ASTM D445 (Standard Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity

of Transparent and Opaque Liquids), the measured flow times t1 and t2 for a liquid (density:

880 kg/m3) are 564 and 560 seconds, respectively. Assuming the calibration constant for a
 48 
 

viscometer @ 40°C is 0.008198 mm2/s2, (a) what is the kinematic viscosity of the liquid? (b)

What is its dynamic viscosity? (c) Will it meet the ASTM 6751 Standard?

Solution:

a. Calculate each of the determined kinematic viscosity values, v1 and v2, from the measured

flow times, t1 and t2, and the viscometer constant, C, by means of the following:

v1,2  C  t1,2
where

v1,2 = determined kinematic viscosity values for v1 and v2, respectively, mm2/s

C = calibration constant of the viscometer, mm2/s2

t1,2 = measured flow times for t1 and t2, respectively

Calculate the kinematic viscosity result, v, as an average of v1 and v2.

0.008189 mm 2 mm 2
v1   564 s  4.624 cSt or
s2 s

0.008189 mm 2 mm 2
v1   560 s  4.591cSt or
s2 s

4.624  4.591 mm2

v  4.61 cSt or
2 s

b. Calculate the dynamic viscosity, η, from the calculated kinematic viscosity, v, and the

density, ρ, by means of the following equation:

      103
where
 49 
 

η = dynamic viscosity, mPa·s

ρ = density, kg/m3, at the same temperature used for the determination of the kinematic

v = kinematic viscosity, mm2/s

mm 2 kg
  4.61  880 103  4.06 mPa  s
s 3
m

c. Yes it will pass the ASTM 6751 standard as the standard indicates that a biodiesel fuel

has to be within 1.9 to 6.0 cSt in order to be categorized as Grade S15 liquid fuel.

Energy Density of Biodiesel

5.7 Determine the energy density (MJ/L) of soybean oil biodiesel fuel (specific gravity: 0.85) if

it has a calorific value of 37.3 MJ/kg.

Solution:

a. The specific gravity is calculated from the following equation


Sp. Gravity  biodiesel  0.85
 water
b. Thus, density of biodiesel is calculated as follows:
 kg  kg kg
Density Biodiesel  3   S .G.  Density of Water  0.85  1000 3  850 3
m  m m

c. Energy density is the product of calorific value and the density as follows:

Energy Density  Calorific Value  

MJ kg 1m3 MJ
Energy Density  37.3  850   31.705
kg m3 1000 L L
In comparison, diesel has an energy density of 38 MJ/L, while gasoline has 34 MJ/L.
 50 
 

Biodiesel Production Processes

5.8 Given with the following conditions:

Weight of starting material (Safflower oil) 1000 g

Reaction time 1h
Weight of catalyst (KOH) 0.4% wt. of
initial weight of
oil
Vol. of methanol 10% vol. of oil
Reaction temperature 50° C

How much catalyst is needed in order for biodiesel reaction to proceed? (Assume: RBD

oil has a total acid number of 2 mg KOH/g oil).

Solution:

a. The amount of KOH to neutralize the oil can be calculated from the following:

2mg KOH 1g
KOH ( g )   1000 g oil   2 g KOH
g oil 1000mg
b. Thus, the total amount of KOH used in the reaction will be

Total KOH ( g )  2 g  0.004  1,000 g oil   6 g KOH

Transesterification Process

5.9 Why do the fatty acid esters (biodiesel) and glycerol products separate into two layers after

the reaction is completed?

Answer:

They have different densities and they are also immiscible.

 51 
 

Engine Performance Testing

5.10 Determine the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) in units of g/kWh if an engine

with a net brake power of 45 kW is fueled with B100 chicken fat biodiesel (density: 845

kg/m3). Assume: Fuel flow was measured at 15 L/h.

Solution:

a. The BSFC is calculated from the following:

fuel flow  density

BSFC 
net brake power

b. Thus, the BSFC is given as follows:

L kg 1000 g 1m3
15  845  
BSFC 
hr m3 kg 1,000 L
 282
g
45kW kWh

Engine Performance Testing (Net Brake Horsepower Calculations)

5.11 The specifications of an engine are shown in the table. If the observed net-brake-power

of a diesel engine is 55 kW at an engine speed of 2550 rpm, determine its corrected net-

brake-power according to SAE J 1349 Standard. The observed fuel flow was at 17 L/h.

Assume fuel properties: specific gravity =0.8445; kinematic viscosity @ 40°C = 2.26 cSt.

Engine Specification JD 4045DF150

Rated Power 60 kW (80hp) @ 2700 rpm
Number of Cylinders 4
Bore 106 mm
Stroke 127 mm
Displacement 4.5 L
Compression Ratio 17.6:1
Combustion system Direct Injection
Aspiration Natural (Inlet air supply pressure @ 15°C= 102 kPa)
 52 
 

Solution:

a. The compression ignition engine correction formulas according to SAE J 1349 –

MARCH2008 is as follows:

BPc  CA  CF  BPo

where

BPc is the corrected brake power

CA is the atmospheric correction factor, given as follows:

CA  Fa Fm and Fa is given as follows:


 99   to  273  
Fa    
 
 pa do   298 

The engine Factor, Fm = 0.2 for (Q/R) < 37.5; R= 1, α=1.0, β=0.7 (for naturally

aspirated)

Pado is the observed inlet air supply total pressure, kPa

to is the observed inlet air supply temperature, °C

Also,

Fo
Q  120,000 
D N

where

Fo is the observed fuel flow, g/s

 53 
 

D is the engine displacement, L

N is the observed engine speed, min-1

CF is the Fuel Correction Factor, given as follows.

CF  Fd  Fv
where
 SG  SGo 
Fd  1  0.70   r 

 SGo 
S
1
Vo
Fv 
S
1
Vr

where
SGr is the reference fuel density at 15° C = 0.850 kg/L

SGo is the observed fuel density at 15° C =0.8445 kg/L

Fv is the fuel viscosity factor

S = 0.15 (for pump/line/nozzle systems)

Vo is the observed fuel viscosity at 40° C =2.26

Vr is the reference fuel viscosity at 40° C = 2.6 mm2/s

S 0.15
1 1
Vo 2.26  1.008
Fv  
S 0.15
1 1
Vr 2.6

 SG  SGo  0.85  0.8445 

Fd  1  0.70   r   1  0.70     1.0046
  0 . 8445 
 SGo 

CF  Fd  Fv  1.008  1.0046  1.013

 54 
 

Fo
Q  120,000 
D N

L kg 1000 g 1h
17  0.88  
h L kg 3600 s
Q  120,000   6 .9
4.5 L  2550 rpm  2

Q 6.9
  6.9  37.1 Hence, Fm  0.2
R 1


 99   to  273    99 1.0  15  273 0.7
Fa    
        0.95
 do  
pa 298   102kPa   298 

CA  Fa Fm  0.950.2  0.9897

BPc  CA  CF  BPo  0.9897  1.013  55 kW  55.14 kW

 55 
 

Chapter 6
Bioethanol Production

Problems and Discussion Issues

Rules of Thumb in Ethanol Production

6.1 Determine the amount of pure sucrose sugar (in kg) to generate a liter of ethanol using the

idealized equation shown below. The density of ethanol is 0.8 kg/liter. Convert this unit into

its English equivalent (lbs/gallon).

C12H22O11 + H2O + yeast  4 C2H5OH + 4 CO2 + heat

(sugar) (ethanol)

Solution:

a. First, a balanced reaction is made as above.

b. Then, knowing the molecular weights of each element, the weights of each component

is calculated as follows:

Sugar C H O [(12 *12)  (1 * 22)  (11 *16) 342 kg kg sucrose

 12 22 11    1.86
Ethanol 4C 2 H 6 O 4 * [(12 * 2)  (1* 6)  (16 *1) 184 kg kg ethanol

c. The unit is then converted by volume basis as follows:

Sugar 1.86 kg sucrose 0.8kg ethanol

   1.5kg sucrose / L ethanol
Ethanol kg ethanol L

Sugar 1.5 kg sucrose 3.785 L 2.2lb

    12.4 lbs sucrose / gallon ethanol
Ethanol L ethanol gal kg
 56 
 

First and Second Generation Biofuels

6.2 Differentiate between “first and second generation bio-fuel” in the bio-ethanol industry in

terms of biomass source type, processing technology and biomolecules used.

Answer

The table below shows the comparison between 1st and 2nd generation biofuels.

First Generation Second Generation

Source: Traditional agricultural staples Source: Non-food or inedible waste

such as sugar (from sugarcane) and starch products known as lignocellulosic biomass
(from grain corn) such as wheat stalks, corn stover, wood,
miscanthus, switchgrass, or sorghum
biomass

Processing Technology: Fermentation of Processing Technology: Biomass pre-

sugars and saccharification and treatment, hydrolysis, saccharification and
fermentation of starch fermentation

The biomolecules to process are sugar and The biomolecules to be processed are
starch. cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.

Sugars and Ethanol Yield from Sweet Sorghum

6.3 Sweet sorghum stalks were pressed to obtain one liter of the juice (mass = 1 kg). It was then

filtered and analyzed on High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) for its total

sugar concentration of 140 g/L. The juice was further fermented using yeast and produced an

ethanol concentration of 65 g/L, as analyzed on HPLC.

Determine the following: (a) the ethanol yield per weight of juice (g/g and g/100 g juice), and

(b) the ethanol yield per weight of sugar as substrate (g/g and g/100 g).
 57 
 

Solution:

a. Given, the juice produced 65 g ethanol per liter of juice and a density of 1 kg/L, the

ethanol yield calculation is shown below:

65g L 1kg
Yield ( g ethanol / g juice)     0.065g / g
L 1kg 1000 g
g ethanol 100 g juice
Yield ( g ethanol / 100 g juice)  0.065   6.5 g / 100 g juice
g juice 100 gjuice

b. Given a sugar concentration of 140 g sugar/L juice, the ethanol yield based on this sugar

concentration is calculated as follows:

65 g 1L
Yield ( g ethanol / g sugar )    0.46 g / g
L 140 g sugar

c. Thus, the yield of ethanol per g of sugar is around 46 g/100 g.

Fermentation Efficiency and Ethanol Yields Per Unit of Area

6.4 Ethanol yield is calculated to be 46 g ethanol per 100 g of glucose from a fermentation

experiment. What is the efficiency of this fermentation process? Assume the theoretical

ethanol production of 51.5 g ethanol/100 g glucose. Sweet sorghum production is about

44.91 tonnes/ha (20 tons of sorghum/acre) and 50% juice by weight is derived from pressing

the stalks. Calculate the ethanol yield per hectare (or acre) of land. Assume the density of

ethanol is 0.789 kg/L. The actual yield of ethanol from the juice was also found to be 46 g

ethanol/liter of juice. You may also assume one liter of juice is approximately 1 kg.

Solution:
 58 
 

a. Fermentation efficiency is calculated from the ratio between the ethanol produced (46

g/100 g sugar) and the theoretical ethanol production of 51.5 g of ethanol generated per

100 g of glucose.

b. Therefore, fermentation efficiency = (46 g/51.5 g) x 100% = 89.3%

c. 1 hectare of land produces 44.91 tonnes sorghum

1 acre of land produces = 20 tons sorghum

Juice content (50% by wt) = 22.455 tonnes juice or 22,455 kg juice/hectare

Juice content (50% by wt) = 10 ton juice or 20,000 lb juice/acre

Ethanol yield is 0.046 g ethanol/1000 g juice = 0.046 *(22,455) kg = 1033 kg/hectare

Ethanol yield is 0.046 g ethanol/1000 g juice = 0.046 (20,000) lbs = 920 lbs/acre

Using ethanol density of 0.789 kg/L, ethanol yield = (1033 kg / 0.789 kg/L) = 1309 L/ha

Using ethanol density of 0.789 kg/L, ethanol yield = (920 lbs / 0.789 kg/L/3.785L/gal/2.2

lbs/kg) = 140 gal/acre.

Pretreatment and Ethanol Production Process

6.5 What are the steps for lignocellulosic biomass conversion to bio-ethanol? Briefly explain

what happens at each step. List a few pre-treatment platforms for lignocellulosic conversion.

Solution:

Steps in Lignocellulosic Conversion into Ethanol

 59 
 

a. Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to bio-ethanol involves the following:

b. Pre-treatment: It is performed to break off lignin wall, disrupt the crystalline structure of

the cellulose, and pre-hydrolyze the hemicellulose to release hexoses and pentoses

mechanically, chemically, biologically or combination of these methods. The cellulose

and hemicellulose are made available to the enzymes for the next step.

c. Saccharification: Enzymatic hydrolysis of the cellulose and hemicellulose polymers to

produce readily metabolizable molecules – hexose (glucose, mannose, and galactose) and

pentose sugars (xylose and arabinose).

d. Fermentation: Bio-utilization of the hexose and pentose sugars produced from enzyme

hydrolysis to support microbial growth (yeast) to produce bio-ethanol.

List of Pre-treatment Procedures:

a. Dilute acid pre-treatment

b. Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX)

c. Controlled pH pre-treatment

d. Lime pre-treatment

e. Flowthrough with hot water or acid

f. Steam explosion

Differences in First and Second Generation Ethanol

6.6 State the differences between first generation (starch) and second generation (ligno-cellulose)

biomass structure and how this differences influence breaking of the structure during pre-

treatment?

Solution:
 60 
 

a. The differences between starch and ligno-cellulosic structure are as follows:

Bond: Presence of α (1-4) and α (1-6) glucosylic bond in starch structure, whereas β (1-4)

glucosylic bond in cellulose structure.

Structure: Starch structure has branches, α (1-6), whereas cellulose contains linear

structure.

b. Second generation biofuel requires more input for conversion because of the recalcitrance

of the cell wall, the key limiting factor in the lingocellulosic structure that are not present

in starch structure. Further, cellulose structure contains β (1-4) bond in a straight chain

that are attached to other straight chains by hydrogen bonds, which are difficult to break

in comparison to the α (1-4) linkage in starch. Therefore, the lingocellulose cell walls

containing intermeshed carbohydrate and lignin polymers require more input energy to

break down and make the structur available to the enzymes to work on for hydrolysis in

comparison to starch.

Enzyme and Roles in Ethanol Production

6.7 What is an enzyme? Describe the enzyme system used for first generation (starch) versus

second generation (lignocellulose) biomass due to the structural differences in the second

generations’ biomass.

Answer

An enzyme is a protein consisting of a chain of amino acids. The physical structure of

enzymes has active sites that interact with the reactant/substrate. Enzymes catalyze reaction

where the rate of reaction is increased and the activation energy is reduced.
 61 
 

Enzyme systems for degrading cellulose require a three-enzyme system while starch requires

a four-enzyme system. In case of cellulose, first, endoglucanase cleaves internal β (1-4)

glucosylic bonds on cellulose molecule. Similarly for starch, first α-amylase breaks the α (1-

4) bonds to produce oligosaccharides and pullanalase works on breaking the branches, α (1-

6) bonds internally to produce various fragments of olligosaccharides. Branch-breaking does

not take place for the cellulose as they are straight chains. Second, exoglucanase breaks the

end of cellulose chains to form oligosaccharides and similarly β-amylase works on α (1-6)

bond at non-reducing end to produce maltose for the previously broken fragments of the

starch. Finally, β-glucosidases hydrolyze soluble oligosaccharides to glucose for the

cellulosic structure, and similarly glucoamylase breaks down α (1-4) bond at non-reducing

end to produce single glucose.

Enzymatic Conversion of Lignicellulosics into Ethanol

6.8 An experiment was carried out using sweet sorghum biomass using enzyme A and enzyme B

for a 96 hr period. These enzymes were cellulase enzymes that converted the cellulose in the

biomass to glucose. Volume of biomass hydrolyzed was 150 mL and the biomass contained

6.4 g glucose before hydrolysis. Table 1 (below) presents the data over the 96 hrs. from

HPLC. Using the table P6.1 below with data, calculate the % enzymatic conversion of

lignocellulose to glucose. Plot the data and use the following equation for calculations:

 cV 
% Enzymatic Conversion of Lignocellu lose     100%
 m 
 62 
 

Table P6.1 Experimental Data for Glucose to Ethanol Conversion

Time (hr) Enzyme A Glucose (g/L) Enzyme B Glucose (g/L)

0 0.5 0.8

1 10 3

3 15 7.5

6 23 13

8 26 17

24 34 30

48 36 33

72 37 33.1

96 38 33.2

Solution:

a. Hydrolysis efficiency is calculated as follows:

 cV 
% Enzymatic Conversion of Lignocellu lose     100%
 m 

b. The table is completed using the above equation and plotted.

 63 
 

The following table and plot are generated using Table 1 given data and equation provided.

Time % Enzymatic Enzyme B % Enzymatic

Enzyme A conversion using A conversion using B
(hr) (cv/m)x100 C = Glucose (cv/m)x100
C = Glucose
(g/L) (g/L)

0 0.5 1.2 0.8 2

1 10 23 3 7

3 15 35 7.5 18

6 23 54 13 30

8 26 61 17 40

24 34 80 30 70

48 36 84 33 77

72 37 87 33.1 78

96 38 89 33.2 78
 64 
 

100.0
90.0
conversion efficiency (%) 80.0
Cellulose to glucose

70.0
60.0
50.0
Enzyme A
40.0
Enzyme B
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (hr)

Advatages and Disadvantages of 1st and 2nd Generation Ethanol Production

6.9 If you have to recommend the research and development of a company between first and

second generation of bio-ethanol production, which one would you recommend and why?

Answer

Based on various benefits of the second generation biofuel production, one would

recommend the research and development of second generation biofuel. Eco-environmental

considerations include net energy gain, negative carbon balance, reduced soil erosion, water

conservation, ease with the regions for the feedstock growth, increase in the usage of

different parts of the plant, and increased energy efficiency due to waste usage for second
 65 
 

generation in comparison to first generation. These are many of the important factors why

R&D should focus on second generation biofuel that is sustainable.

Lignin Conversion and Uses

6.10 Most biological conversions use cellulose and hemicellulose to produce bio-ethanol; the

lignin remains unused for bio-fuel production. Can we make any bio-products from lignin?

Answer

Lignin is extracted from lignocellulosic biomass through organosolv (usage of organic

solvent) and this non-sugar- based lignin can then be made into carbon fibers. Fermentation

residues can also be used to make bio-plastics. Such bio-products have application in the

making of sport and recreation goods such as fishing rods, golf shafts, etc.

Lignin may also be converted thermally to generate numerous valuable products and co-

products.

Improving Biofuel Production

6.11 List some of the technologies that can be improved for second generation bio-fuel

production.

Answer

Technologies that can be improved for second generation bio-fuel production are as follows:

a. Improve pre-treatment methods where the cellulose and hemicellulose will be easily

available to the enzymes for sugar production

 66 
 

b. Find naturally available enzymes to complete hydrolysis processes to decrease the

enzymatic hydrolysis cost

c. Use yeast to perform both hydrolysis and fermentation to save on the processing
 67 
 

Chapter 7

Biogas Production

Problems and Discussion Issues

Acid and Methane Producing Microbes

7.1 Differentiate between acid-producing and methane-producing microbes.

Answer: Acid-producing bacteria are those microbes that convert complex organics into
volatile fatty acids while methane-prodcing microbes convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide
and acetic acids into methane.

Theoretical Acetic Acid Production

7.2 Equation 7.2 showed that for every mole of propionic acid, 1 mole of acetic acid is formed.
Estimate the theoretical acetic acid production (in liters or gal) for every amount of propionic
acid used in units of (L or kg or lb). Assume the density of component as follows:
- Density of pure propionic acid at STP = 0.990 kg/L
- Density of pure acetic acid at STP = 1.049 kg/L
Solution

a. C3H6O2 + 3H2O  CH3COOH + 3H2 + CO2 +H2O

(74 kg) + (54 kg)  (60 kg) + (6 kg) + (44 kg) + (18 kg)

b. Acetic acid production per kg or L of propionic acid is estimated as follows:

L 60 kg acetic L L
Acetic Acid ( ) x  0.773
kg 74kg propionic acid 1.049kg kg

L 60 kg acetic L 0.990kg L
Acetic Acid ( )  x x  0.765
L 74kg propionic acid 1.049kg L L

c. In English system of units the calculations are as follows.

 68 
 

gal L 1kg gal gal

Acetic Acid ( )  0.773 x x  0.0928
lb kg 2.2 lb 3.785L lb

gal L gal 3.785L gal

Acetic Acid ( )  0.765 x x  0.765
gal L 3.785L gal gal

Calculation of BOD

7.3 Suppose you have 1,000 mL wastewater sample that was used to measure BOD5. The initial
concentration of the sample immediately after preparaton was 15 mg/L. The 5-day dissolved
oxygen content was measured to be 8.5 mg/L. Only 5 mL of the sample was used for the test.
Determine the BOD5 in units of mg/L. Comment ont he strength of the BOD value.

Solution

a. Equation 6.1 may be used directly to calculate BOD5 as follows:

mg 15  8.5 mg
BOD5 ,   1,300
L 5 / 1,000 L

b. This BOD level is quite low.

Calculation of COD

7.4 Estimate the theoretical chemical oxygen demand for fructose sugar in units of the amount of
oxygen per weight of fructose (g/g). The chemical formula for fructose is as follows:
C6H12O6. Half a gram of fructose sugar is placed in a liter of water, what would be the COD
in units of mg/L?

Solution

a. The first step is to balance the oxidation equation for fructose and calculate the relative
weights as follows:
 69 
 

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O

(180 kg) + (192 kg)  (264 kg) + (108 kg)

b. Thus, the amount of oxygen used per weight of fructose is shown as follows:

Oxygen 192
  1.067 g O2 / g C6 H12O6
Fructose 180

c. If half a gram of fructose is placed in a liter of water, then the COD expressed in mg/L is
calculated as follows:
Oxygen 1.067 gO 2 0.5 gC 6 H 10 O5 1000 mg
    533 .5 mg / L
Fruct os e gC 6 H 12 O6 L 1g

Use of Lab Data to Estimate Digester Size

7.5 An experiment was conducted to measure the methane produced by mixing alligator grass
with dairy manure using equal amounts on a weight basis. Then, equal amounts of water
were added. The following data were established:
- Maximum methane production occurred after 90 days
- The total amount of methane produced per kg of mixed material was 40 L.
If one were to design a digester for daily conversion of 50 kg of animal manure plus 50 kg of
alligator grass and 100 kg of water, what would be the minimum size of the digester (m3) and
the gas holder (m3)? Assume the density of combined mixture slurry is 1.2 kg/L. Design the
gas holder to accommodate 3 days of biogas output.

Solution

a. Every day there will be 200 kg of slurry that will be generated and thus, if the hydraulic
retention time is 90 days, the minimum size of the digester will be simply calculated as
follows:
 70 
 

200 kg slurry L m3
Size (m3 )  90 days     15 m 3
day 1.2 kg 1000L

b. The minimum volume of the gas holder will be estimated as follows:

40L 200kg slurry m3

Size (m )  3 days 
3
   24 m3
kg slurry day 1000L

Energy Produced from Biogas Daily

7.6 Suppose you have 1,000 head of dairy cows producing about 53,000 kg of wet manure each
day. Determine the amount of energy produced each day derived from biogas (minimum and
maximum) if the volatile solids are about 12%. Use a heating value of gas at 22 MJ/m3.
Assume further that 0.6 to 1.6 m3 of biogas is produced per kg volatile solids.
Solution

a. Minimum biogas production per day.

MJ 53,000 kg manure 0.12 kg VS 0.6m3biogas 22MJ MJ

Biogas( ) x x x  83,952
day day kg manure kg VS m3 day

b. Maximum biogas production per day.

MJ 53,000 kg manure 0.12 kg VS 1.6m 3biogas 22 MJ MJ

Biogas ( ) x x x  223,872
day day kg manure kg VS 3 day
m

Volume of Biogas Required for Electrical Power Production

7.7 A household in India requires 500 kWh of electricity per day. Biogas will be used to fuel an
engine-generator to produce the needed electrical power. The thermal efficiency of the
engine is 30% and the electrical to mechanical efficiency is 90%. Thirty liters (1 ft3) of
biogas with a methane content of 55% will provide 0.58 MJ (550 Btu) of energy. Determine
the volume of biogas required (in cubic meters and cubic feet per day) for this purpose.
Solution
 71 
 

a. From the efficiency equation, we have the following energy required from the biogas

500 kWh
% Efficiency 
output Input   1,852 kWh
input (0.30) x(0.90)

b. The biogas required can be calculated easily as follows:

1,852 kWh 3.6MJ 30L m3 m3 ft 3

x x x  345 [12,169 ]
day 1kWh 0.58MJ 1000L day day

Amount of Sludge Produced in an Anaerobic Digester

7.8 Determine the amount of sludge taken out of a digester if the daily input is 5,300 kg of wet
manure. Only 10% of this is converted into biogas by weight. Also determine the amount of
moisture to be removed to bring the slurry to bone dry assuming the slurry has 70% of water
at the start and there is no moisture loss during the conversion process.

Solution

a. The net weight of slurry withdrawn per day is calculated as follows:

Slurry removed  5,300 kg x 0.90  4,770 kg

b. If all the moisture is assumed retained, and the sludge is brought to 0% moisture
content, the weight of sludge left will be calculated as follows:
The amount of moisture at the start was 5,300 kg x 0.7 = 3,710 kg

c. Thus, the amount of dry solids will be 4,770-3,710 = 1,060 kg

 72 
 

Theoretical COD from Biomass

7.9 Estimate the theoretical chemical oxygen demand for starch in units of amount of oxygen
per weight of starch (g/g). The chemical formula for starch is as follows: C6H10O5. If 1gram
of starch is suspended in a liter of water, what would be the COD in units of mg/L?

Solution

a. The first step is to balance the oxidation equation for starch and calculate the relative
weights as follows:

C6H10O5 + 6O2  6CO2 + 5H2O

(162 kg) + (192 kg)  (264 kg) + (90 kg)

b. Thus, the amount of oxygen used per weight of starch is shown as follows:
Oxygen 192
  1.185 g O2 / g C6 H10O5
Starch 162

c. If one gram of starch is placed in a liter of water, then the COD expressed in mg/L is
calculated as follows:
Oxygen 1.185 gO2 1gC6 H10O5 1000mg
    1,185 mg / L
Starch gC6 H10O5 L 1g

d. Note that starch is not really miscible with water. Many wastewater liquids have many
components that will not mix well but they are in suspension and will be acted upon by
microbes for further conversion into energy.

Estimating Minimum Size of Digester

7.10 Determine the minimum size of a digester from manure of 500 head of lactating dairy
cow. Estimate the total amount of wet manure produced per day in kg and the volume (in
 73 
 

m3). If the retention time is 45 days what is the minimum size of the anaerobic digestion
reactor. Use Table 7.7 for your calculations.

Solution

a. The daily manure production is calculated from the equation as follows

68kg
Daily Production(kg )  500 hds   34,000kg / day
hd  day

b. The daily volume of manure is calculated as follows.

68L m3 m3
DailyVolume(m )  500 hds 
3
  34
hd  day 1000L day
c. The minimum size of reactor is the daily production multiplied by the retention time as
shown:

34m3
Reactor Size (m )  3
 45days  1,530 m3
day
 74 
 

Chapter 8
Torrefaction

Problems and Discussion Issues

Energy Densification for Torrefied Product

8.1 Three kg of biomass [6.6 lbs] with an energy content of 17.2 MJ/kg [7,411 Btu/lb] was

torrefied at 300oC and the resulting 2.25 kg of biomass [4.95 lbs] that was left had an energy

content of 18.5 MJ/kg [7,971 Btu/lb]. Determine the energy densification for this torrefaction

process.

Solution

a. The percentage of energy conserved on a total energy basis is calculated as follows:

18.5MJ 2.25kg
x  41.625MJ
kg

b. The amount of energy lost will be the difference between the energy contained in the

original sample (3x17.2 = 51.6 MJ) of around 51.6 MJ. Thus, the difference will be (51.6

-41.625 MJ) is 9.975 MJ or about 19.3% of the energy (9.975/51.6 = 0.193). Thus, the

percent of energy conserved was 0.807 or 80.7%.

c. The energy densification is calculated by taking the ratio of 80.7% (or 0.807) to 75% (or

0.75 which is the ratio of 2.25/3 = 0.75 ) (i.e., the percentage of mass retained as shown

as follows:).

 Energy  0.807
Energy densification   1.1
 Mass  0.75
 75 
 

Determining the Energy and Mass Balances in Torrefaction

8.2 Three (3) kg of biomass with a heating value of 17.2 MJ/kg torrefied at 300oC resulting in the

various solid, liquid and gaseous components. The remaining solid component was 2.25 kg

with a heating value of 18.5 MJ/kg. About 0.25 kg of liquid was collected with about 10%

moisture. The organic component of this liquid portion had a heating value of 19 MJ/kg.

Estimate the energy content of the gaseous component assuming no losses. Determine also

the percent in energy contained in each component.

Solution

a. The energy content of the original biomass was 3 kg x 17.2 MJ/kg = 51.6 MJ.

b. The energy contained in the solid portion is estimated as follows:

2.25kg 18.5MJ
Solid ( MJ )  x  41.625MJ
kg

c. The liquid component has 90% organic portion and has the following energy:

19 MJ
Liquid ( MJ )  0.25kg  0.90   4.275 MJ
kg

d. Thus, the gaseous component, assuming no energy losses, is calculated by difference as

follows:

51.6 MJ = 41.625 MJ + 4.275 MJ + energy in the gas

Energy in the gas = 5.7 MJ

e. The energy balance is then calculated as follows:

Solid = 41.625/51.6 x100% = 80.7%

Liquid = 4.275/51.6x100%=8.28%
 76 
 

Gas = 5.7/51.6x100% = 11.05%

Bulk Density of Torrefied Biomass

8.3 Wheat straw was chopped after harvest and found to have a bulk density of 60 kg/m3 [3.74

lb/ft3]. A sample of wheat straw was placed in a 305 mm x 305 mm x 305 mm box [1ft x 1 ft

x 1 ft]. The sample weighed 1.7 kg [3.74 lbs]. This sample was torrefied at 300oC for an hour

and there was a 10% reduction in weight (i.e. final weight = 1.53 kg). The resulting volume

of the product was also measured and found to be 0.0102 m3 [0.36 ft3]. Calculate the new

bulk density of the torrefied material. Convert the units to the English system.

Solution

a. The new bulk density is simply calculated from the new weight and the new volume

occupied by the sample as follows:

kg 1.53kg kg
New Bulk Density ( 3
) 3
 150 3
m 0.0102m m

b. In the English system, the units will be as follows:

3
lb 150kg 2.2lb  1m  lb
New Bulk Density( )     9.35 3
ft 3 m3 1kg  3.28 ft  ft

lb (3.74 * 0.90  3.366lb) lb

New Bulk Density( 3
) 3
 9.35 3
ft 0.36 ft ft

c. Thus, there is an almost two and a half increase in the bulk density of the material.
 77 
 

Bulk Density of Biomass

8.4 Estimate the bulk density of a biomass with the following data. Convert the units in the

English System.

ρw =1,000 kg/m3 Xw=0.30

ρv = 100 kg/m3 Xv=0.25

ρs = 300 kg/m3 Xs=0.45

Solution

a. The bulk density of the biomass may simply be calculated by using the above equation as

shown.

1 1 kg
   232.6 3
Xw Xv Xs 0.30 0.25 0.45 m
   
w v s 1000 100 300

b. Converting the units in the English system is shown as follows:

3
kg 2.2lb  1m  lb
  232.6 3     14.5 3
m 1kg  3.28 ft  ft

Grinding Energy Usage

8.5 A chopper was used to grind wheat straw (15% moisture content) with 1.6 mm screen

opening. The unit is powered by a 770 W electric motor (220 Volts). The power drawn by

the chopper motor was measured using a wattmeter. Around 3 kg [6.6 lbs] of biomass was

used during the 15 minute test and the measured amperage was 2.3 amps. Estimate the

specific energy (in kWh/tonne) or (Btu/lb) required to accomplish this task.

 78 
 

Solution

a. The power required to accomplish the task is simply the product of voltage and amperage

used as follows:

volt  amp
Power (W )   220V  2.3 Amp  506Watts

b. The energy required is simply the product of power and time as follows:

hr
Energy(W )  506W 15 min  126.5Watt  hr
60 min

c. Thus, the energy required per weight of biomass is simply the ratio of energy and weight

as follows:

kWhr 126.5Whr 1000kg kW kWh

Specific Energy ( )    42.2
tonne 3kg tonne 1000W tonne

Btu 42.2k Whr 1tonne 3412 Btu Btu

Specific Energy ( )    65.4
lb tonne 2200lb 1kWhr lb

Moisture Content of Torrefied Biomass

8.6 A tonne [2,200 lbs] of wheat straw having 12% moisture was torrefied and the moisture

content of the final product was 2%. How much moisture (in kg) was removed from this

process? Assume only the moisture was removed and no other significant gaseous or liquid

condensibles. Calculate the moisture removed per tonne of wet material (kg/tonne)

Solution

a. The total amount of moisture in the material is 120 kg as shown as follows and the dry

weight is 880 kg (1000 - 120) which is conserved.

 79 
 

Moisture ( kg )  1,000 kg  0.12  120kg

b. The final weight of the resulting 2.0% moisture torrefied product is given as follows

(recall the moisture content equation from Chapter 1):

Wet Weight
2%   100%
Wet Weight  880kg

2WW  ( 2 * 880)  100WW (100  2)WW  ( 2 * 880 )

Wet Weight ( kg )  (1760 / 98)  17 .96 kg

c. Thus, the amount of moisture to be removed will be 120 kg -17.96 kg = 102.04 kg. This

is also the amount of moisture to be removed per tonne of material (102.04 kg/tonne).

Durability of Biomass Pellets

8.7 A clean and previously sieved 500 g [1.1 lb] sample of big bluestem pellet was placed in a

tumbling box to determine the durability. After the 10 minute tumbling, the pellets were

removed from the box, sieved again and the weight of the material was measured and found

to be 484.5 g. A similar test was made using corn stover pellets and the final weight of the

tumbled pellets was 491 g. Determine the percent durability of these pellets and compare

their durability.

Solution.

a. The durability equation will be used as follows:

484.5 g
Bluestem Durability (%)   100%  96.9%
500 g
 80 
 

491g
Corn Stover Durability (%)   100%  98.2%
500 g

b. In this test, the corn stover pellets were found to be more durable than big bluestem

pellets.

Bulk Density of Torrefied Biomass

8.8 Torrefied wheat straw sample processed as in Problem#3 above was pelleted and placed in

the bulk density box measuring 305 mm x 305 mm x 305 mm and reweighed. The final

weight of the pelleted material in this box was 20.5 kg. Calculate the new bulk density of the

torrefied and pelleted material. Convert the units in the English system.

Solution.

a. The new bulk density is simply calculated from the new weight and the new volume

occupied by the sample as follows:

3
kg 20.5kg  1000mm 
Bulk Density ( 3 )  x 
m 305mmx305mmx305mm  m 

kg kg
Bulk Density ( 3
)  722.5 3
m m

b. In the English system, the units will be as follows:

3
lb 722.5kg 2.2lb  1m  lb
New Bulk Density( 3
) 3
     45 3
ft m 1kg  3.28 ft  ft

Energy Density Changes in Torrefied Biomass

 81 
 

8.9 A biomass sample with 10% moisture has an initial heating value of 19 MJ/kg. This material

was placed in a thermal gravimetric analyzer and the moisture reduction was given in the

table. Complete the table for the estimated heating value of this biomass, assuming that only

moisture is removed and the energy is conserved. What is the energy content of this material

on a dry basis?

Moisture Residence time Energy Content

Content (%) (min)
(MJ/kg)

10.0 0 19

9.6 20

9.3 40

4.7 60

4.0 80

3.7 100

Solution.

a. This calculation makes use of the moisture content calculations done in boxed Example

8.6. The heating value adjusted by changing the denominator, assuming the biomass

weighs 1 kg (i.e., at 10% moisture, dry weight is 900 g and wet weight = 100 g).

Wet Weight Wet Weight

9.6%  100%  100%
Wet Weight  DryWeight Wet Weight  900 g

900  0.096 86.4

Wet Weight ( g )    95.575 g
1  0.096  0.904
b. Thus, the denominator is 900+95.575 = 995.575g (or 0.995575kg)
MJ 19 MJ
HV ( )  19.1MJ / kg
kg 0.995575kg
 82 
 

c. Thus, the next moisture content will be as follows:

900  0.093 83 .7
Wet Weight ( g )    92 .28 g
1  0.093  0.907
d. The new HV will be:
MJ 19 MJ
HV ( )  19.15MJ / kg
kg 0.99228kg

e. The reamining HV are shown in the table that follows:

Moisture Residence time Energy Content

Content (min)
(MJ/kg)

10% 0 19

9.6% 20 19.1

9.3% 40 19.15

4.7% 60 20.12

4.0% 80 20.27

3.7% 100 20.33

f. The energy content on a dry basis is simply the ratio of energy content weight basis

versus dry matter:

MJ 19 MJ
g. HV ( )  21.1MJ / kg
kg 0.9kg

Van Krevelen Plot of Raw Biomass

8.10 Use the ultimate analysis data in Table 3.5 to make a Van Krevelen plot for the raw

biomass. In this plot, make the Y-axis as the atomic H:C ratio and the X-axis, the atomic O:C
 83 
 

ratio. Discuss the results and identify where these points are relative to the plot of Figure

8.11.

Solution.

a. The atomic oxygen to carbon ratio is simply calculated by first determining the molar

values for each element as shown (very similar to determining the empirical chemical

formula of the biomass):

41.0
No. of Moles Oxygen   2.5625
16

37.1
No. of Moles Carbon   3.092
12

The mole ratio is also the atomic ratio as follows:

2.5625
Atomic O : C Ratio   0.829
3.092

This is the first value in the table below.

The atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio is calculated the same way as follows:

5.7
No. of Moles Hydrogen   5.7
1

The mole ratio is also the atomic ratio as follows:

5.7
Atomic H : C Ratio   1.84
3.092

This is the second value in the table below.

The O:C and H:C ratios for the rest of the biomass will be calculated following the above

sample calculations and the resulting values are tabulated below.

 84 
 

b. The ratio of H/C and O/C from the table is calculated and some values are presented in

the table and plotted as shown:

Biomass O/C Ratio H/C Ratio

Rice Straw (CA) 0.829 1.84

Rice Straw (TX) 0.464 1.80

Corn Stover 0.866 1.77

Woodchips (softwood) 0.758 1.72

Switchgrass 0.846 1.74

Cotton Gin Trash 0.784 1.67

Peat 0.605 1.36

Wheat Straw 0.904 1.81

Rice Hulls 0.844 1.78

Poultry Manure 0.813 2.00

Almond Shells 0.753 1.81

Almond Hulls 0.915 1.79

Alligator Grass 0.833 1.89

Coconut Shells 0.731 1.56

Sorghum Biomass 0.919 1.76

Jatropha Shells 0.851 1.74

Arundo Donax 0.983 1.77

 85 
 

Raw Biomass Van Krevelen Plot
2.50

2.00
Atomic H:C Ratio

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200
Atomic O:C Ratio

c. Note that the region plotted is at the bottom left corner of the Van Krevelen plot of the

torrefied biomass.
 86 
 

Chapter 9
Pyrolysis

Problems and Discussion Issues

Effect of Temperature on Syngas Production in Pyrolysis

9.1 Explain why gas production is increased as pyrolysis temperature and residence times are

increased.

Discussions:

At higher temperature, more carbon is converted into gaseous compounds (i.e. volatilization

is enhanced at higher temperature). The use of higher residence time allows more contact

time for the carbon to also react and form gaseous compounds.

Pyrolysis Conditions that Favor Biochar and Biooil Production

9.2 Discuss the process condition that will favor the production of (1) char and (2) biooil. What

are the expected yields for the other by-products from each process?

Discussions:

Lower reaction temperature will favor char production. Medium temperature (400-600oC)

and high heating rates coupled by short retention times (a few milli-seconds) will favor biooil

production.
 87 
 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Pyrolysis Process

9.3 List the associated advantages and disadvantages of using pyrolysis as a thermal conversion

system for biomass feedstocks.

Advantages:

a. The reaction is quick thus will have high throughput

b. Pyrolysis will produce varied products such as high energy gas, biooil and char

c. The process may be adjusted to favor any one of the solid, liquid and gaseous product

d. Pyrolysis systems are scalable

e. Portable systems may be designed

f. Char and combustible gas may be recycled to provide heat energy

Disadvantages:

a. External energy is required for the process

b. Material has to be ground to a few mm in size and dried

c. The biooil produced is still highly oxygenated and may require additional upgrade.

d. The nutrient contents in char may not be readily available for plant nutrient uptake

Problems and Issues of Pyrolysis Process at Extreme Temperatures

9.4 Enumerate the problems and issues associated with the operation of a biomass pyrolyzer at

extremely high temperatures?

Answers

a. Extremely high energy is required to operate the process at this temperature

b. Material used may be limiting

c. The usual operational hazards at very high temperature

 88 
 

d. Slagging, fouling or sintering may occur at extreme temperatures

e. Oxidation of other inorganic materials may occur

Energy Balance in a Pyrolysis Process

9.5 Suppose that 0. 454 kg [1 lb] of biomass with a heating value of 17.4 MJ/kg [7,500 Btu/lb]

was placed in a batch reactor and the furnace temperature was set at 550oC. About 0.15 kg

[0.33 lb] of char was produced with a heating value of 20.9 MJ/kg [9,000 Btu/lb]. Determine

the percentage of energy retained in the char from the original input material.

Solution

c. The energy available on the input material is calculated using the following:

0.454 kg 17 .4 MJ
x  7.9 MJ
kg

d. The energy contained in the char is calculated as follows:

0.15 kg 20.9MJ
x  3.14MJ
kg

e. Thus, the percentage of energy retained in char is calculated as follows:

3.14MJ
x100%  39.7%
7.9MJ

f. Thus, close to 40% of the energy is still contained in the char.

 89 
 

Estimation of Residence Time in Fluidized Bed Reactor

9.6 A fluidized bed pyrolyzer has an internal diameter of 0.3048 m [12 in] and finely ground

biomass at a feedrate of 1 kg/min [2.2 lb/min] is introduced with an actual flow rate of 2.834

m3/min [100 CFM]. Determine the residence time of the biomass in a 91.44 cm [36 in] tall

vertical reactor.

Solution

a. The reactor volume is calculated as follows:

d 2 h   0.30482m2  0.9144 m
Volume ( L)    0.06672m3
4 4
b. The volumetric flow rate is calculated as follows:
2.834m 3 1 min
Volumetric Flow Rate (m / s )  3
  0.04723m 3 / s
min 60 s
c. Thus, the residence time in seconds is as follows:
0.06672 m 3
Residence Time ( s )   1.4 s
0.04723m 3 / s

Estimation of Residence Time in Auger Reactor

9.7 A 7.62 cm [3 in] auger pyrolyzer has a length of 91.46 cm [3 ft]. Finely ground biomass at a

feed rate of 0.909 kg/min [2 lbs/min] was introduced at 1.2 rpm. Determine the residence

time of the biomass if the linear flow velocity of the biomass is 1.418 m/min [4.65 ft/min]. Is

this condition considered a fast pyrolyzer?

Solution

a. The residence time is simply calculated as follows:

0.9146 m
ResidenceTime AR ( s)   0.645 min [38.6s]
1.418 m / min
 90 
 

b. The residence time is around 38.6 seconds and thus, this is not considered a fast

pyrolyzer.

Calibration Curve for Augers

9.8 The following data were gathered while calibrating the feed rate of switchgrass in an auger in

a pyrolyzer. Develop an equation relating the rpm of the auger with the feed rate. Estimate

also the regression coefficients. Make sure not to include an intercept. What would be the

rpm so that a feed rate of 80 kg/hr will be fed through the reactor?

RPM Mass Flow Rate, kg/hr

11 3.9

21 12.4

42 18.7

56 23.3

69 34.2

82 40.4

99 45.1

113 50.5

142 64.5

168 70

Solution

a. Input the data in a spreadsheet software like MS Excel to establish the equation relating

the rpm with feed rate. Make a scatter plot. Click on the data points, right-click and check
 91 
 

the add trendline. Check the set intercept to zero, click on display equation on chart and

check on display R-squared on chart. The results are shown as follows:

Feed Rate (kg / hr )  0.4454  ( RPM )

b. Thus, the rpm setting to get a feed rate of 80 lbs/min is calculated as follows:

Feed Rate (kg / hr ) 80

RPM    180 RPM
0.4454 0.4454

c. The plotted graph using the calibration data is shown below.

Switchgrass Calibration Data
80
70 y = 0.4454x
Feedrate (kg/hr)

60 R² = 0.9848
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
Auger Speed, RPM
 92 
 

Calculation Calculating the HV of Synthesis Gas from Experiments

9.9 Estimate the HV of synthesis gas at NTP from the gas yield values (%volume) given in the

table below. Do the calculations for all trials. Convert the units on weight basis.

Temp 400oC H2 CO CH4 C2H4 C2H6 O2 N2 CO2

Trial 1 3.02 6.93 6.78 1.16 4.40 0.68 5.36 59.93

Trial 2 1.87 5.02 4.91 0.95 3.08 0.51 7.49 63.27

Trial 3 1.30 4.87 3.68 1.04 2.31 2.17 13.02 62.46

HV (MJ/m3) 12.8 12.6 38.8 63.0 69.7

Density (kg/m3) 0.0899 1.165 0.668 1.178 1.264

Solution

a. The heating value of synthesis gas is simply the weighted average heating value of

individual gases. Note that for every cubic meter (m3) of syngas produced, there will be

0.0302 m3 of H2 (or 3.02/100), 0.0693 m3 of CO, etc.

1.87  12.8  5.02  12.6  4.91  38.8  0.95  63.0  3.08  69.7
HV   5.52MJ / m3
100

b. Likewise, the HV of syngas at other trials (Trial 1) are calculated accordingly and shown

for 400oC:

3.02  12.8  6.93  12.6  6.78  38.8  1.16  63.0  4.40  69.7
HV   7.69MJ / m3
100

c. For trial 3, the HV of syngas produced is calculated as follows:

1.3  12.8  4.87  12.6  3.68  38.8  1.04  63.0  2.31  69.7
HV   3.88MJ / m3
100
 93 
 

d. The energy units by weight is simply converted using the density of individual gases as

shown at 400oC for Trial 2.

12.8  0.0187 12.6  0.0502 38.8  0.0491 63  0.0095 69.7  0.0308

HV       8.3MJ / kg
0.0899 1.165 0.668 1.178 1.264

e. The HV in units of MJ/kg at 400oC Trial 1 is shown as follows:

12.8  0.032 12.6  0.0693 38.8  0.0678 63  0.0116 69.7  0.044

HV       12.3MJ / kg
0.0899 1.165 0.668 1.178 1.264

f. Finally, the calculation of HV for 400oC Trial 3 is shown:

12.8  0.013 12.6  0.0487 38.8  0.0368 63  0.0104 69.7  0.0231

HV       6.35MJ / kg
0.0899 1.165 0.668 1.178 1.264

Calculating the Yields per unit Weight of Biomass

9.10 Estimate the biochar, biooil and syngas yields at 400oC, 500oC and 600oC operating

temperature for sorghum biomass in units of kg/tonne, L/tonne and L/tonne, respectively.

Use the data in Tables 9.16 and assume the average density of biooil to be about 900 kg/m3

and that of the syngas is 0.65 kg/m3. Convert the biooil yield in gallons/ton at the three

reaction temperatures.

Solution

a. At 400oC, the calculations are shown as follows:

0.397kg 1,000kg
Biochar Yield(kg/tonne)    397kg / tonne
kg biomass tonne

0.302kg m3 1,000L 1,000kg

Biooil Yield(L/tonne)      336L / tonne
kg biomass 900kg 1m3 tonne
 94 
 

0.171kg m3 1000L
SyngasYield(L/tonne)     263L / kg
kg biomass 0.65kg m3

b. At 500oC, the calculations are shown as follows:

0.369kg 1,000kg
Biochar Yield(kg/tonne)    369kg / tonne
kg biomass tonne

0.33kg m3 1,000L 1,000kg

Biooil Yield(L/tonne)      367 L / tonne
kg biomass 900kg 1m3 tonne

0.203kg m3 1000L
SyngasYield(L/tonne)     312L / kg
kg biomass 0.65kg 1m3

c. At 600oC, the calculations are shown next:

0.361kg 1,000kg
Biochar Yield(kg/tonne)    361kg / tonne
kg biomass tonne

0.312kg m3 1,000L 1,000kg

BiooilYield(L/tonne)      247L / tonne
kg biomass 900kg 1m3 tonne

0.218kg m3 1000L
SyngasYield(L/tonne)     335L / kg
kg biomass .65kg m3

d. Converting the metric values for syngas into the English system, we have the following:

336 L gal 0.909tonne

Biooil Yield(gal/ ton)     81gal / ton
tonne 3.785 L 1ton

367 L 1gal 0.909tonne

Biooil Yield(gal/ton)     88 L / ton
tonne 3.785 L 1ton

247 L 1gal 0.909tonne

Biooil Yield(gal/ton)     59 gal / ton
tonne 3.785L ton
 95 
 

Chapter 10
Gasification

Problems and Discussion Issues

Empirical Chemical Formula of Biomass

10.1 Determine the approximate chemical formula for rice hulls. The ultimate analysis is as

follows: C=38.5; H=5.7; O=39.8; N=0.5; S=0.0; ash=15.5.

Solution

a. For every 100 gram of sample the following are the number of moles of each

element:

C = 38.5 g/12 g/mole = 3.2 moles

H = 5.7 g/1 g/mole = 5.7 moles

O = 39.8 g/16 g/mole = 2.5 moles

N = 0.5 g/14g/mole = 0.036 moles

b. Thus, the chemical formula can be established as follows:

C3.2 H 5.7 O2.5 N 0.036

c. Another normalized form of the formula can be written as follows:

CH1.8O0.78 N 0.011
 96 
 

Air-to-Fuel Ratio of Biomass for Thermal Conversion

10.2 Determine the air-to-fuel ratio (kg/kg) for the complete combustion of rice hulls.

Solution

a. The stoichiometric combustion equation is first completed as shown:

C3.2 H 5.7O2.5 N 0.036  3.375(O2  3.76 N 2 )  3.2CO2  2.85 H 2O  12.69 N 2

b. Then, the air-to-fuel ratio is calculated as shown here:

Air 3.375 * (32)  12.69 * 28 463.32
   5.5 kg air / kg fuel
Fuel (12) * 3.2  (1) * 5.7  (16) * 2.5  (14) * 0.036 84.6

c. Thus, approximately 5.5 kg of air is required per kg of rice hull to undergo complete

combustion.

Air Requirement for Gasification

10.3 Determine the amount of air needed to gasify rice hull in units of m3/kg, assuming 70% of

stoichiometric air is used at standard conditions. Note: assume density of air at standard

condition is 1.2 kg/m3.

Solution

a. As calculated in the previous problem, about 5.5 kg of air is required per kg of biomass

and using 70% air, this amounts to 3.85 kg of air per kg of biomass

b. The amount of air needed in units of m3/kg is a conversion calculation using the density

of air at standard conditions as follows:

m3 3.85 kg air m3 m3
Air requirement ( ) x  3 .2
kg kg biomass 1.2 kg air kg
 97 
 

Volumetric Air Requirement in Fixed Bed Gasifies

10.4 Determine the volumetric air flow rate to be used in gasifying rice hull in a fixed bed

downdraft gasifier assuming 10 kg of biomass is used and only 70% of stoichiometric air is

utilized and the normal completion time for this biomass to be gasified is about an hour.

Assume all the oxygen is used during the reactor and the air density was 1.2 kg/m3.

Solution

a. Having established the air-to-fuel ratio as well as the 70% air requirement, a standard

conditions of 3.85 kg air /kg of biomass, the total amount of air used is easily calculated

as a product of the air requirement and the amount of biomass used as shown in the

calculation that follows:

3.85 kg air m3
Air requirement ( m3 )  x x10 kg rice hull  32 m3
kg biomass 1.2 kg air

b. Thus, about 32 cubic meter of air is needed to complete the gasification process in an
hour

c. The volumetric flow rate should be as follows:

m 3 32m 3 1hr
Flow Rate ( ) x  0.53 m 3 / min
min hr 60 min
3
0.53m 3  3.28 ft 
Flow Rate (CFM )     18.8 ft / min
3

min  1m 
 98 
 

Acreage Needed to Build Power Plants

10.5 How many hectares (acres) would be required to build a 50 MW (output) biomass power

plant if the heating value of the biomass (dry) is 16.2 MJ/kg (7,000 Btu/lb). The biomass

yield in (dry) tonnes per hectare per year is 22.5 (10 dry tons/acre per year). Assume a

conversion efficiency of 35%.

Solution

a.
50 MW MJ kg 3600 sec 24hrs 365days tonne hectare
x x x x x x x  12,360 hectares
0.35 1MW  sec 16.2 MJ hr day yr 1000 kg 22.5 tonnes

b. Are required in hectares = 12,360 hectares

6
c. 50 MW x 1x10 W x J
x
Btu
x
lb
x
3600 s 24 hrs 365 d
x x x
ton
x
acre
0.35 MW W  s 1055 J 7000 Btu hr day yr 2000 lbs 10tons

d. Area required (acres) = 30,500 acres

Equivalence Ratios Calculations in a Gasifier

10.6 Calculate the equivalence ratio for the rice hull that is gasified in problems 1, 2 and 3.

Solution

a. The stoichiometric F/A ratio calculated in Problem 10.2 is 0.18 (1/5.5).

b. The actual F/A ratio used is 0.26 (1/3.85). Thus, the equivalence ratio is calculated from

equation 10.3 as follows:

 99 
 

( F / A ratio ) actual 0.26

   1.44
( F / A ratio ) stoichiome tric 0.18

c. Gasification reactions are always done in the fuel-rich condition or above 1.0 equivalence

ratio.

Power from Manure Gasification

10.7 Estimate the power (MW) that could be derived continuously from the thermal gasification

of cattle manure from a 40,000-head facility. The heating value of cattle manure was

estimated at 17.4 MJ/kg (7,500 BTU/lb). The recoverable manure amounts to approximately

2.3 kg/hd/day (5 lbs/hd/day) of dried manure. If manure is to be used in a thermal

conversion system whose overall conversion efficiency is 15%, what would be the generated

power in MW? Calculate the amount of char produced (carbon and ash) in tonnes/day (tons

per day) and on a yearly basis, assuming 8000 hrs of operation and a 20% yield left as char.

Solution

a. MW calculations in both metric and the English system of units

40,000 hd 2.3kg 17.4 MJ 1day 1hr MW sec

MW  x x x x x x 0.15  2.8MW
hd  day kg 24 hrs 3600 sec MJ

40,000 hd 5lbs 7,500 Btu 1day 1hr 1055 J W MW

MW  x x x x x x x x 0.15  2.8 MW
hd  day lb 24 hrs 3600 sec Btu J / s 1x10 6W

b. Char calculations per day (tonnes/day and tons/day)

40,000 hd 2.3kg tonne

Char (tons / day )  x x x 0.20  18.4tonnes / day
hd  day 1,000 kg
 100 
 

40,000hd 5lbs ton

Char (tons / day )  x x x0.20  20tons / day
hd  day 2,000lb

c. Char calculations per year (tonnes/yr and tons/yr)

40,000 hd 2.3kg tonne 1day 8,000hr

Char (tons / yr )  x x x x x0.20  6,133tonnes / yr
hd  day 1,000kg 24hrs yr

40,000 hd 5lbs ton 1day 8,000 hr

Char (tons / yr )  x x x x x 0.20  6,667tons / yr
hd  day 2,000lbs 24 hrs yr

Superficial Velocity in Updraft Gasifiers

10.8 Determine the superficial velocity in an updraft gasifier with a diameter of 0.585 m and a

gas production rate of 0.400 m3/min.

Solution

a. Calculate the cross sectional area of the gasifier.

D 2  (0.5858m) 2
A(m 2 )    0.27 m 2
4 4

b. Thus, the superficial velocity in units of m/s is shown here:

 m  0.400m 3 1 1 min m
Vs    x x  0.025
 s min 0.27 m 2 60 sec s

Syngas Requirement in Internal Combustion Engines

10.9 A downdraft gasifier is to be used to run a 4-cylinder 4-stroke internal combustion engine

with the following data:

Piston diameter = 60 mm
 101 
 

Piston stroke = 60 mm

Engine RPM = 6500

Volumetric efficiency = 80%

Determine the minimum amount of gas that is needed by this engine if 80% of the gas

would come from synthesis gas from the gasifier.

Solution

a. The amount of gas taken in by the engine is limited by the physical dimensions given

above. Thus, the theoretical swept volume is calculated from the equation shown

next. Note that for a 4-stroke engine, power is generated every 4 strokes (or 2

revolutions).

 m3  1 Re v # of cylinders
Swept volume      Area(m 2 )  stroke(m)
 min  2 min

 m 3  1 6500 4  (0.06m) 2
Swept volume  x x x x0.06m  2.21m 3 / min
 min  2 min 4
 

b. If the total amount of gaseous material taken in by the engine is 2.21 m3/min, and

20% of this is air, therefore only 1.77 m3/min (2.21*0.8) will be the syngas

component.
 102 
 

Design of Downdraft Gasifier

10.10 Design a downdraft gasifier with a required syngas output of 2.5 m3/min (standard

conditions) using a cylindrical cross section. The air-to-fuel ratio should be 70% of the

stoichiometric requirements and sawdust will be used as fuel. The ultimate analysis is as

follows: C=49.7%; H=6.2%; O=42.53%, N=0.7%; S=0.17%, and ash =0.7%. The superficial

velocity should be 0.03 m/s and the air density at standard conditions is equal to 1.2 kg/m3.

About 25 kg of biomass is used every hour.

Solution

a. The empirical chemical formula of the fuel must be calculated as follows:

C = 49.7 g/12 g/mole = 4.1 moles

H = 6.2 g/1 g/mole = 6.2 moles

O = 42.53 g/16 g/mole = 2.7 moles

N = 0.7 g/14g/mole = 0.05 moles

S=0.17 g/32g/mole = 0.005 moles

Thus, the empirical formula is given as follows:

C4.1H 6.2O2.7 N 0.05 S0.005

b. The balanced stoichiometric equation is given next

C 4.1H 6.2 O2.7 N 0.05 S 0.005  4.3(O2  3.76 N 2 )  4.1CO2  3.1H 2 O  16.2 N 2  0.005S
 103 
 

c. The stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio is then calculated as follows:

Air 4.3 * (32)  16.2 * 28 591.2
   5.94 kg air / kg fuel
Fuel (12) * 4.1  (1) * 6.2  (16) * 2.7  (14) * 0.05  (32) * (0.005) 99.46

d. If only 70% of air will be used this is equivalent to 4.2 kg air/kg fuel.

e. At air density of 1.2 kg/m3, the volume of air needed (standard conditions) will be 3.5

m3/kg fuel. If 25 kg of fuel is used every hour, one would need about 1.46 m3/min of air

for this gasifier, or in turn, 1.46 m3/min of syngas will be produced.

f. Thus, if one would need 2.5 m3/min of syngas and with a superficial velocity of 0.03 m/s,

the minimum area will be around 1.4 m2 or a diameter of 1.3 m as shown below.

m3 s 1 min
2.5    1.39 m 2 of area
min 0.03m 60 s

d 2
Area   1.39m 2
4

4  1.39
d  1.33m

 104 
 

Chapter 11
Advanced Gasification

Problems and Discussion Issues

Calculation of the Bed Material Average Particle Size

11.1 Given the data in the accompanying table, estimate the average particle size for this bed

material size distribution.

Mesh Size Size range Material Percentage (%) Weight (g)

(microns)

8 2,380 0 0

10 1,680 - 1,190 4 20

14 1190 – 1,680 47 235

20 840 – 1,190 35 175

28 595 – 840 12 60

Pan <595 2 10

100% 500 g

Solution

a. The table is converted into the calculations of parameters in Equation 11.2 is shown

as follows:
 105 
 

Diameter dpi Weight fraction (x/dp)i

range (microns) in interval
(microns) (pdp)=xi

2,380 - 0 0

1,680 -2,380 2030 (4/100) = 0.04 (0.04/2030) = 0.000020

1,190 – 1,680 1435 (47/100) = 0.47 (0.47/1435) = 0.000328

840 – 1,190 1015 (35/100) = 0.35 (0.35/1015) = 0.000345

595 – 840 717.5 (12/100) = 0.12 (0.12/717.5) = 0.000167

< 595 297.5 (2/100) = 0.02 (0.02/297.5) = 0.000067

1 Σ(x/dp) i=0.000927

b. Thus, the average particle size is calculated as follows:

1 1
dp    1,079 microns
 all i ( x / d p )i 0.000927

Determining the Minimum Fluidizing Velocity

11.2 Calculate the minimum fluidizing velocity for particles with the following data at 21oC.

 dp = 0.1079 cm; μ = 1.78 x 10-4 g/cm-s (air at 21oC)

 ρg = 0.0012 g/cm3 (air at 21oC); ρs = 2.4 g/cm3

 g = 980 cm/sec2; εmf = 0.50; Φs = 0.60

Solution

a. Equation 11.3 will be used as the assumed equation to use as follows:

 106 
 

vmf 
(0.60) * (0.1079cm)2  (2.4  0.0012) g / cm3  980g / cm2  (0.5)3   92.26cm / s
150 1.78x10 4 g / cm  s  1  0.5 
 

b. Now that the velocity is known, the Reynolds number may be calculated to see if the

use of this equation is valid.

d p v air (0.1079 ) x (92.26) x (0.0012 )

Re    67.11  20 but  1,000
 air 1.78 x10  4

c. While the Reynolds number is greater than 20, it is still useful since this number is

way below Re of 1,000.

Terminal Velocity Calculations

11.3 Determine the terminal velocity for the particles given in the previous example.

Solution

a. Only the relevant parameters are given as follows:

 dp = 0.1079 cm

 μ = 1.78 x 10-4 g/cm-s (air at 21oC)

 ρg = 0.0012 g/cm3 (air at 21oC); ρs = 2.4 g/cm3

 g = 980 cm/sec2

b. Thus, using equation 9,6 we have the following calculations

 107 
 

1/ 3
 4
vt   
2.4  0.0012 2 (980) 2 
 (0.1079)  832 cm / s
 225 (0.0012)(1.78 x10  4 ) 

Volumetric Flow Rate Calculations

11.4 Calculate the minimum required volumetric flow rates in m3/min [or CFM] for a 0.3048 m

fluidized bed gasifier at the operating temperature of 816oC. Compare this value at cold

conditions. The other parameters are provided next:

 dp = 0.1079 cm

 μ = 4.42 x 10-4 g/cm-s (air at 816oC) (from air properties table)

 ρg = 3.25x10-4 g/cm3 (air at 816oC) (from air properties table)

 ρs = 2.4 g/cm3

 g = 980 cm/sec2

 εmf = 0.50, and

 Φs = 0.60

Solution

a. The minimum fluidizing velocity is calculated as in Example 11.2 using new values of

density and viscosity at elevated temperatures as follows:

vmf 
(0.60) * (0.1079cm)2  (2.4  3.25x104 ) g / cm3  980g / cm2  (0.5)3   37.2cm / s
150 4.42 x10 4 g / cm  s  1  0.5 
 

b. This velocity is then used to calculate the required volumertric flow rate as shown here

(in units of m3/min units or CFM):

 108 
 

m3 37.2cm m 3600 sec  * (0.3048m) 2

Q( ) x x x  97.7 m3 / hr
hr sec 100cm hr 4

37.2cm 60 sec 1in ft 0.7854 ft 2

Q (cfm)  x x x x  57.5 cfm
sec min 2.54cm 12in

c. Compared with cold conditions these values are as follows:

92.3cm m 3600 sec  * (0.3048m) 2

Q(cfm)  x x x  242.5 m3 / hr
sec 100cm hr 4

92.3cm 60 sec 1in ft 0.7854 ft 2

Q (cfm)  x x x x  142.7 cfm
sec min 2.54cm 12in

d. There is about 1.7 times less flow or velocity at operating conditions than at cold

conditions.

Pressure Drop Through the Fluidized Bed Gasifier.

11.5 Estimate the pressure drop through the fluidized bed gasifier using the following

assumptions:

 Lmf = bed height at minimum fluidization = 100 cm

 g, gc, ρs and ρs, μ, and εmf are the same as previous examples

Solution

a. The pressure drop is calculated as follows:

980cm / sec2
p  100cm(1  0.5)(2.4  0.0012) g / cm3 x  120 g  wt / cm 2
2
980 g  cm /( g  wt ) sec
 109 
 

b. This pressure drop is also equivalent to 120 cm of water [47.2 in water].

Capacity of a Screw Conveyor

11.6 Calculate the mass flow rate of cotton gin trash (CGT) with the screw conveyor at 100 rpm.

The bulk density of CGT was 190 kg/m3 and the approximate loading factor, k, was 0.16.

The following are the given dimensions of the screw conveyor:

 Dsc = 10 cm

 Dsh = 7.75 cm

 λ = 7.4 cm

Solution

a. Using the formula for a regular helicoid screw conveyor, the following are the

calculations:

 190kg 1  2
ms     0.1  0.0752  (0.16)(0.074)(100)
m3 4  

 kg g
m s  0.773 or 773
min min
b. The flow rate should be about 773 g/min.

Determining the Dimensions of a Fluidized Bed Gasifier

11.7 The desired throughput of the gasifier is 30 GJ/hr and the throughput to use is 22.7 GJ/hr/m2

[2 MMBtu/hr/ft2]. Estimate the size of this fluidized bed gasifier. If the cross section is a

circle, calculate the appropriate diameter for this problem.

 110 
 

Solution

a. Using Equation 11.9, we have the following:

GJ hr  m 2
2
Gasifier area (m )  30   1.32m 2
hr 22.7GJ

b. If the cross section is a circle, then the diameter is calculated as follows:

2 d 2 d (m) 
4A
Area (m ) 
4 or 

c. To give the diameter, in m as follows:

4A 4  1.32m 2
d ( m)    1.29m or [4.25 ft ]
 

Determining the Dimensions of a 1D2D Cyclone

11.8 Design a 1D2D cyclone using a design flow rate of 47.61 m3/min [1680 CFM]. Calculate

also the dimensions for the other nomenclatures shown in Figure 11.6.

Solution.

a. Using Equation 11.11, the following are the calculations after converting 47.61 m3/min

into 0.7933 m3/s:

8  0.7933(m3 / s )
Dc (cm)  100 x  72.12 cm [ 28.4 in]
12.2(m / s )
 111 
 

8  1680 ( ft 3 / min)
Dc (in)  12 x  28.4in [72.12 cm]
2400 ( ft / min)

b. Thus, if we use a nominal size of 71.12 cm [28 in], the other nomenclature should have

the following dimensions:

Bc = Dc/4 = 7 cm Sc = Dc/8 =3.5 cm

Hc = Dc/2 = 14 cm Zc = 2Dc = 144.24 cm

De = Dc/1.6 = 17.5 cm Jc = Dc/4 = 7 cm

Determining the Dimensions of a 1D3D Cyclone

11.9 Design a 1D3D cylcone using a design flow rate of 47.61 m3/min [1,680 CFM]. Calculate

also the dimensions for the other nomenclatures shown in Figure 11.6.

Solution.

a. Using Equation 11.11, the flow rate 1.5 m3/min is first converted into 0.7933 m3/s and a

flow velocity of 16.3 m3/s:

8  0.7933( m 3 / s )
Dc (cm)  100 x  62.4 cm [ 24.6 in ]
16.3( m / s )

8  1680( ft 3 / min)
Dc (in)  12 x  24.6 in [62.4 cm]
3200( ft / min)
 112 
 

b. A nominal size of 60.96 cm [24 inches] will be used for ease of fabrication. Thus, the

other nomenclature should have the following dimensions:

Bc = Dc/4 = 15.24 cm Sc = Dc/8 = 7.62 cm

Hc = Dc/2 = 30.48 cm Zc = 3Dc = 182.88 cm [72”]

De = Dc/1.6 = 38.1 cm Jc = Dc/4 = 15.24 cm

Predicting Pressure Drop in Cyclones

11.10 Predict the pressure drop in small 1D2D and 1D3D cyclones with the following data: The

design inlet velocity for the 91.44 cm [36 in] 1D3D cyclone was [2500 ft/min]. The

measured inlet velocity pressure for this 1D3D cyclone was 0.39 in H2O and the outlet

velocity pressure was 0.28 in H2O. The design inlet velocity for the 1D2D cyclone was 16.3

m//s [3200 ft/min]. The measured inlet velocity pressure for a 15.24 cm [6 in] 1D2D cyclone

was 0.64 in H2O and the outlet velocity pressure was 0.19 in H2O. Convert the units into Pa.

Solution.

a. Using Equation 11.12, we have the following calculations for the 1D2D cyclone:

P  K  VPi  VPo   3.4  0.64  0.19   2.82 in H 2O

b. For the 1D2D cyclone, the calculations will be as follows:

P  K  VPi  VPo   3.4  0.39  0.28   2.3 in H 2O

c. Converting the units into Pa is shown here. One inch water is equivalent to 249.1 Pa.
 113 
 

249 .1Pa
P  2.82 in H 2O   702 .5 Pa
1inH 2O

249.1Pa
P  2.3 in H 2O   573 Pa
1inH 2O

Conversion of Biomass Into Electrical Power Using Fluidized Bed

11.11 How many acres would be required to build a 3 MW (energy output) biomass power

plant (operated 333 days a year and 24 hrs/day) if the heating value of the biomass (dry) is

9,500 Btu/lb. The biomass yield in tons (dry) per acre per year in dry tons is about 8.

Assume a conversion efficiency of 15% using a fluidized bed gasifier.

Solution

a. The energy input must be equal to (3 MW/0.15 = 20 MW)

b. This is a simple conversion process using dimensional analysis to the correct units of acres

as follows:

20 MW 1x10 6 W J Btu lb 3600 s 24hrs 333d ton acre

x x x x x x x x x  3,588 acres
MW W  s 1055 J 9500 Btu hr day yr 2000lbs 8tons

c. Answer = 3,588 acres

 114 
 

Chapter 12
Biomass Liquefaction

Problems and Discussion Issues

Heating Value of Synthesis Gas Produced from Pyrolysis

12.1 Determine the energy content of the synthesis gas (in MJ/m3 based on major components)

produced from the pyrolysis process with the following amounts: Total syngas collected has

the following composition by volume: H2 = 25.4%, CH4 = 39.4%, CO = 21.5%, CO2=9.4%,

C2H4=2.3%, and C2H6=1.9%. The heating values of the gases at NTP are as follows: H2 =

12.8 MJ/m3, CH4=38.8 MJ/m3, C2H4=63 MJ/m3, C2H6=69.7 MJ/m3, and CO = 12.6 MJ/m3.

Convert the HV in units of Btu/ft3.

Solution

a. Note that if we have a cubic meter of gas, some 0.254 m3 will be H2. Thus, the energy

content may be easily calculated by the product of the heating value and this fractional

volumetric gas composition as follows:

12.8 MJ
H 2 ( MJ )  0.254 m 3   3.25MJ
m3

38.8 MJ
CH 4 ( MJ )  0.394m 3   15.29 MJ
m3

12.6 MJ
CO ( MJ )  0.215m 3   2.71MJ
m3

63 MJ
C2 H 4 ( MJ )  0.023 m 3   1.45MJ
m3
 115 
 

69.7 MJ
C2 H 6 ( MJ )  0.019 m 3   1.32 MJ
m3

b. Collectively, the energy content of the synthesis gas is about 24 MJ/m3 [645 Btu/ft3] as

shown below:

MJ (3.25  15.29  2.71  1.45  1.32) MJ MJ

Syngas ( 3
) 3
 24 3
m m m

3
Btu 24MJ Btu  1m  1x10 6 J Btu
Syngas ( 3 )  3
      645 3
ft m 1055J  3.28 ft  MJ ft

Methanol from Biomass Conversion Efficiency

12.2 Determine the efficiency of converting a tonne of rice straw with a high heating value of 17

MJ/kg into pure methanol, having a yield of 320 kg for every tonne. The energy content of

pure methanol is 19.8 MJ/kg. Convert all units in the English system.

Solution

a. This is simply the energy of methanol divided by the total energy input from wood as

follows:

1000kg 17 MJ
Input Energy ( MJ )  1tonne wood    17,000MJ
1tonne kg

320 kg MeOH 19.8MJ

Ouput Energy ( MJ )    6,336MJ
kg

output 6,336MJ
Efficiency   100%   100%  37.3%
input 17,000MJ

b. The English system of units is shown below:

 116 
 

17,000MJ Btu 1x106 J

Input Energy ( MMBtu)     16.11MMBtu
1055 J 1MJ

6,336MJ Btu 1x106 J

Output Energy ( MMBtu)     6.01MMBtu
1055J 1MJ

Mobil Process Conversion Efficiency

12.3 Determine the efficiency of converting methanol into gasoline using the data provided as

follows: One tonne of methanol produces 340 kg of gasoline. The energy content of pure

methanol is 19.8 MJ/kg and that of gasoline is 46.8 MJ/kg. Convert all units in the English

system.

Solution

a. This is simply the energy output divided by the energy input calculations as follows:

19.8MJ 1,000kg
Input Energy ( MJ )  1 tonne methanol    19,800MJ
kg tonne

46.8MJ
Ouput Energy ( MJ )  340kg gasoline   15,912 MJ
kg gasoline

output 15,912MJ
Efficiency   100%   100%  80.4%
input 19,800MJ

b. The English system of units is shown below:

19,800MJ Btu 1x106 J

Input Energy ( MMBtu)     18.77 MMBtu
1055J 1MJ
 117 
 

15,912MJ Btu 1x106 J

Output Energy ( MMBtu)     15.08MMBtu
1055 J 1MJ

Fischer-Tropsch Syngas Calculations

12.4 The Sasol-Lurgi fixed bed coal gasifier has the following data for the synthesis gas used for

the subsequent F-T process (Dry and Steynberg, 2004). Comment on the following: (a)

heating value of the gases and (b) suitability for the F-T process based on the H2/CO ratio.

Use the heating values of gases as follows: H2 = 12.8 MJ/m3, CH4=36.4 MJ/m3,and CO =

11.6 MJ/m3. Comment on which syngas is appropriate for the F-T process.

H2 CO CO2 CH4

Sasol A 59.5 24.8 0.9 14.0

Sasol B 55.6 28.5 0.9 14.2

Sasol C 53.6 31.5 0.8 13.3

Solution

a. The heating values are calculated using the volumetric fractions of syngas for Sasol A

(assuming 1 m3 of syngas) as follows:

12.8 MJ
H 2 ( MJ )  0.595 m 3   7.62MJ
m3

36.4 MJ
CH 4 ( MJ )  0.14 m 3   5.10MJ
m3
 118 
 

11.6 MJ
CO ( MJ )  0.248m 3   2.88MJ
m3

b. Thus, the syngas heating value is simply the sum of the heating values of the

individual components (7.62+5.10+2.88) = 15.6 MJ/m3 and considered as MCV gas.

c. Sasol B syngas is calculated the same way to give the answer below:

12.8 MJ
H 2 ( MJ )  0.556 m 3   7.12 MJ
m3

36.4 MJ
CH 4 ( MJ )  0.142 m 3   5.17 MJ
m3

11.6 MJ
CO ( MJ )  0.285 m3   3.31MJ
m3

d. Thus, the syngas heating value for Gasifier B is (7.12+5.17+3.31) = 15.6 MJ/m3 and

considered as MCV gas.

e. Sasol C syngas HV are calculated below;

12.8 MJ
H 2 ( MJ )  0.536 m 3   6.86 MJ
m3

36.4 MJ
CH 4 ( MJ )  0.133 m 3   4.84MJ
m3

11.6 MJ
CO ( MJ )  0.315 m 3   3.65MJ
m3

f. Thus, the syngas heating value for Gasifier B is (6.86+4.84+3.65) = 15.4 MJ/m3 and

considered as MCV gas.

g. The H2/CO ratios are simply the ratios of volumetric H2 and CO values as follows:

Sasol A = 59.5/24.8 = 2.4, a high H2/CO ratio and no need to upgrade since above 2.1
 119 
 

Sasol B = 55.6/28.5 = 1.95, a medium H2/CO ratio and needed a slight upgrade

Sasol C = 53.6/31.5 = 1.70, a low medium H2/CO ratio and needs upgrade

h. All are appropriate for the F-T process with some needed upgrading to bring H2/CO

ratio above 2.1.

Heating Value of Syngas Produced for the China Lake Process

12.5 Determine the heating values and H2/CO ratios of syngas by weight produced from the

China Lake Process (Diebold, 1980), whose weight composition (%W) is shown below. Use

the heating values of gases as follows: H2 = 119.8 MJ/kg, CO = 10.14 MJ/kg, C2H4

(ethylene) = 47.64 MJ/kg, CH4 = 49.75 MJ/kg, C3H6 (propene) = 45.56 MJ/kg, C2H2

(acetylene) = 48.36 MJ/kg, C4H8 (butene) = 45.07 MJ/kg, and C2H6 (ethane) = 47.10 MJ/kg.

Assume 1 kg material. Estimate the density of this syngas.

H2 CO C2H4 CH4 CO2 C3H6 C2H2 C4H8 C2H6

Syngas (%W) 1.3 50.8 14.2 6.9 12.7 3.4 1.6 2.9 1.0

Solution

a. The heating values are calculated using the volumetric fractions of syngas as follows

(assuming 1 m3 of syngas):
 120 
 

119.8 MJ
H 2 ( MJ )  0.013 kg   1.56 MJ
kg

10.14 MJ
CO ( MJ )  0.508 m 3   5.15 MJ
kg

47.64 MJ
C2 H 4 ( MJ )  0.142 m 3   6.76 MJ
kg

49.75 MJ
CH 4 ( MJ )  0.069 m 3   3.43MJ
kg

45.56 MJ
C3 H 6 ( MJ )  0.034 m 3   1.55 MJ
kg

48.36 MJ
C2 H 2 ( MJ )  0.016 m 3   0.77 MJ
kg

45.07 MJ
C 4 H 8 ( MJ )  0.029 m 3   1.31MJ
kg

47.1 MJ
C 2 H 6 ( MJ )  0.01 m 3   0.47 MJ
kg

b. Thus, collectively, the syngas heating value for this syngas is 21 MJ/kg =

(1.56+5.15+6.76+3.43+1.55+0.77+1.31+0.47) and is still considered a high calorific

value gas and superior to gasifier gas. It is typical of syngas from some fast pyrolysis

process, described in earlier chapters.

c. The density of this gas is simply to take the ratio of its heating value by weight and the

heating value by volume. The HV by volume was calculated from Example 12.5 and the

HV by weight is calculated in this problem. Thus, the density is calculated below:

 121 
 
3
 kg  HV (by volume) 23.47MJ / m kg
Density 3     1.12 3
 m  HV (by weight) 21MJ / kg m

BOM Process Efficiency Calculations

12.6 Determine conversion efficiency for the conversion of bio-oil from woodchips via the BOM

process if the bio-oil yield is 51% by weight. The heating value of bio-oil was found to be 35

MJ/kg and the density is 1.2 kg/L. The woodchips used have a heating value of 20 MJ/kg.

Convert the yield in liters per tonne [and in gal/ton].

Solution

a. The conversion efficiency is based on the energy content of bio-oil product divided by

the energy content of wood chips and calculated per tonne as follows:

35MJ
Output ( MJ )  510kg   17,850MJ
kg

20MJ 1000kg
Input ( MJ )  1tonne    20,000MJ
kg tonne

Output 17,850MJ
Efficiency (%)   100%   100%  89.3%
Input 20,000MJ

b. As in Example 12.6, this is a simple conversion of units as follows:

L 510kg biooil L L
Yield ( )   425
tonne tonne 1.2kg tonne

gal L gal 1tonne gal

Yield ( )  425    102
ton tonne 3.785L 1.1ton ton
 122 
 

Determining the Bio-oil Yields by Hydrothermal Processes

12.7 Hydrothermal liquefaction experiments with high moisture biomass has oil product yields

shown in the table below (Elliott et al., 1988). Convert this yields into L/tonne [and

gallons/ton] and estimate conversion efficiencies of bio-oil. Assume oil density of about 1.2

kg/L and heating value of approximately 35 MJ/kg [15,000 Btu/lb].

Heating Values Oil Ultimate Analysis

Biomass Btu/lb MJ/kg Oil Yield (%W) C H N O

Water Hyacinth 7730 17.9 26.0 76.3 9.9 3.3 1.54

Napier Grass 7870 18.3 34.4 74.5 8.5 0.4 1.36

Sorghum 8046 18.7 26.6 75.9 8.7 1.7 1.36

Solution

a. Yields in L/tonne are calculated as follows assuming 1000 kg (1 tonne):

 L  260kg L L
Water Hyacinth Biooil Yield     217
 tonne  tonne 1.2kg tonne

 gal  217 L gal tonne gal

Water Hyacinth Biooil Yield      52
 ton  tonne 3.785L 1.1ton ton

 L  344kg L L
Napier Grass Biooil Yield     287
 tonne  tonne 1.2kg tonne
 123 
 

 gal  287 L gal tonne gal

Napier Grass Biooil Yield      69
 ton  tonne 3.785L 1.1ton ton

 L  266kg L L
Sorghum Biooil Yield     222
 tonne  tonne 1.2kg tonne

 gal  222 L gal tonne gal

Sorghum Biooil Yield      53
 ton  tonne 3.785L 1.1ton ton

b. Bio-oil energy yields in MJ are calculated as follows assuming 1000 kg (1 tonne):

35 MJ
Water Hyacinth Biooil Yield MJ   260 kg   9,100 MJ
kg

35MJ
Napier Grass Biooil Yield MJ   344 kg   12,040 MJ
kg

35MJ
Sorghum Biooil Yield MJ   266 kg   9,310 MJ
kg

c. Biomass Energy content in a tonne

17.9 MJ
Water Hyacinth Energy MJ    1000 kg  17,900 MJ
kg

 MJ  21.3MJ
Spent Grain Energy   1000kg  21,300 MJ
 tonne  kg

d. Thus, the conversion efficiencies area is as follows:

6,720MJ
Kelp Conversion Efficiency%    100%  40.5%
16,600MJ
 124 
 

12,145MJ
Spent Grain Conversion Efficiency%    100%  57%
21,300MJ

Differences Among BOM, PERC and the LBL Liquefaction Processes

12.8 Discuss the differences between the BOM, PERC and the LBL biomass liquefaction

processes.

Answer

a. The BOM and PERC processes are essentially the same, since they were developed at the

same facility, i.e., PERC is a laboratory under the BOM. The process begins by drying

and grinding the biomass. This step is followed by making a slurry that uses some

recycled oil. The slurry has a solids concentration of about 20%. Sodium carbonate is

added as a catalyst (about 5%) and the slurry is then charged into the reactor; there, it is

maintained around 300-370oC. Oil is obtained as final product and the catalyst is

recovered by distillation.

b. The LBL process is slightly different. Drying and grinding are eliminated. The process

begins with acid hydrolysis of the biomass. No oil is mixed with the slurry. The added

sulphuric acid creates a slurry in the same way as oil in the PERC process. The

hydrolysed biomass is neutralized using sodium carbonate; then, it is liquefied under

conditions similar to the PERC process. Through a flash separator, heat exchanger, and

vacuum distillation process, oil is recovered. The oil is upgraded or separated into its

hydrocarbon components. The product has lower oxygen content with a heating value

that is close to No. 6 fuel oil.

 125 
 

Hydrogen-to-Carbon Ratios for Biomass Liquefaction Processes

12.9 Calculate the hydrogen-to-carbon atom ratios for the biomass materials discussed in

Example 12.7, as well as Problem 12.7. Discuss the implication of these ratios on the

requirements for reducing gases used for biomass liquefaction. Note that H/C ratios between

1.4-1.6 are values where suitable reducing agents for the biomass liquefaction processes are

not required.

Solution

a. The hydrogen-to-carbon ratio is just the ratio of the ultimate analysis of C and H from

the tables as follows:

Biomass H (% and mole) C C (mole basis) H/C ratios

Kelp 8.9 76.7 6.39 1.4

Spent Grain 10.2 75.2 6.27 1.6

Water Hyacinth 9.9 76.3 6.36 1.6

Napier Grass 8.5 74.5 6.21 1.4

Sorghum 8.7 75.9 6.33 1.4

b. All are suitable for the liquefaction process and reducing gas is not required.
 126 
 

Conversion Efficiency for the HTU Process

12.10 Determine the efficiency of converting a tonne of woodwaste with a heating value of 20

MJ/kg to begin with into pure bio-oil via the HTU process having a yield of 45% by weight

and a heating value of 34 MJ/kg.

Solution.

a. This example is very similar to previous examples on efficiency calculation as shown

below. Again, assume one tonne of wood feedstock:.

1000 kg 20 MJ
Input Energy ( MJ )  1tonne wood    20,000 MJ
1tonne kg

34 MJ
Ouput Energy ( MJ )  450 kg bioil   15,300 MJ
kg

output 15,300MJ
Efficiency   100%   100%  76.5%
input 20,000MJ
 127 
 

Chapter 13
Biomass Combustion

Problems and Discussion Issues

Amount of CO2 Produced for Every Metric Ton of Biomass Combusted

13.1 Suppose you have certain biomass with the following chemical formula:

C3.33H5.2O2.56N0.10.Determine the amount of CO2 produced (in kg) per metric ton of this

biomass when combusted completely in air.

Solution

a. The stoichiometric equation is first found by calculating the coefficients and balancing

the stoichiometric combustion equation for air as follows: (Note: One may follow the

procedure shown in the boxed Example 13.1, or calculate this directly as shown.)

C3.33 H 5.2O2.56 N 0.10  3.35  O2  3.76 N 2   3.33CO2  2.6 H 2O  3.35  3.76 N 2

b. Thus, the ratio of CO2 per biomass by weight is given here:

CO2  kg  (3.33) * (12  32) 146.52

     1.67
Biomass  kg  (12 * 3.33)  (1* 5.2)  (16 * 2.56)  (14 * 0.1) 87.52

c. Since one metric ton is 1000 kg, this is equivalent to 1,670 kg/tonne.

Amount of Air Needed for the Combustion of Sorghum Biomass

13.2 The ultimate analysis of sorghum biomass (in % weight) is taken from Table 3.5 and copied

below (HV was taken from Table 3.2). Determine the exact amount of air (m3/kg and ft3/lb)

needed for combustion of this material in air. Assume standard air conditions with air

density of 1.2 kg/m3 [0.075 lb/ft3].

 128 
 

Biomass C H O N S Ash HV (MJ/kg)

Sorghum 38.1 5.6 46.7 0.9 0.2 8.5 17.0

Solution

a. Following Example 13.2, the representative chemical formula of the sorghum biomass is

first estimated by dividing the weight percentage of each element with its molecular

weights as follows, assuming 100 g of sample. This value will be the subscript of each

element that will be used for the combustion equation. Sulfur will be ignored since the

value is very small.

Biomass C H O N S Ash HV (MJ/kg)

Sorghum 38.1 5.6 46.7 0.9 0.2 8.5 17.0

MW 12 1 16 14 32

Subscript 3.2 5.6 2.9 0.06 0.00625

Chemical Formula  C3.2 H 5.6O2.9 N 0.06

b. Once the chemical formula is established, the stoichiometric combustion equation is

made and balanced as shown:

C3.2 H 5.6O2.9 N 0.06  3.15  O2  3.76 N 2   3.2CO2  2.8H 2O  3.15  3.76 N 2
 129 
 

c. Then, the air to fuel ratio is calculated as follows:

Air  kg  (3.15) * (32  105.28) 432.4 kg

     4.7
Sorghum  kg  (12 * 3.2)  (1* 5.6)  (16 * 2.9)  (14 * 0.06) 91.24 kg

d. Finally, the air requirement per kg of the sorghum biomass is calculated using the air

density provided.

Air  m 3  4.7 kg m3 m3  ft 3 
     3.92  62 . 9 
Sorghum  kg  kg Sorghum 1.2kg kg  lb 

e. This amount is about half the requirement for MSW in Example 13.2.

Biomass Combustion Efficiency and Acreage Needed

13.3 How much biomass in needed in tonnes/hr (and tons/hr) for a 50 MW electrical facility if

the overall conversion efficiency is 25%? The facility is to be operated 333 days in a year for

24 hrs/day. How much biomass is needed per year? The heating value of the biomass was 20

MJ/kg. If the biomass productivity is 11.23 dry tonnes/hectare/yr [5 dry tons/acre/year], how

much area is needed to satisfy this requirement?

Solution

a. Since the efficiency is known as well as the output power, calculation is simply to

determine the required input power and convert this into the required biomass mass flow

rate input as shown below:

tonnes Output 50MW MJ kg 3600s tonne tonnes

Biomass Input ( )       36
hr Efficiency 0.25 1MW  s 20MJ hr 1000kg hr
 130 
 

ton 36tonnes 1.1ton tons

Biomass Input ( )   39.6
hr hr 1tonne hr

b. The amount of biomass needed per year will be calculated as follows:

tonnes 36tonnes 24hrs 333days tonnes

Biomass ( )    287,712
yr hr day yr yr

tons 36tonnes 24hrs 333days 1.1ton tonnes

Biomass( )     316,483
yr hr day yr tonne yr

c. If the productivity is given, then the area required may be calculated as follows:

tonnes ha  yr
Acreage (ha)  287,712   25,620 ha
yr 11.23 tonnes

tons acre  yr
Acreage (acres)  316,483   63,297 acres
yr 5 tons

Boiling Water at Mile High Stadium

13.4 Determine the boiling point (in degrees Centigrade) of water if one is doing this at the Mile

High Stadium in Denver, Colorado.

Solution

a. The elevation must first be converted into meters so that the Equation 13.1 may be used

as follows:

1 mile is 5280 ft and also equal to 1610 meters using the conversion 3.28 ft to a meter.

b. Thus, the boiling point of water in this area is shown below.

 131 
 

 1610 
Tb ( o C )  100    94.6 C
o

 300 

c. Do not expect a reading of 100oC in the thermometer.

Biomass Co-firing Efficiency

13.5 Determine the efficiency of a co-firing system utilizing biomass and coal with the following

data: Roughly 18.57% of biomass was used by weight at a rate of 0.65 tonnes/hr and coal at

a rate of 3.5 tonnes/hr. The heating value of the biomass was 18 MJ/kg and that of coal was

31.3 MJ/kg. The output of the process was 10 MW. What was the ratio of biomass energy

input versus coal?

Solution

a. The efficiency is calculated simply as input divided by the output. Since the output is

known, the easiest procedure will be to calculate the energy input to arrive at the same

units. Thus, the energy input from biomass in units of MW is given as follows:

0.650tonnes 1000kg 18MJ 1hr

Biomass( MW )      3.25MW
hr 1tonne kg 3600s

b. Then the energy input from coal is given as follows:

3.5tonnes 1000 kg 31 .3MJ 1hr

Biomass ( MW )      30 .4 MW
hr tonne kg 3600 s

c. Thus, the efficiency will be calculated as follows:

10 MW
Efficiency (%)  x100 %  29.7%
(3.25.5  30.4) MW
 132 
 

d. The biomass energy input is a little over 10% as shown below:

3.25MW
Energy Input Rate (%)  x100%  10.7%
30.4MW

Conversion of Biomass into Small-Scale Electrical Power.

13.6 A small ranch consumes around 12,000 kWh of electricity each month. If a small-scale

biomass-fueled power plant is established for this facility, how much biomass is needed each

month if the unit is to be operated at least 350 days of a year? Assume overall conversion

efficiency of 15%. The biomass to use has a productivity of 15 tonnes/ha/yr [6.68

tons/acre/yr] and the heating value is 19 MJ/kg. Convert the units in the English system.

Solution

a. First the size of the power plant (assuming continuous operation) is estimated as follows:

12,000kWh 1mo 1d
Size(kW )     16.7kW
mo 30d 24hrs

b. The input energy is calculated using the efficiency equation as follows:

Output 16.7 MW
Input   100%   100  111 .3 kW
Efficiency (%) 15

c. This input energy must come from biomass at the following rates as shown:

 kg  111.3kW kJ MJ kg 3600s kg
Biomass Input Rate        21
 d  1kW  s 1000kJ 19MJ hr d

 lbs  21kg 2.2lbs lbs

Biomass Input Rate    46.4
 d  d kg d
 133 
 

d. This biomass input rate is converted into acreage needed using the biomass productivity

value provided:

21kg 350days hectare  yr

Acreage(ha)  x x  490 hect ares
d yr 15tonnes

2.47acres
Acreage(acres)  490 hect ares   1,210 acres
ha

e. Thus, around 500 hectares [1,210 acres] of land is required if the conversion efficiency is

around 15%. If this value is higher, as well as the biomass productivity, the acreage will

be even lower.

Alkali Index for Animal Manure

13.7 Calculate the alkali index for animal manure using the data in Table 13.2. Comment on the

values generated.

Solution

a. The percent ash in the animal manure is 18.62%. Thus for every 1 kg of this biomass, the

amount of ash is 0.1862 kg.

b. The percentage of K2O and Na2O is 5.28% and 1.82%, respectively, by weight. The total

alkali is 7.1% (5.28+1.82). Thus, for every kg of the animal manure biomass, the amount

of alkali is 0.0132 kg (i.e., 0.1862 x 0.071). Thus, the AI for animal manure is calculated

as shown using the heating value of 15.93 MJ/kg [6,863 Btu/lb].

kg Alkali kg K 2O  Na 2O  0.0132 kg kg CGT 1000 MJ kg

AI (CGT )     0.83
GJ GJ 1kg CGT 15.93MJ GJ GJ
 134 
 

c. In the English system, this is calculated as follows:

lb Alkali 1106 18.62% 7.10% lb Alkali

AI (CGT )    1.93
MMBtu 6863Btu / lb 100 100 MMBtu

d. Thus, slagging and fouling is certain to occur for this biomass, if it is combusted.

Base-to-Acid Ratio in Animal Manure Ash Sample

13.8 Calculate the Base to Acid Ratio for animal manure samples using the data in Table 13.2.

Comment on the values generated.

Solution

a. The total percentage of basic ash component in animal manure is determined as follows:

%Fe2O3  CaO  MgO  K 2O  Na2O   %(1.84  27.41  10.9  5.28  1.82)  47.25

b. The total percentage of basic ash component in CGT is determined as follows:

%SiO2  TiO2  Al2O3   %(32.46  0.22  3.12)  35.8

c. Thus, the Rb/a for animal manure is calculated as shown:

47.25
Rb / a   1.32
35.8

d. Thus, slagging and fouling is also certain to occur for this biomass, if combusted.

Bed Agglomeration Index of Animal Manure Ash Sample

 135 
 

13.9 Calculate the bed agglomeration index for animal manure samples using the data in Table

13.2. Comment on the values generated.

Solution

a. The total percentage of iron oxide in the animal manure sample is 1.84%. Thus, the

calculation for BAI is straightforward, as follows: The % K2O and Na2O is 5.28% and

1.82%, respectively.

% Fe2O3 1.84
BAI    0.26
%( K 2O  Na 2O ) 5.28  1.82

b. Thus, bed agglomeration will not likely occur when this biomass is combusted since the

BAI is more than 0.15. Of course, there is perception that animal manure is a worse

biomass to combust than cotton gin trash. This index may not be suitable for this type of

sample.

Compressive Strength of Animal Manure Ash Pellet Sample

13.10 Determine the compressive strength of animal manure ash pellets (in units of kPa) if the

load measured just prior to crumbling is 526 N and the dimensions of the pellets are as

follows: 2.54 cm in diameter by 1.65 cm in height. Note that 1 Pa = 1N/m2.

Solution

a. The compressive stress or strength of a material is equal to the load force divided by area.

Thus, the cross-sectional area (in m2) of the pellet is first calculated as follows:
 136 
 
2
 2.54cm m 
   
100cm 
 
Area m 
2 
4
 0.000507 m 2

b. Then, the compressive strength is calculated accordingly as shown:

 N  526 N
Compressive Strength 2   2
 1,037,475 Pa
 m  0.000507m

c. This value is also equal to 1,037 kPa.

 137 
 

Chapter 14
Biomass Sustainability Issues

Problems and Discussion Issues

Greenhouse Gas Equivalency Calculations

14.1 Natural gas is used in boilers and the amount of natural gas used was 1,000,000 cubic

meters in a year. Determine the equivalent CO2 emissions from this system if the emissions

are as follows (CAPP, 2003):

- CO2 = 1,891 g/m3 fuel

- CH4 = 0.0363 g/m3 fuel

- N2O = 0.0347 g/m3 fuel

Determine also the percent contribution of each compound (in %) by weight of CO2

equivalent.

Solution

a. The amount of gaseous emissions are calculated first as shown:

 1891g kg tonne 
CO2 (tonnes)  1106 m3      1,891 tonnes CO2
 m
3
1000g 1000kg 

 0.0363g kg tonne 
CH 4 (tonnes)  1106 m3      0.0363 tonnes CO2
 m
3
1000g 1000kg 

 0.0347g kg tonne 
N 2O (tonnes)  1106 m3  3
    0.0347 tonnes CO2
 m 1000 g 1000 kg 
 138 
 

b. Then Equation 14.1 is used directly as shown below:

CO2 E (tonnes)  1,8911.0  0.0347  21  4.413 310  3,260 tonnes CO2

c. The percentage contribution of each compound in the overall GHG potential in CO2

equivalent is calculated as follows:

1,891tonnes
CO2 Contribution (%)   100%  58%
3,260 tonnes CO2

(0.0347 21)tonnes
CH 4 Contribution (%)   100%  0.0224%
3,260 tonnes CO2

(4.413  310) tonnes

N 2O Contribution (%)   100%  41.96%
3,260 tonnes CO2

Gas Turbine Greenhouse Gas Equivalency Calculations

14.2 Determine the equivalent CO2 emissions for a gas turbine whose emission factor is shown

in Table 4.2. The output rating of the unit was 29.31 MW [100 MMBtu/hr] and the heating

value of natural gas is assumed to be 37.2 MJ/m3 [1,000 Btu/ft3]. Assume the thermal

efficiency to be 80% and the unit is to be operated 360 days in a year. Determine also the

percent contribution of each GHG by weight of CO2 equivalent.

Solution

a. The utilization is calculated first as follows:

360
Utilizatio n   0.986
365

b. Equation 14.3 for fuel usage is then used to estimate fuel usage as shown below:
 139 
 

29.31MW m3 MJ m3
Fuel Usage     0.986  0.971
0.80 37.2MJ MW  s s

c. The GHG emissions will then be calculated using Equation 14.2 as follows:

 tonnes  m 3 1769 g tonne 31.536  10 6 s tonnes

CO2    0.971     54,169
 yr  s m 3
1  10 g
6
yr yr

 tonnes  m 3 0.138 g tonne 31.536  10 6 s tonnes

CH 4    0.971     4 .2
 yr  s m 3
1  10 g
6
yr yr

 tonnes  m 3 0.077 g tonne 31.536  10 6 s tonnes

N 2O    0.971     2. 4
 yr  s m 3
1  10 6
g yr yr

d. The CO2 equivalent is calculated as follows:

CO2 E (tonnes)  54,169  1.0  4.2  21 2.4  310  55,001.2 tonnes

e. The percentage contribution of each compound in the overall GHG potential in CO2

equivalent is calculated as follows:

54,169 tonnes
CO2 Contribution (%)  100%  98.49%
55,001.2 tonnes CO2 E

(4.2  21) tonnes

CH 4 Contribution (%)  100%  0.16%
55,001.2 CO2 E

(2.4  310) tonnes

N 2O Contribution (%)  100%  1.35%
55,001.2 tonnes CO2
 140 
 

GREET Modeling Part 1

14.3 Download a GREET1 2012 Version and run a scenario to estimate energy and GHG

emissions from biofuel from pyrolysis process. The given parameters are as follows:

- Simulation Year = 2010

- Use passenger cars

- Use pyrolysis-based renewable fuel

- Do not run the Stochastic Simulations

- On the biofuels pathway options, choose corn stover as feedstock source

- Use internal hydrogen gas from fuel gas or natural gas reforming

- Use integrated biorefinery for upgrading with pyrolysis and stabilization

- Use CIDI engine only for vehicle technology

- Use 100% renewable diesel fuel

- Use GREET default assumption estimates

- The assumed biomass usage should be around 3.610 lb corn stover/lb liquid fuel

- The assumed energy usage should be around 5,758 Btu/lb liquid fuel

Generate a table similar to the well-to-pump (WTP) results (Table 14.2) and Table 14.3,

the well-to-wheel (WTW) results.

Solution

a. The solution similar to Table 14.2 WTP (well-to-pump) is shown below:

 141 
 

Simulation Year 2010 Corn Stover-Based RDII-100

(Btu or g/MMBtu)

Total Energy 890,778

WTP Efficiency 52.9%

Fossil Fuels 486,701

Coal 73,958

Natural Gas 359,819

Petroleum 52,924

CO2 (with C from VOC and CO) -62,828

CH4 192.905

N2O 9.666

GHG -55,125

VOC: Total 10.736

CO: Total 21.844

NOx: Total 70.765

PM10: Total 17.423

PM2.5: Total 7.214

SOx: Total 49.459

VOC: Urban 0.129

CO: Urban 0.183

NOx: Urban 0.698

PM10: Urban 0.086

PM2.5: Urban 0.059

SOx: Urban 0.688

 142 
 

b. The solution similar to Table 14.3 WTW (well-to-wheel) is shown below:

Simulation Year 2010 Feedstock Fuel Vehicle Operation

(Btu/mi or g/mi) (Btu/mi or g/mi) (Btu/mi or g/mi)

Total Energy 351 3,293 4,090

Fossil Fuels 345 1,646 0

Coal 24 278 0

Natural Gas 158 1,314 0

Petroleum 162 54 0

CO2 (with C from VOC and CO) -287 30 313

CH4 0.095 0.694 0.003

N2O 0.038 0.002 0.012

GHG -274 48 317

VOC: Total 0.027 0.017 0.088

CO: Total 0.052 0.038 0.539

NOx: Total 0.133 0.157 0.141

PM10: Total 0.013 0.058 0.030

PM2.5: Total 0.009 0.021 0.016

SOx: Total 0.071 0.131 0.000

VOC: Urban 0.000 0.002 0.055

CO: Urban 0.000 0.002 0.335

NOx: Urban 0.000 0.011 0.088

PM10: Urban 0.000 0.001 0.018

PM2.5: Urban 0.000 0.001 0.010

SOx: Urban 0.000 0.019 0.000

 143 
 

GREET Modeling Part 2

14.4 Download a GREET1 2012 Version and run a scenario to estimate the energy and GHG

emissions from combination of natural gas, biomass, and coal conversion process. The given

parameters are as follows:

- Simulation Year = 2010

- Use passenger cars

- For NG gas fuel type, select CNG

- Do not run the Stochastic Simulations

- On the biofuels pathway options, choose renewable NG as feedstock source

- Assume the feedstock share of renewable natural gas is 100% from landfill gas

- Use dedicated SI engine

- Use GREET default assumption estimates

- The natural gas compression efficiency (LFG or CNG) should be around 97.3%

Generate a table similar to the well-to-pump (WTP) results (Table 14.2) and Table 14.3,

the well-to-wheel (WTW) results.

Solution

a. The solution similar to Table 14.2 WTP (well-to-pump) is shown below:

 144 
 

Simulation Year 2010 Compressed Natural Gas-LFG

(Btu or g/MMBtu)

Total Energy 258,163

WTP Efficiency 79.5%

Fossil Fuels 59,098

Coal 40,321

Natural Gas 17,179

Petroleum 1,598

CO2 (with C from VOC and CO) -55,538

CH4 507.575

N2O -1.088

GHG -43,173

VOC: Total -17.014

CO: Total -1.584

NOx: Total -8.460

PM10: Total 3.138

PM2.5: Total -2.249

SOx: Total 16.760

VOC: Urban -8.738

CO: Urban -1.290

NOx: Urban -6.741

PM10: Urban -2.166

PM2.5: Urban -2.188

SOx: Urban 2.553

 145 
 

f. The solution similar to Table 14.3 WTW (well-to-wheel) is shown below:

Simulation Year 2010 Feedstock Fuel Vehicle Operation

(Btu/mi or g/mi) (Btu/mi or g/mi) (Btu/mi or g/mi)

Total Energy 0 1,334 5,166

Fossil Fuels 0 305 0

Coal 0 208 0

Natural Gas 0 89 0

Petroleum 0 8 0

CO2 (with C from VOC and CO) 0 -287 307

CH4 0 2.622 0.146

N2O 0 -0.006 0.012

GHG 0 -223 314

VOC: Total 0 -0.088 0.139

CO: Total 0 -0.010 3.745

NOx: Total 0 -0.044 0.141

PM10: Total 0 0.016 0.029

PM2.5: Total 0 -0.012 0.015

SOx: Total 0 0.087 0.001

VOC: Urban 0 -0.045 0.086

CO: Urban 0 -0.007 2.329

NOx: Urban 0 -0.035 0.088

PM10: Urban 0 -0.011 0.018

PM2.5: Urban 0 -0.011 0.009

SOx: Urban 0 0.013 0.001

 146 
 

IBSAL Related Calculations

14.5 In the IBSAL simulation for harvesting corn stover, the corn yield was assumed to be 185

bushels/acre. Assume a 1:1 ratio of corn to corn stover and the corn stover moisture content

on a wet basis was 15%. How much was the theoretical biomass (in dry tons) if the area of

coverage was about 335,000 acres? If the overall biomass losses were 57.5%, how many dry

tons of biomass is available for a refinery of this magnitude or an area?

Solution

a. The corn yield will be calculated on a weight basis as follows:

 tons  185 bu 56 lbs ton tons

Corn Yield      5.18
 acre  acre bu 2000 lbs acre

b. Using the moisture content equation (on wet basis), the dry yield per acre (X) will be

calculated as follows:

5.18  X ( dry tons / acre )  dry tons 

  5.18  5.18  0.15  4.4
dry tons
0.15  X
5.18  acre  acre

c. Thus, the total dry biomass that may be harvested is calculated as follows:

4.4 dry tons

Total Biomass (dry tons)   335,000 acres  1,474,000 tons
acre

d. The available biomass is 57.7% of this, which is about 850,498 tons (1,474,000x0.577).

Simple IMPLAN Calculations

14.6 A short rotation woody crop is being planned for conversion into biofuels (particularly

ethanol from woody biomass) in the State of Minnesota. About 200,000 acres of land will be
 147 
 

devoted to this project. The estimated yield is 7.5 wet tons/acre per year. The moisture

content after harvest is roughly 46%. Determine the following:

a. The annual physical volume available for harvest on a dry basis

b. The annual revenue for biomass producer if the selling price of the woody crop is

$80/dry ton

c. The amount of ethanol produced each year (in MGY) if the ethanol yield is 55 gallons

per dry ton

d. The revenue from ethanol sale if the price of ethanol is $2/gallon

e. Comment on the revenue generated from biomass and ethanol sale

Solution

a. The amount of dry material is first estimated

 dry tons  Wet  tons dry  tons

Dry Harvest    7.5  7.5  0.46   4.05
 acre  year  acre  year acre  year

b. Then the total yearly revenue is calculated simply as follows:

 $  4.05 dry tons $80

Revenue      200,000 acres  $64.8M
 yr  acre  year dry  ton

c. The amount of ethanol produced each year is simply calculated as shown below:

4.05 dry  tons 55 gal

Ethanol MGY     200 ,000 acres  44 .55 MGY
acre  year dry  ton

d. The revenue from ethanol sale is also calculated simply as shown:

 148 
 

$2
Ethanol Revenue ($)  44.55  106 gals   $89.1M
gallon

e. This project would bring in roughly $65 million annually to the biomass producer and

another $89.1M to the ethanol producer.

Pyrolysis Economics

14.7 Determine the processing and upgrade cost for pyrolysis bio-oil so that it will be on a break-

even cost with commercial crude oil that is sold for $90/barrel. The feedstock cost is $80/dry

ton and the bio-oil yield is 50% by weight. The density of the bio-oil product is 1.1 kg/L.

Solution

a. The crude oil cost is first converted into units of $/gallon using the conversion 42

gallons in a barrel as shown:

 $  $90 1barrel $2.14

CrudeOil Price     
 gal  barrel 42 gallons gallon

b. At $80/dry ton and yield of 50% by weight with a bio-oil density of 1.1 kg/L, the

price of bio-oil based on feedstock cost alone is calculated as follows:

 $  $80 1 dry ton 1.1 kg 1.1 ton 3.785L $0.73

Biooil Price        
 gal  dry ton 0.5 ton biooil L 1000 kg gal gallon

c. Thus, the processing and upgrade cost is simply the difference between the crude oil

price per gallon ($2.14) and the bio-oil price based on feedstock cost ($0.73) and this

difference is $1.41/gallon.
 149 
 

Gasification Economics

14.8 A 5 MW biomass-fueled power plant is to be constructed in a locality using gasification

technology. The project devoted 20,000 acres of land for this purpose. The heating value of

biomass to be used is approximately 20 MJ/kg at around 10% moisture. The power plant is

to be operated at 350 days in a year. The overall biomass-to-electrical power conversion

efficiency is 10%. What would be the appropriate biomass yield in dry-tons per acre per year

such that this plant can have a sustainable supply of biomass? Assume that upon harvest, the

biomass moisture content is 50%, what is the biomass yield in wet tons/acre/year? How

much biomass (at 10% moisture) is needed each year in tons?

Solution

a. The input power is calculated using the conversion efficiency given as follows:

Input Power ( MW ) 5MW

Input Power MW     50MW
Efficiency 0.10

b. The equivalent biomass yearly requirement is calculated as follows:

 tons  50 MW MJ 86,400 s 350 days kg tonne 1.1ton tons

Biomass Input           83,160
 yr  MW  s day yr 20 MJ 1000 kg tonne yr

c. The required biomass yield in dry tons per year using 20,000 acres is calculated next:

 tons  83,160tons yr tons

Biomass Yield     4.16
 acre  yr 20,000acres acre

d. The dry biomass yield is calculated using the 10% moisture of “as receivedˮas follows:

 tons  4.16tons tons

Dry Biomass Yield    0.9  3.74
 acre  yr acre
 150 
 

e. Finally, the wet yield of biomass is calculated using the moisture content after harvest of

50% as follows:

 tons  3.74tons 1 tons

Wet Biomass Yield     7.5
 acre  acre 0.5 acre

f. Thus, the targeted wet biomass yield should be at least 7.5 tons/acre.

Net Energy Ratio (NER) Calculations

14.9 Determine the net energy ratio (NER) for the production of ethanol from corn. The

following data were established: the heating value of ethanol (lower) was reported as 21

MJ/L and the reported total energy use to produce the corn feedstock was 19.4 MJ/L

(Shapouri et al., 2006).

Solution

a. The NER is simply calculated from the ratio of the given values as shown below:

21 MJ / L
NER   1.1
19.4 MJ / L

b. Thus, there is more energy in the ethanol product produced than the energy needed for

corn production, transport, conversion, and distribution. This value must be greater than

1.0 for the biofuels to have a positive net energy balance.

c. Note that the NEB value is low since the energy of co-products is not included in the

calculations.

Net Energy Balance (NEB) Calculations

 151 
 

14.10 Determine the net energy balance (NEB) for the production of ethanol from corn via dry

milling. The following data were established: The heating value of ethanol (lower) was

reported as 21 MJ/L and the reported total energy use to produce the corn feedstock via dry

the milling process was 19.4 MJ/L (Shapouri et al., 2006).

Solution

a. The NEB is simply calculated from the difference between these values as shown below:

NEB  21  19 .4  1.6

d. Thus, there is more energy in a liter of ethanol than the energy needed for corn

production, transport, conversion, and distribution via the dry process. This value must be

greater than zero (or positive) for the biofuel to have a positive net energy balance.

Note that the NEB value is low since the energy of co-products is not included in the

calculations.
 152 
 
 153 
 

INTRODUCTION TO 
BIOMASS ENERGY 
CONVERSIONS 

This textbook presents a comprehensive review of biomass resources available for

conversion into heat, power and biofuels. Chapters for complete biomass
characterization are included with discussions of facilities, equipment, and
standards used for analysis.

A chapter is devoted to each of the traditional biomass conversion processes with
extensive tables, illustrations and graphical figures of designs. Solved problems
are included within the text and another set of similar problems at the end of
each chapter. Economics and sustainability issues are discussed in the last
chapter.

A comprehensive glossary of terms is also included. For instructors, complete
powerpoint slides are available together with solved problems and additional
references listings.

This book is suitable as a textbook for undergraduate and graduate courses on
engineering aspects of biomass energy conversions as well as for the hobbyist
seeking an introduction to producing fuels from biomass.
 K14951
ISBN: 978-1-4665-1336-5
90000

9 781466 513365