English Oh Read

English Grammar 101: All You Need to Know
By Daniel Scocco
Just ask a friend what is the role of prepositions within

sentences, or what are the four moods of verbs, and I am sure that you will see a puzzled
look on his face.
Understanding the basic grammar rules is essential for communicating efficiently, but most
of us have forgotten those concepts years ago.
In order to solve this problem we decided to put together all the basic rules on a single
page, so that you can use it as a refresher, or print it out for future reference. Enjoy!
Sentences
Sentences are made of two parts: the subject and the predicate.

The subject is the person or thing that acts or is described in the sentence. The predicate,
on the other hand, is that action or description.
Complete sentences need both the subject and the predicate.

Clauses
Sentences can be broken down into clauses.
For example: The boy is going to the school, and he is going to eat there.
This is a complete sentence composed of two clauses. There are mainly two types of
clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses.
Independent clauses act as complete sentences, while subordinate clauses cannot stand

alone and need another clause to complete their meaning. For example:
Independent clause example: The boy went to the school.
Subordinate clause example: After the boy went to the school…
Phrases
A group of two or more grammatically linked words that do not have subject and predicate
is a phrase.
Example of a complete sentence: The girl is at home, and tomorrow she is going to the
amusement park.
Example of a clause: The girl is at home
Example of a phrase: The girl
You can see that “the girl” is a phrase located in the first clause of the complete sentence
above.
Phrases act like parts of speech inside clauses. That is, they can act as nouns, adjectives,
adverbs and so on.
Parts of Speech
A word is a “part of speech” only when it is used in a sentence. The function the word
serves in a sentence is what makes it whatever part of speech it is.
For example, the word “run” can be used as more than one part of speech:.
Sammy hit a home run.

Run is a noun, direct object of hit.
You mustn’t run near the swimming pool.
Run is a verb, part of the verb phrase must (not) run.
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the noun,
the pronoun, the adjective, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and
the interjection. We are going to cover them individually below.
Nouns
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, event, idea, and so on. Nouns
represent one of the main elements of sentences, along with verbs, adjectives, prepositions
and articles.
Nouns usually function as subjects or objects within sentences, although they can also
act as adjectives and adverbs.
Here is a list with the different types of nouns:
1. Proper nouns
Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with a capital letter.
Examples include Mary, India, and Manchester United.
2. Common nouns
Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general. Examples
include girl, country, and team
3. Concrete nouns
Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called concrete nouns. Examples
include ball, rainbow and melody.
4. Abstract nouns
Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are called abstract nouns.
Examples include love, courage, and childhood.
5. Countable nouns
Countable nouns can be counted. They also have both a singular and a plural form.
Examples include toys, children and books.
6. Non-countable nouns
These nouns (usually) can not be counted, and they don’t have a plural form. Examples
include sympathy, laughter and oxygen.
7. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things. Examples
include flock, committee and murder.
Plural Form of Nouns
The English language has both regular and irregular plural forms of nouns. The most

common case is when you need to add -s to the noun. For example one car and two cars.
The other two cases of the regular plural form are:
1. nouns that end with s, x, ch or sh, where you add -es (e.g., one box, two boxes)
2. nouns that end with consonant + y, where you change the y with i and add
-es (e.g., one enemy, two enemies)
On the irregular plural form of nouns there are basically eight cases:
1. nouns that end with -o, where you add -es (e.g., one potato, two potatoes)
2. nouns ending with -is, where you change -is to -es (e.g., one crisis, two crises)
3. nouns ending with -f, where you change –f to -v and add -es (e.g., one wolf, two
wolves)
4. nouns ending with -fe, where you change -f to -v and add -s (e.g., one life, two
lives)
5. nouns ending with -us, where you change -us to -i (e.g., one fungus, two fungi)
6. nouns that contain -oo, change -oo to -ee (e.g., one foot, two feet)
7. nouns that end with -on, where you change -on with -a (e.g., phenomenon,
phenomena)
8. nouns that don’t change (e.g., sheep, offspring, series)
It might appear overwhelming, but after using these nouns a couple of times you will be
able to memorize their plural form easily.
Pronouns
Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences, making them less repetitive and
mechanic. For example, saying “Mary didn’t go to school because Mary was sick” doesn’t
sound very good. Instead, if you say “Mary didn’t go to school because she was sick” it will
make the sentence flow better.
There are several types of pronouns, below you will find the most common ones:
1. Subjective personal pronouns. As the name implies, subjective pronouns act as

subjects within sentences. They are: I, you, he, she, we, they, and it.
Example: I am going to the bank while he is going to the market.
2. Objective personal pronouns. These pronouns act as the object of verbs within
sentences. They are: me, you, him, her, us, them and it.
Example: The ball was going to hit me in the face.
3. Possessive personal pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate possession, and
they are placed after the object in question (as opposed to possessive adjectives
like my and your, which are placed before the object). They are: mine, yours, his, hers,
ours, theirs and its.
Example of possessive adjective: This is my car.
Example of possessive pronoun: This car is mine.
4. Reflexive pronouns. This special class of pronouns is used when the object is the same
as the subject on the sentence. They are myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves,
themselves and itself.
Example: I managed to cut myself in the kitchen.
5. Interrogative pronouns. As you probably guessed these pronouns are used to ask
questions. They are what, which, who, whom and whose.
Example: What are the odds?
6. Demonstrative pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate a noun and distinguish
it from other entities. Notice that demonstrative pronouns replace the noun (while
demonstrative determiners modify them). They are: this, that, these, those.
Example of a demonstrative determiner: This house is ugly.
Example of a demonstrative pronoun: This is the right one.
7. Indefinite pronouns. As the name implies, indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific
thing, place or person. There are many of them, including anyone, anywhere, everyone,
none, someone and so on.
Example: Everyone is going to the party.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. There are two

kinds: attributive and predicative.
An adjective is used attributively when it stands next to a noun and describes it.
For example: The black cat climbed a tree.
Notice that the verb participle forms can be used as adjectives:
The man felt a paralyzing fear.

Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain oatmeal.
The usual place of the adjective in English is in front of the noun. You can have a whole
string of adjectives if you like: The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped the short, fat,
inoffensive calf.
Sometimes, for rhetorical or poetic effect, the adjective can come after the noun:
Sarah Plain and Tall (book title)
This is the forest primeval.
An adjective is used predicatively when a verb separates it from the noun or pronoun it
describes:
The umpire was wrong.
The crowd was furious.
She seems tired today.
This soup tastes bad.
The dog’s coat feels smooth.
The verbs that can be completed by predicate adjectives are called being
verbs or copulative verbs. They include all the forms of to be and sensing verbs
like seem, feel, and taste.
Adjective Classifications
 qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French

 possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their
 relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc.
 numeral: one, two, second, single, etc.
 indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc.
 demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such
The demonstrative adjectives the and a (an) are so important in English that they have a
special name: articles. They are discussed separately below.
Articles
The words a, an, and the are generally called articles and sometimes classed as a

separate part of speech. In function, however, they can be grouped with the demonstrative
adjectives that are used to point things out rather than describe them.
Definite Article
The is called the definite article because it points out a particular object or class.
This is the book I was talking about.
The dodo bird is extinct.
Indefinite Article
A is called the indefinite article because it points out an object, but not any particular
specimen.
a book, a dog, a lawn mower
The indefinite article has two forms:
A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or an aspirated h:
a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel
An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound:
an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man
Verbs
English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete.
1. Transitive Verbs
A verb is transitive when the action is carried across to a receiver:
The farmer grows potatoes. Elvis sang ballads.
The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the question “What?” or “Whom? after
the verb. Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads.
2. Intransitive Verbs
A verb is intransitive when the action stays with the verb. It is not carried across to a
receiver:
Corn grows. Elvis sang.
Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change the fact that the action
remains with the subject:
Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all over the world.
Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs.
3. Incomplete Verbs
There are three types of incomplete verbs:
i. being verbs – also called linking or copulative verbs
to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel
Tip: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in doubt, substitute a form of to
be for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is being used as a copulative
verb:
He feels depressed. He is depressed.
He feels the wall. He is the wall.
ii. auxiliary verbs – also called helping verbs
be, have, shall, will, do, and may.
He could have gone earlier.
iii. semi-auxiliary verbs
must, can, ought, dare, need.
You must not go. You dare not go.
Verbs Voice
English verbs are said to have two voices: active and passive.
Active Voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action:

His son catches fly balls. Creative children often dream in class.
Note: Verbs in the active voice may be either transitive or intransitive.
Passive Voice: the subject receives the action:
The ball was caught by the first baseman.
The duty is performed by the new recruits.
The dough was beaten by the mixer.
The mailman was bitten by the dog.
Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. What would be the direct object of
the verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice:
Active voice: The dog bit the mailman. “bit” is a transitive verb. The receiver/direct object is
“mailman.”
Passive voice: The mailman was bitten by the dog. “bit” is now in the passive voice. The
“receiver” has become the subject of the verb.
A passive verb in either present or past tense will always have two parts: some form of the
verb to be (am, is, are, was, were), and a past participle (verb form ending in -ed, -en, or
any form used with have when forming a perfect tense).
Note: The mere presence of the verb to be does not indicate that a verb is in the passive
voice. The test of a verb in the passive voice is the two-part question:
Is the subject performing the action of the verb or is the subject receiving the action of the
verb?
If the subject is receiving the action, then the verb is in passive voice.
Sometimes the passive voice is the best way to express a thought. Used carelessly,
however, passive voice can produce a ponderous, inexact writing style.
Verbs Mood
English verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive.
Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is
expressed.
1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question:

Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
Ostriches cannot fly.
Have you finished your homework?
2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice:
Don’t smoke in this building.
Be careful!
Don’t drown that puppy!
3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to fact.
Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of
“mixed subjunctive” that makes use of helping verbs:
If I should see him, I will tell him.

Americans are more likely to say:
If I see him, I will tell him.

The verb may can be used to express a wish:
May you have many more birthdays.
May you live long and prosper.
The verb were can also indicate the use of the subjunctive:
If I were you, I wouldn’t keep driving on those tires.
If he were governor, we’d be in better fiscal shape.
4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without reference to any subject. It can be
the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the infinitive form is a
fully-functioning verb.
When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the basic form of the verb with
“to” in front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak.
Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending in -ed and -ing.
Verbs in the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as other parts of speech:
To err is human; to forgive, divine. Here, to err and to forgive are used as nouns.

He is a man to be admired. Here, to be admired is an adjective, the equivalent
of admirable. It describes the noun man.
He came to see you. Here, to see you is used as an adverb to tell why he came.
Verbs Tense
Modern English has six tenses, each of which has a corresponding continuous tense.
The first three tenses, present, past, and future, present few problems. Only third person
singular in the present tense differs in form:
Present tense of regular (weak) verbs:
Today I walk. Today he walks.

Yesterday I walked.
Tomorrow I shall/will walk.

The dwindling class of irregular (strong) verbs must be learned individually.
Today I go. Today he goes.

Yesterday I went.
Tomorrow I shall/will go.

The other three tenses, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect, are formed with the
helping verbs have, has, and had.
perfect: used to express an event that has just finished, and to describe an event which,
although in the past, has effects that continue into the present.
Queen Elizabeth has reigned for 56 years.
pluperfect (past perfect): used to express an event that took place before another action,
also in the past.
I had driven all the way to Oklahoma when I realized my mistake.
future perfect: used to express an event that will have taken place at some time in the
future.
As of February 26, I shall have been in this job six years.
For complete conjugation tables of weak and strong English verbs, see the Wikipedia
article.
Adverbs
Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective, clause, or another adverb.

Basically, they modify everything except nouns and pronouns (which are modified by
adjectives).
Example of an adverb modifying a verb: He was running fast. (fast modifies running)
Example of an adverb modifying an adjective: She took a very small piece of the
cake. (very modifies small)
Example of an adverb modifying a sentence: Strangely, the man left the
room. (strangely modifies the whole sentence)
Usually adverbs answer to the questions “When?” (adverbs of time), “Where?” (adverbs of
place), and “How?” (adverbs of manner).
Adverbs can also be used to connect clauses and sentences (in this case they are
called conjunctive adverbs).
For example: It was dark. Therefore, we needed the torch. (therefore connects the two
sentences)
Prepositions
Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronouns to other words within a sentence. The
words linked to are called objects.
Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship between the noun and the
object, like in the example below:
The cat is under the table.

Cat is the noun. Under is the preposition. Table is the object.
Here is a list with the most common prepositions: about, above, after, among, around,
along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into, like, near, of,
off, on, out, over, through, to, up, upon, under, and with.
Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed by the preposition
and its object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb, adjective or noun. For
example:
The dog was running under the rain.

The prepositional phrase “under the rain” acts as an adverb, specifying where the dog was
running.
Conjunctions
A conjunction joins words and groups of words.

There are two classes of conjunction: co-
ordinate or coordinating and subordinate or subordinating.
Co-ordinate conjunctions: and, but, either…or, neither…nor.
Subordinate conjunctions: that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if.
Mother and Father are driving me to New Orleans. (and is a coordinate conjunction joining
words of equal significance in the sentence.
I painted the walls but Jack painted the woodwork. (but is a coordinate conjunction joining
clauses of equal significance in the sentence. Either clause could stand alone as a
sentence.)
Since you can’t get away, we’ll go without you.
(Since is a subordinate conjunction joining a less important thought to a more important
thought. The main clause, we’ll go without you, can stand alone as a complete thought. The
subordinate clause, Since you can’t get away, is an incomplete thought. It is dependent
upon the main clause for meaning.)
Note: The relative pronouns who, whom, which, and that are used in the same way that
subordinate conjunctions are. The difference is that the relative pronouns serve three
purposes at once:
1) they stand for a noun in the main clause
2) they connect the clauses
3) they serve as a subject or object word in the subordinate clause:
He is the man who invented the hula hoop. (who stands for man and is the subject
of invented)
Charles is the boy whom the other children tease. (whom stands for boy and is the object
of tease)
Give me the piece of string that is waxed. (that stands for string and is the subject of
is waxed)
There goes the horse which won the Derby. (which refers to horse and is the subject
of won)
The possessive adjective whose can also be used to join clauses:
That’s the bird whose plumage I admire. (whose refers to bird and describes plumage)
Interjections
Interjection comes from from a Latin word that means “throw between.” It’s a word or
phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion:
Goodness, how you’ve grown!

Darn, I forgot my lunch!
Alas, will he never return?
All the impolite expressions that we call expletives are interjections.
Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It serves no grammatical function
but is rather “a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal” (F.J. Rahtz). Interjections express
feeling or emotion, not thought and have been called “the miserable refuge of the
speechless.”
If you’ve ever stood lunch duty on a high school campus, you know just how vapid
conversation can be when larded with meaningless interjections.
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20 Pairs of One-Word and Two-Word Forms
By Mark Nichol
Many common words and phrases are identical except for a strategic letter space
— apart and “a part” come to mind — and though knowing which form to use in a sentence
is often obvious (as in that example), the difference can be subtle. Here are some of the
less clear-cut pairs:
1. Ahold/a hold: Ahold is a variant of the noun hold, used in such sentences as “I’ll get
ahold of you later.” But when you mean to refer to an actual grip on something, use two
words: “She really has a hold on you.” If it’s hard to decide which form to employ, try this
test: If you can insert an adjective between a and hold, the two-word form is appropriate.
2. Already/all ready: Use the former when you need an adverb, as in “I told you already.”
The latter form is correct in sentences such as “We’re all ready for the party.”
3. Alot/a lot: These two forms are interchangeable except in one significant respect: The
one-word version is wrong. It is used often in informal writing and may one day be
standard, but until you get the official memo, refrain from using it if you want to be taken
seriously as a writer.
4. Alright/all right: See item number 3.
5. Altogether/all together: The one-word form, an adverb, suffices to mean “completely”
or “in total,” as in “Altogether, we saved $100 on the deal.” (It also means “nude” in the
idiomatic phrase “in the altogether.”) The phrase is appropriate for sentences such as “We
are all together in this.”
6. Anybody/any body: The one-word form is a pronoun used in such constructions as “He
doesn’t get along with anybody.” The two-word adjective-noun form is applicable in limited
contexts, such as in the sentence “Any body in motion responds to gravity.”
7. Anymore/any more: The one-word form is used as an adverb in sentences such as “We
don’t go there anymore”; the two-word form consists of the adjective any and the
noun more, as in “I just can’t eat any more of that pie.”
8. Anyone/any one: The one-word form is a pronoun, synonymous with anybody, used as
in “Anyone can make that claim.” “Any one” consists of the adjective any and the noun one,
as in “Any one of you might be next.”
9. Anyplace/any place: The adverb anyplace is a synonym for anywhere: “She won’t let
me go anyplace without her.” The latter usage is an adjective-and-noun phrase that
describes a location: “He doesn’t want to go to any place he can’t smoke.”
10. Anything/any thing: Anything is the likely usage: “I don’t remember anything.” The
two-word adjective-noun form is generally separated by an another adjective: “She’s just
does any little thing she wants.”
11. Anytime/any time: To describe with what frequency something might occur, use the
one-word adverbial form: “Stop by anytime.” The two-word adjective-noun form is preceded
by the word at: “You may leave at any time.”
12. Anyway/any way: Anyway is a synonym for anyhow: “We didn’t want to go anyway.”
The two-word adjective-noun form is preceded by the word in: “That doesn’t change the
results in any way.”
13. Awhile/a while: The noun phrase “a while” and the adverb awhile are virtually
interchangeable in a sentence, though you should precede the two-word form with the word
for: “I think I’ll sit here for a while” and “I think I’ll sit here awhile” mean the same thing.
14. Cannot/can not: Cannot is virtually the only proper alternative. The second usage is
wrong except in the correct awkward construction in the sentence “I can not go,” meaning “I
can decide not to go.”
15. Everyday/every day: The one-word form is an adjective meaning “ordinary,” used to
describe something usual as in “These are my everyday clothes.” The two-word phrase, an
adverb, is used in such sentences as “I go there every day” to explain how something is
done.
16. Everyone/every one: To refer to everybody, use one word: “Everyone’s a critic.” To
emphasize a single individual or item, use two words: “Every one of them is broken.”
17. Everything/every thing: Everything is the default choice: “You’ve ruined everything.”
The two-word adjective-noun form is usually divided by an additional adjective: “Every little
thing she does is magic.”
18. Maybe/may be: The first choice is an alternative to the adverb perhaps; the second is a
verb phrase used in such sentences as “It may be that she was right after all.”
19. Overtime/over time: As one word, this means work done beyond a regular shift: “I’ve
worked overtime several days this week.” As two words, it refers to the passage of time:
“Over time, we’ve seen dramatic changes.”
20. Sometime/some time: The one-word form is an adverb describing vagueness about
when something will happen, as in “I’ll get around to it sometime.”
50 Handy Expressions About Hands
By Mark Nichol
Do you know all these expressions about hands? Most of them are cliches, but using just
about any cliche is forgivable if you do so in a fresh way, or to add a note of humor.
1. “All hands on deck,” from the traditional nautical command for every sailor to report for
duty, refers to the necessity of everyone involved to lend a hand, or assist.
2. To bite the hand that feeds you is to be hostile to someone who has been kind to you.
3. To be a dab hand is, in British English, to be an expert.
4. “The devil makes work for idle hands” is a proverb that means that inactive people are
susceptible to the temptation to do wrong.
5. To know something firsthand is to be directly familiar with the facts.
6. To force someone’s hand is to compel them to act prematurely or involuntarily.
7. Having a free hand is being given wide latitude about how to carry out a task or
responsibility.
8. To gain the upper hand is to obtain control.
9. To get your hands dirty is to engage in a important activity that may not be pleasant.
10. To give a hand is to help, though it also refers to applauding by clapping one’s hands.
11. To give a guiding hand is to offer advice or mentorship.
12. Something that goes hand in hand with something else is closely associated with it.
13. To be in good, or safe, hands is to be assured that you will be taken care of.
14. To hand something down is to offer it to an heir, or to deliver a decision.
15. To hand in something is to deliver it.
16. To work hand in glove is to work together intimately.
17. To hand something off is to pass it along to someone else, with the connotation of
delegating it.
18. To hand something on is to pass it along to someone else in succession.
19. To hand something out is to offer it to recipients.
20. To hand something over is to deliver it to someone in authority, perhaps reluctantly or
unwillingly.
21. To earn money hand over fist is to do so quickly.
22. To hand something to somebody on a platter (often a silver one) is to enable them
to achieve something without effort.
23. To hand something up is to present it to a higher authority, such as grand jury to a
judge.
24. To win hands down is to do so conclusively.
25. To be hands-off is to distance oneself from an activity or project.
26. To be hands-on is to directly involve oneself in an activity or project.
27. To have blood on one’s hands is to be culpable for an act.
28. When you tell someone you have to hand it to them, you’re giving them a compliment.
29. To have your hands full is to be busy.
30. To act with a heavy hand is to do so harshly or with too much force.
31. A heavy-handed gesture or action is one that is lacking in subtlety.
32. When the left hand doesn’t know what the right hand is doing, it means that
communication among associates is poor.
33. To lend a hand is to assist.
34. To know something like the back of one’s hand is to know it thoroughly.
35. To live from hand to mouth is to be poor.
36. To be an old hand is to be familiar with or to be an expert at something.
37. To say that something is on hand is to indicate that it is available.
38. “On the other hand” is a synonym for however or “by contrast.”
39. To overplay your hand is to try too hard to achieve an objective, resulting in failure or
complication.
40. Something that gets out of hand has gone out of control.
41. To play into someone’s hands is to be manipulated by an opponent into doing
something advantageous to that person and detrimental to yourself.
42. “Put your hands up” is a command by law enforcement personnel directing someone
to raise their hands so that they are in clear view and not likely to reach for a weapon.
43. To raise one’s hand is to lift an arm to indicate that one wishes to volunteer to perform
a task or respond to a question.
44. A show of hands is a display of raised hands by those in a group in favor of or
opposed to a proposal.
45. To take someone by the hand is to lead or nurture them.
46. To take the law into your own hands is to seek to right or avenge a wrong yourself
rather than appeal to law enforcement for assistance.
47. To throw your hands up is to figuratively acknowledge defeat or frustration.
48. To be underhanded is to be deceitful.
49. To wash your hands of something is to absolve yourself of responsibility.
50. To say “When one hand washes the other” (the implied conclusion to the phrase is
“and together they wash the face”) is to suggest that cooperation encourages success.
30 Words Invented by Shakespeare
By Michael
William Shakespeare (1564-1616), considered the greatest writer in the English language,
used more than 24,000 words in his writings, more than any other author. Of those words,
more than 1,700 were first used by him, as far we can tell. He may have made up many of
them himself.
How can you possibly understand someone who keeps making up new words? Because
Shakespeare made up his new words from old, familiar words: nouns into verbs, verbs into
adverbs, adverbs into nouns. He added new prefixes and suffixes to existing words. For
example, gloom was already a noun that meant ‘darkness’ and even a verb, but
Shakespeare turned it into a adjective, as in ‘the ruthless, vast and gloomy woods’ in Titus
Andronicus.
Renaissance writers, trying to express classical ideas for the first time in English, often
borrowed words from the classical languages of Greek and Latin, and William Shakespeare
was no exception. Also, in Shakespeare’s day, the rules of English grammar were not yet
formalized, so he was freer to invent his own.
After more than 400 years of changes in the English language, Shakespeare is still beloved
and still understood. Because of his knowledge of essential language, we still know what
the Princess means in Loves Labours Lost when she says (archaically) “Prepare; I will
away tonight,” even though she leaves out the verb “go.”
Here are 30 of the words invented by William Shakespeare, as compiled by my colleague
Maeve in her article Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, each one demonstrated in a sentence from
one of his plays:
1. accommodation: adjustment, adaptation, compromise
Thou art not noble; For all the accommodations that thou bear’st Are nursed by baseness.
– Measure for Measure
2. agile: able to move quickly or easily
His agile arm beats down their fatal points. – Romeo and Juliet
3. allurement: Attractiveness, appeal, enticement.
That is an advertisement to a proper maid in Florence, one Diana, to take heed of the
allurement of one Count Rousillon – All’s Well That Ends Well
4. antipathy: dislike, hatred
No contraries hold more antipathy Than I and such a knave. – King Lear
5. catastrophe: disaster, the dramatic event that begins the resolution of the story
And pat! he comes, like the catastrophe of the old comedy. – King Lear
6. critical: inclined to criticize, extremely important
O gentle lady, do not put me to’t; For I am nothing, if not critical. – Othello
7. demonstrate: show, display, present
And this may help to thicken other proofs That do demonstrate thinly. – Othello
8. dexterously: skillfully, with precision.
Dexterously, good madonna. – Twelfth Night
9. dire: dreadful, dismal, portentous
Hapless Aegeon, whom the fates have mark’d To bear the extremity of dire mishap! –
Comedy of Errors
10. dislocate: to put out of place
They are apt enough to dislocate and tear Thy flesh and bones. – King Lear
11. emphasis: Special weight, attention, forcefulness or prominence given to
something
Be choked with such another emphasis! Say, the brave Antony. – Antony and Cleopatra
12. eyeballs: the eyes
‘Tis not your inky brows, your black silk hair, Your bugle eyeballs, nor your cheek of cream,
– As You Like It
13. emulate: imitate, copy
I see how thine eye would emulate the diamond: – Merry Wives of Windsor
14. exist: to be, to have reality
By all the operation of the orbs From whom we do exist and cease to be; –
King Lear
15. extract: draw out, remove, withdraw,
May it be possible, that foreign hire Could out of thee extract one spark of evil That might
annoy my finger? – Henry V
16. frugal: thrifty, cheap, economical
I was then frugal of my mirth: Heaven forgive me! – Merry Wives of Windsor
17. hereditary: inherited, passed on from parents
Hereditary, rather than purchased; what he cannot change, than what he chooses. –
Antony and Cleopatra
18. horrid: terrible, horrible
He would drown the stage with tears And cleave the general ear with horrid speech;
– Hamlet
19. impertinent: insolent, ill-mannered, irrelevant
In very brief, the suit is impertinent to myself, – Tempest
20. jovial: jolly, cheerful, merry
Be bright and jovial among your guests to-night. – Macbeth
21. meditate: think, contemplate, study
I will meditate the while upon some horrid message for a challenge. – Twelfth Night
22. modest: moderate, slight, humble,
Do not cry havoc, where you should but hunt With modest warrant. Coriolanus
23. mutiny: tumult, strife, rebellion against a legal authority, especially at sea
Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up To such a sudden flood of mutiny.
– Julius Caesar
24. obscene: indecent, offensive, repulsive
O, forfend it, God, That in a Christian climate souls refined Should show so heinous, black,
obscene a deed! – Richard II
25. pedant: a schoolmaster, someone who shows off his knowledge by using big
words
Most villanously; like a pedant that keeps a school i’ the church. – Twelfth Night
26. pell-mell: hasty, uncontrolled, confused
Advance your standards, and upon them, lords; Pell-mell, down with them! – Love’s
Labour’s Lost
27. premeditated: deliberate, planned in advance
Some peradventure have on them the guilt of premeditated and contrived murder; – Henry
V
28. reliance: trust, dependence
And my reliances on his fracted dates Have smit my credit: – Timon of Athens
29. submerged: underwater, below the surface, hidden
So half my Egypt were submerged and made A cistern for scaled snakes! –
Antony and Cleopatra
30. vast: Very large or wide
The sun’s a thief, and with his great attraction Robs the vast sea: – Timon of Athens
Could we make up new words too, and still be understood? In imitation of Shakespeare, I
tried making up a couple – do you understand me?
The anticlean toddler boy.
Though you lamb yourself after your violence, quoth Sherlock, yet before judge and jury I
will unlamb you.
Shakespeare invented many words that might surprise you. In Shakespeare’s
day, friend was already a noun, but Shakespeare turned it into a verb. Befriend is a more
standard verb that expresses the same thing, but a newly-coined word has extra power and
surprise – but unless you do it discreetly, you’ll sound like e e cummings or James Joyce.
Shakespeare also used the word unfriended, centuries before Mark Zuckerberg. The
word swagger, popular with rap musicians, was first used in Henry V and A Midsummer
Night’s Dream, though Shakespeare didn’t invent the word swag.
Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check
 15 Terms for Those Who Tell the Future
 20 Rules About Subject-Verb Agreement
 Woof or Weft?
100 Whimsical Words
By Mark Nichol
The English language can be maddening to native speakers and learners alike, but is also
delightfully rich, especially for those who seek to convey a lighthearted tone in their writing.
Here are 100 words it’s difficult to employ without smiling. Though their meanings may be
obscure, they each present a challenge — I mean an opportunity — for you to paint a vivid
word picture. Imbue your musings with mirth by incorporating these terms:
absquatulate: to flee, abscond

abstemious: restrained in consumption of food and alcohol
balderdash: nonsense
ballyhoo: commotion, hype
bindle stiff: hobo
bodacious: remarkable, voluptuous
borborygmus: sound of intestinal gas
cahoots (in the expression “in cahoots with”): scheming
callipygian: possessing a shapely derriere
cantankerous: irritating, difficult
carbuncle: pustule
caterwaul: to wail or protest noisily
cattywampus: in disarray
cockamamie (also cockamamie): ridiculous
comeuppance: just deserts
concupiscent: possessed of erotic desire
copacetic (also copasetic, copesetic): satisfactory
curmudgeon: ill-tempered (and often old) person
debauchery: sensual gratification
doohickey: gadget or attachment
effluvium: unpleasant smell
factotum: all-around servant or attendant
farrago: confused mixture
festoon: to decorate; dangling decorative chains
finagle: to trick
fisticuffs: fighting with fists
flabbergasted: dumbfounded
flagitious: villainous
flibbertigibbet: flighty person
flummoxed: confused
foible: fault
folderol: nonsense
foofaraw: flash, frills
fusty: moldy, musty, old-fashioned
gallimaufry: mixture, jumble
gallivant: to jaunt or carouse
gobbledygook: nonsense, indecipherable writing
haberdasher: men’s clothier; provider of sundries
harridan: shrewish woman
higgledy-piggledy: in a disorganized or confused manner
high jinks (also hijinks): boisterous antics
hodgepodge: mixture, jumble
hokum: nonsense
hoodwink: to deceive
hoosegow: jail
hornswoggle: to dupe or hoax
hortatory: advisory
hullabaloo: uproar
ignoramus: dunce
imbroglio: confused predicament
jackanapes: impudent or mischievous person
jiggery-pokery: deceit
kerfuffle: disturbance
lackadaisical: bereft of energy or enthusiasm
loggerheads (in the expression “at loggerheads”): quarrelsome
lollygag: to meander, delay
loquacious: talkative
louche: disreputable
lugubrious: mournful, dismal
malarkey (also malarky): nonsense
maleficence: evil
mendacious: deceptive
oaf: clumsy or stupid person
obfuscate: confuse, obscure
obloquy: condemning or abusive language, or the state of being subject to such
obsequious: flattering
orotund: sonorous, or pompous
osculate: to kiss
paroxysm: convulsion or outburst
peccadillo: minor offense
periwinkle: light purplish blue; creeping plant; aquatic snail
perspicacious: astute
pettifogger: quibbler; disreputable lawyer
poltroon: cowardly, coward
prognosticate: to predict
pusillanimous: cowardly
raffish: vulgar
ragamuffin: dirty, disheveled person
rambunctious: unruly
resplendent: brilliantly glowing
ribaldry: crude or coarse behavior
rigmarole (also rigamarole): confused talk; complicated procedure
ruckus: disturbance
scalawag: scamp
scofflaw: lawbreaker
shenanigans: tricks or mischief
skedaddle: flee
skulduggery: devious behavior
spiffy: stylish
squelch: to suppress or silence; act of silencing; sucking sound
subterfuge: deception, or deceptive ploy
supercilious: haughty
swashbuckler: cocky adventurer; story about the same
sylph: lithe woman
tatterdemalion: raggedly dressed person; looking disreputable or decayed
termagant: shrewish woman
whirligig: whirling toy; merry-go-round; dizzying course of events
widdershins (also withershins): counterclockwise, contrary
willy-nilly: by force, haphazardly
Social vs. Societal
By Mark Nichol
What’s the difference between social and societal? Not much, but enough that you may
become the victim of social stigma if you ignore subtle societal signals.
Societal is the pedantic alternative to social. They both mean “pertaining to society,” but as
the latter word, first attested in the Middle Ages, was increasingly used in the modern era to
refer to interpersonal contact rather than in the context of complex forces within human
populations, societal appeared in the latter part of the nineteenth century as a more
serious, scholarly alternative. It is mostly seen in such usage and is otherwise considered
pretentious.
Even now, social is more likely to appear in phrases referring to individuals, not groups,
such as “social disposition,” “social engagement,” and “social life.” Societal, on the other
hand, is employed in contexts like “societal pressure to conform,” though social still has the
same import in usage such as “social institutions,” which refers to widespread traditions,
not venues where people hang out.
Standing phrases that include social also include “social climber,” referring to a person who
tries to rise above his or her station in life; “social disease,” a euphemism for “venereal
disease” (one spread through sexual contact), or any disease whose distribution is related
to socioeconomic factors; and “social drinker,” which denotes a regular imbiber of alcoholic
beverages whose indulgence is not considered excessive.
The most ubiquitous such phrase of the last decade or so, however, is “social
network(ing),” a case of an unfortunate usurpation of a useful term for a diluted sense: In
most contexts, a social network is a virtual web of friends, acquaintances, and colleagues
or professional contacts, enabled by recent technological innovations, that is widely seen
as contributing to a more expansive yet much more superficial outlook on interpersonal
communication and interaction than was prevalent in the past. (Yet the telephone, the
telegram, and other once innovative devices were in their day similarly derided for
weakening the social contract.)
More provocative phrases are “social Darwinism,” the name for the theory that some social
groups are biologically superior to others, and “social engineering,” which has two senses:
large-scale manipulation or influencing of society, or deceptive collection of confidential
personal information.
The ancestor of both words is socius, Latin for “accomplice,” “ally,” or “companion.” Other
terms that stem from this parentage include sociology, which primarily means “the study of
aspects of large groups of people” — the more far-reaching equivalent of psychology,
which focuses on the behavior of individuals — and socialite, a mildly pejorative term for a
person with prominent status in society, usually as a result of abundant wealth. Antisocial,
meanwhile, denotes behavior averse or hostile to society, and asocial refers to someone
who avoids engaging in society.
Socialism is a term coined in the mid-nineteenth century to apply to sometimes competing
ideas of governance, often similar to and often confused with those of communism, in
which the state controls production and distribution of goods and services.
A related term is association, referring to networks of relationships. Interestingly, this term
is the origin of a word for the globally popular sport known in most of the world as football
(or a transliteration such as fussball or futbol) but in the United States called soccer:
Originally, this game, to distinguish it from rugby football (now usually called simply rugby),
was termed “association football.” Slang usage shortened this term to assoc and
later soccer.
20 Rules About Subject-Verb Agreement
By Mark Nichol
Is, or are? Go, or goes? Whether a verb is singular or plural depends on any one of a
complicated set of factors. Here is a roster of rules for subject-verb agreement (or “Here
are some rules . . .”):
1. Use verbs that agree with a subject, not with a noun that is part of a modifying
phrase or clause between verb and subject:
“The pot of eggs is boiling on the stove.”
2. Use singular or plural verbs that agree with the subject, not with the complement
of the subject:
“My favorite type of movie is comedies,” but “Comedies are my favorite type of movie.”
3. Use singular verbs with singular indefinite pronouns — each, the “-bodies,” “-
ones,” and “-things” (anybody, everyone, nothing), and the like:
“Neither is correct.” (And, just as in rule number 1, the presence of a modifier is irrelevant:
“Neither of them is correct.”)
4. Use plural verbs with plural indefinite pronouns:
“Many outcomes are possible.”
5. Use singular verbs with uncountable nouns that follow an indefinite pronoun:
“All the paint is dried up.”
6. Use plural verbs with countable nouns that follow an indefinite pronoun:
“All the nails are spilled on the floor.”
7. Use plural verbs with compound subjects that include and:
“The dog and the cat are outside.”
8. Use plural verbs or singular verbs, depending on the form of the noun nearest the
verb, with compound subjects that include nor or or:
“Either the dog or the cats are responsible for the mess.” (“Either the cats or the
dog is responsible for the mess” is also technically correct but is awkward.)
9. Use singular verbs with inverted subjects that include singular nouns:
“Why is my hat outside in the rain?”
10. Use plural verbs with inverted subjects (those beginning with the
expletive there rather than the actual subject) that include plural nouns:
“There are several hats outside in the rain.”
11. Use singular or plural verbs with collective nouns depending on meaning:
“His staff is assembled,” but “Staff are asked to go to the conference room immediately.”
(In the first sentence, the emphasis is on the body of employees; in the second sentence,
the focus is on compliance by each individual in the body of employees.)
12. Use singular verbs for designations of entities, such as nations or organizations,
or compositions, such as books or films:
“The United Nations is headquartered in New York.”
13. Use singular verbs for subjects plural in form but singular in meaning:
“Physics is my favorite subject.”
14. Use singular or plural verbs for subjects plural in form but plural or singular in
meaning depending on the context:
“The economics of the situation are complicated,” but “Economics is a complicated topic.”
15. Use plural verbs for subjects plural in form and meaning:
“The tweezers are in the cupboard.”
16. Use plural verbs in constructions of the form “one of those (blank) who . . .”:
“I am one of those eccentrics who do not tweet.”
17. Use singular verbs in constructions of the form “the only one of those (blank)
who . . .”:
“I am the only one of my friends who does not tweet.”
18. Use singular verbs in constructions of the form “the number of (blank) . . .”:
“The number of people here boggles the mind.”
19. Use plural verbs in constructions of the form “a number of (blank) . . .”:
“A number of people here disagree.”
20. Use singular verbs in construction of the forms “every (blank) . . .” and “many a
(blank) . . .”:
“Every good boy does fine”; “Many a true word is spoken in jest.”
35 Synonyms for Rain and Snow
By Mark Nichol
A rich variety of words and phrases are available to describe an array of wet weather
conditions. Here are nearly three dozen terms for rain and snow events and their definitions
(some accompanied by other meanings).
1. blizzard: a long, severe snowstorm (also, a sudden burst of something that comes in a
large amount)
2. cloudburst: a brief, sudden, hard rain
3. condensation: conversion of vapor to a liquid or solid state, such as of cloud vapor into
rain (also, the process of making something shorter)
4. deluge: a sudden large amount of rain (also refers to flooding or an inundation of
anything, such as mail delivered to a destination)
5. downfall: a sudden and or heavy rain
6. downpour: a sudden, heavy, continuous burst of rain
7. driving rain: rain pushed by a strong wind
8. drizzle: a light rain of small drops
9. flurry: a brief, light fall of snow (also, a sudden appearance or occurrence, or a brief
period of activity or excitement)
10. hail: small balls or lumps of ice and snow (also, something that suggests the impact of
hail, such as a hail of bullets)
11. hailstorm: a storm that produces hail
12. ice storm: a freezing rain that leaves ice deposits
13. mist: very small drops of floating or falling moisture (also, a spray of moisture or
something that obscures understanding)
14. mizzle: a very fine rain
15. monsoon: very heavy rain associated with a wind that periodically appears throughout
the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia, or the season during which this occurs
16. northeaster (or nor’easter): a rain storm or snowstorm occurring in New England that
originates in the northeast
17. precipitation: water in the form of rain or snow; also abbreviated colloquially as precip
(also, the process of separating a solid from a liquid)
18. rainfall: the amount of rain that falls in a particular area
19. rainstorm: a storm that produces rain
20. Scotch mist: a mixture of mist and light rain
21. scud: a slight, sudden shower, especially one driven by wind
22. sheet: a moving expanse of rain (also, various other meanings pertaining to broad, thin
objects)
23. shower: a short rain of precipitation (also, a fall of meteors or something figuratively
resembling a shower, such as an outpouring of support, or a party given for a woman about
to marry or give birth, or a bath of water showered on the body or the apparatus for such a
bath)
24. sleet: frozen or partly frozen rain
25. snow: ice crystals that fall as precipitation (also, something resembling snow)
26. snowstorm: a storm that produces snow
27. spit: a brief, slight, and perhaps intermittent fall of rain or snow (also, saliva or a similar
excretion)
28. sprinkle: a light rain (also, something dropped in small amounts, such as candy
sprinkles)
29. squall: a heavy rain with wind
30. sun shower: a short rain that occurs during partial cloud cover
31. tempest: a violent rainstorm
32. thundershower: a brief storm accompanied by lightning and thunder
33. thunderstorm: a storm accompanied by lightning and thunder
34. torrent: a large amount of rain (also, a large amount of water or of anything that flows
suddenly)
35. virga: streaks of rain that evaporate before they reach the ground
225 Foreign Phrases to Inspire You
By Mark Nichol
Here’s another writing challenge for you, a sequel to 150 Foreign Expressions to Inspire
You. I’ve listed foreign phrases that eloquently draw, in just a few words, a portrait of a
person or a situation. Some are obscure in their figurative language (esprit d’le escalier,
one of my favorite expressions, refers to the chagrin you feel about coming up with a bon
mot or an insult only after the opportunity to utter it has passed) and may require some
research on the reader’s part, though everyone can identify with them once the meaning is
clear. Others (crise de conscience) are not only universally resonant in our experience but
also transparent.
Once you’ve chosen one expression, use it as a prompt for a short story. Think what you
can do with a story titled “Mole ruit sua” or “Hic illae lacrimae.” (Moliere wrapped an entire
play, one of the greatest ever written, around malade imaginaire.) Alternatively, this post is
a rich mine for a tale featuring an insufferable boor who tosses off foreign expressions ad
arbitrium to advertise his erudition. At the very least, employ these phrases to encapsulate
your characters; the preceding type could be labeled folie de grandeur, or you might
keep faux-naif in mind when writing another character.
1. ab incunabulis: from the cradle
2. a bon chat, bon rat: to a good cat, a good rat (retaliation in kind)
3. a bouch ouverte: with open mouth (eagerly, uncritically)
4. ab ovo usque ad mala: from egg to apples (from beginning to end)
5. a bras ouverts: with open arms
6. ab uno disce omnes: from one learn to know all
7. a coup sur: with sure stroke (surely)
8. acte gratuit: gratuitous impulsive act
9. ad arbitrium: at will (arbitrarily)
10. ad extremum: to the extreme (at last)
11. ad majorem Dei gloriam: to the greater glory of God
12. ad patres: to his fathers (deceased)
13. ad unguem: to the fingernail (exactly)
14. ad utrumque paratus: prepared for either event
15. aegri somnia: a sick man’s dreams
16. aequam servare mentem: to preserve a calm mind
17. aequo animo: with even mind (calmly)
18. aere perennius: more lasting than bronze
19. a huis clos: with closed doors
20. a l’abandon: carelessly
21. a la belle etoile: under the beautiful star (in the open air at night)
22. a la bonne heure: at a good time (all right)
23. a la page: at the page (up to the minute)
24. alter idem: another self
25. a maximis ad minima: from the greatest to the least
26. a marveille: marvelously
27. amicus humani generis: friend of the human race
28. amicus usque ad aras: a friend as far as to the alters (a friend to the last extremity)
29. ami de cour: court friend
30. armamentum ad baculum: argument of the staff (appeal to force)
31. arrectis auribus: with ears pricked up
32. a torte et a travers: wrong and crosswise (without rhyme or reason)
33. au bout de son latin: at the end of one’s Latin (at the end of one’s mental resources)
34. au fait: to the point (socially correct)
35. au grand serieux: in all serious
36. au mieux: on the best terms (on intimate terms)
37. aurea mediocritas: the golden mean
38. auspicium melioris aevi: an omen of a better age
39. ausssitot dit, aussitot fait: no sooner said than done
40. autres temps, autres moeurs: other times, other customs
41. aut vincere aut mori: either to conquer or to die
42. bellum omnium contra onnes: war of all against all
43. bien-pensant: right minded (orthodox)
44. bon gre, mal gre: whether with good grace or bad (willy-nilly)
45. bonis avibus: under good auspices
45. brutum fulmen: insensible thunderbolt (futile threat of display of force)
47. cadit quaestio: the question drops (the argument collapses)
48. capable de tout: capable of anything (unpredictable)
49. cause sine qua non: an indispensable cause or condition
50. cheval de bataille: war-horse (argument constantly relied on)
51. comedie humaine: human comedy (the whole variety of human life)
52. comedie larmoyante: tearful comedy (sentimental comedy)
53. comagnon de voyage: traveling companion
54. compte rendu: report
55. concordia discors: discord
ist of Greek Words in the English Language
By Michael
After French, Latin and Viking (and Old English of course, but that is English), the Greek
language has contributed more words to modern English than any other – perhaps 5%.
Many Greek words sprang from Greek mythology and history. Knowing those subjects was
evidence that a person was educated, so dropping a reference to Greek literature was
encouraged even into the 20th century. From Greek mythology, we get words such as
atlas, chaos, chronological, erotic, herculean, hypnotic, muse, nectar, promethean, and
even cloth.
But most Greek-origin words in English did not come straight from ancient Greek. Many are
modern, not ancient, combinations of Greek root words. For example, you probably know
the telephone was not used by the ancient Greeks. But the word itself is all Greek, made up
of the Greek words for “distant” and “sound.” Besides tele and phon, common Greek roots
include anti, arch, auto, bio, centro, chromo, cyclo, demo, dys, eu, graph, hydro, hypo,
hyper, logo, macro, mega, meta, micro, mono, paleo, para, philo, photo, poly, pro, pseudo,
psycho, pyro, techno, thermo and zoo. Among others.
Comparing the original and the modern meanings of Greek words that became English
words sometimes shows not only how much language has changed, but how much culture
has changed.
1. idiot
Someone of very low intelligence. For the ancient Greeks, an idiot was a private citizen, a
person not involved in civil government or politics. Related: idiosyncracy, idiom, and other
individualistic words.
2. metropolis
The Greek roots of this word are “mother” and “city.” Socrates, convicted in court of
corrupting the youth with his philosophy, was given a choice between drinking poison or
exile from his mother city of Athens. He chose poison because he wasn’t an idiot, in the
ancient sense. If you chose exile, you might be an idiot in the ancient sense, but you would
be a live idiot.
3. acrobat
This circus performer who demonstrates feats of physical agility by climbing to the very top
of the rope gets his name from the Greek words “high” and “walk,” with the sense of “rope
dancer” and “tip-toe.”
4. bacterium
From a Greek word that means “stick” because under a microscope (another Greek word),
some bacteria look like sticks.
5. cemetery
The Greek word koimeterion meant “sleeping place, dormitory.” Early Christian writers
adopted the word for “burial ground,” and that’s why college students stay in the dormitory
and not in the cemetery.
6. dinosaur
You may have heard this one before. Our word for these ancient reptiles is a modern
(1841) combination of the Greek words for “terrible” and “lizard.
7. hippopotamus
The ancient Greeks called this large, moist African animal a hippopótamos, from the words
for “horse” and “river.” In other words, river horse.
8. rhinoceros
Continuing our African theme, this large, dry African animal is named after the Greek words
for “nose” and “horn.” Horns usually don’t grow on noses.
9. history
The Greek word historía meant “inquiry, record, narrative.”
10. dialogue
A monologue has one speaker, but a dialogue doesn’t necessarily have two speakers (that
would be a “di-logue,” but there’s no such word). Dialogue comes from Greek words that
mean “across-talk,” and more than two people can do that if they take turns.
11. economy
The Greek word for “household administration” has been expanded to mean the
management of money, goods, and services for an entire community or nation. But
“economical” still refers to personal thrift.
12. metaphor
In ancient times, this word meant “transfer” or “carrying over.” When my grandfather called
my grandmother a peach, metaphorically speaking, he used a figure of speech that
transferred the sweetness of the fruit to his sweet wife.
13. planet
The ancient Greeks get blamed for everything wrong with astronomy before the
Renaissance, but they were astute enough to notice that while most stars stood still, some
wandered from year to year. The word planet comes from the Greek word for “wandering.”
14. schizophrenia
People with this mental disorder have been described as having a “split personality,” and
the name comes from Greek words for “split” and “mind.” Symptoms may include
hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech.
15. technology
This word was not limited to industry or science until the mid-19th century, during the
Industrial Revolution. Originally it referred to “technique” (same Greek root) or the
systematic study of an art or craft – the art of grammar, at first, and later the fine arts.
16. grammatical
Speaking of grammar, the Ancient Greek word grammatike meant “skilled in writing.” Now it
means “correct in writing.”
17. syntax
A combination of Ancient Greek words that mean “together” and “arrangement.” Syntax is
how words are arranged together.
18. sarcasm
Though it was used to describe bitter sneering, the Greek word sarkazein literally meant “to
cut off flesh,” which you might feel has happened to you when subjected to cutting sarcasm
or critical humor.
19. sycophant
Not a word that I’ve ever used, but you might like it. It means “servile, self-seeking flatterer.”
In ancient Greek, it meant “one who shows the fig.” That referred to an insulting hand
gesture that respectable Greek politicians wouldn’t use against their opponents, but whose
shameless followers could be encouraged to do so.
20. telescope
Another all-Greek word that wasn’t invented by the Greeks, but perhaps by the Dutch
around 1600. Its roots mean “far-seeing” and Galileo Galilei was one of the first
astronomers to use a telescope to see faraway things.
As you can see, Greek is deeply woven into modern English. To prove it, in the late 1950s,
Greek economist Xenophon Zolotas gave two speeches in English, but using only Greek
words, except for articles and prepositions. The results were rather high-sounding, but
mostly comprehensible. As you become more familiar with Greek words, English will be
easier to understand. And probably, more colorful.
75 Synonyms for “Talk”
By Mark Nichol
Talk, talk, talk — it’s all the same. Or is it? There are many ways to talk, and each has its
own word (or words) for it. Here’s a noncomprehensive roster of many synonyms for the
noun and verb forms of talk (I had to stop somewhere):
1. Babble: enthusiastic or excessive talk, or meaningless sounds or nonsense words; to
talk in this manner
2. Back talk: a disrespectful response; to respond disrespectfully
3. Backchat: see back talk, badinage, and gossip
4. Badinage: light, witty talk
5. Banter: see badinage, with a connotation of good-natured teasing or arguing; to engage
in such talk
6. Barb: a hurtful and/or critical comment
7. Blandish: see cajole
8. Blandishments: see cajolery/cajolement
9. Blarney: nonsensical talk
10. Bluster: boastful or threatening talk; to speak boastfully or threateningly
11. Cackle: see chatter (verb only)
12. Cajole: to persuade with soothing or flattering remarks
13-14. Cajolery/cajolement: talk with the intent to persuade
15. Causerie: see chat (noun only)
16. Chaff: see badinage; also, to tease good-naturedly
17. Chat: an idle or inconsequential conversation; to engage in such talk
18. Chatter: quick, extensive, and/or aimless talk; to talk in such a manner
19. Chin music: see chat (noun only)
20. Chinwag: informal talking; to talk informally
21. Chitchat: see badinage
22. Circumlocution: evasive or verbose talk
23. Comment: an opinion or observation; to say something of this type
24. Confab: see chat (also, a formal meeting)
25. Confabulation: see chat and confab (also, something made up)
26. Confer: to exchange opinions or seek advice
27. Conference: a meeting, or an event consisting of presentations and/or meetings
28. Confess: to admit to a thought or action considered improper or shameful
29. Conversation: a talk between or among two or more people
30. Converse: to speak back and forth with one or more people
31. Crack: an uncomplimentary comment; also, to quickly say something, as when
spontaneously telling a joke pertinent to a situation
32. Dig: see crack
33. Discuss: to engage in serious talk
34. Discussion: a serious talk
35. Dish: see gossip
36. Double-talk: intentionally confusing or ambiguous language, or talk that is at least
partially meaningless; to engage in such talk
37. Fast-talk: to persuade or influence by deceptively authoritative and/or flattering speech
38. Flibbertigibbet: see gossip
39. Gab: see chatter
40. Gabfest: talking consisting of gab
41. Give-and-take: an exchange of ideas or comments
42. Gossip: see chat, with an additional connotation of talk or talking about the personal
lives of one or more other people (also, someone who engages in such talk)
43. Jangle: see chat
44. Jaw: see chat
45. Jest: a humorous or mocking statement; to make such a statement
46. Natter: see chat
47. Negotiate: to talk in order to reach an agreement
48. Negotiation: a talk in which the speakers seek to reach an agreement
49. Palaver: a discussion or conference, especially one between unequal participants, or
deceptive speech, or see chat; to talk idly, try to persuade or deceive, or come to terms
50. Parley: see confer, with the possible connotation of talk between antagonists to agree
to terms to cease hostilities; to engage in such talk
51. Patter: quick or monotonous speech, as in delivering a humorous speech or in rote
delivery of prayers; to speak in this manner
52. Pillow talk: romantic talk, such as would be engaged in while the speakers are in bed
53. Pleasantry: polite, inconsequential talk, or see banter and jest (nouns only)
54. Quip: a spontaneous observation or response; to say something of this type
55. Raillery: see banter and jest
56. Rap: see chat and patter
57-58. Recital/recitation: public delivery of read or memorized material, or of details or
answers
59. Recite: to deliver read or memorized material, or details or answers
60. Remark: a statement of judgment or opinion, or a reference to something notable; to
comment in this manner
61. Repartee: an exchange of clever, witty statements, a single such response, or skill in
talking in this manner
62. Schmooze: see chat, with the connotation of one conducted so as to gain personal or
professional advantage; to talk in this manner
63. Small talk: see badinage
64. Spit: to talk about things or opinions a listener disagrees with or disapproves of
65. Straight talk: frank, straightforward talk
66. Sweet nothings: flattering talk intended to charm a potential or existing romantic
partner
67. Sweet talk: talk intended to persuade, or to endear oneself to the speaker; to engage in
this kind of talk (the verb form is hyphenated)
68. Table talk: informal talking such as that heard during a dinner party
69. Tete-a-tete: an intimate or private talk
70. Waggery: see banter and jest
71. Wisecrack: a clever or sarcastic comment; to make such a comment
72. Wordplay: witty, playful talk
73. Yack: to talk at length
74. Yammer: to talk relentlessly, or to complain
75. Yap: excessive talk (also, slang for mouth)
I’ll follow up with a list of more elaborate idioms about talk and talking like “shoot the
breeze,” but let me (and other site visitors) known which synonyms I missed.
Threw and Through

By Maeve Maddox
When I read the expression “through me for a loop” in a recent comment, I can tell you, it
threw me for a loop!
I decided to cruise the web and see if this version of the expression had become common.
It has.
Admittedly most of the usage I found occurs in comments to articles, in forums, and on the
sites of non-professional writers, but it’s out there:
…when… myspace page came up, it through me for a loop.
This question through me for a loop with its emphasis on reflective transfer.
…something happened yesterday that really through me for a loop.
I must admit the appearance of wood through me for a loop.
The menu through me for a loop.
Since such things are catching, I’ll review the difference between threw and through.
The word threw is the simple past of the verb to throw, “to propel through the air”:
throw threw (have) thrown
The word through is a preposition used to indicate penetration or passage:
The bullet traveled through the vest. The hikers crawled through the low tunnel.
To throw someone for a loop is to confuse or shock a person. To knock someone for a loop
has the same meaning:
The news of her advisor’s death knocked her for a loop.
The words threw and through are pronounced alike, but, so far anyway, they have
different spellings in standard English.
How Do You Fare?
By Maeve Maddox
In an article about the different functioning of the two sides of the brain, I read this:
People with this type of “wiring” usually fair very well in school due to the auditory teaching.
The word wanted here is fare since the writer means that people who learn a certain way
“get on” or “perform” well in school.
The word fare in this sense is from the Old English verb faran, “to journey.” In modern
usage, to fare usually doesn’t mean “to travel,” but we do still talk about seafarers, “those
who travel on the sea,” and wayfarers, those who travel along the roads. A popular 19th
century hymn was “A Poor Wayfaring Man of Grief” by James Montgomery (1771-1854)
George Coles (1792-1858).
Also from faran is the word farewell, now a synonym for goodbye. It’s a shortening of “may
you fare well.” According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, farewell was
usually said to the departing person, who replied with good-bye.
Sometimes one hears the expression “not so much as a fare-thee-well” as in He left for
Greece without so much as a fare-thee-well!
The spelling fair can be used as a verb (dialect) in reference to the weather as in Looks
like it’s going to fair up, or as a craft term meaning “to make fair, level, or smooth.”
In modern usage, to fare usually means “to do” or “to get along“:
How did you fare on your exam?
I don’t think he’s faring too well in his new job.
Note: This post is concerned with the use of fare as verb. Both fare and fair are used as
other parts of speech.
12 Types of Language
By Mark Nichol
A variety of terms distinguish the kinds of languages and vocabularies that exist outside the
mainstream of standard, formal language. Here are twelve words and phrases that denote
specific ideas of language usage.
1. Argot
An argot is a language primarily developed to disguise conversation, originally because of a
criminal enterprise, though the term is also used loosely to refer to informal jargon.
2. Cant
Cant is somewhat synonymous with argot and jargon and refers to the vocabulary of an in-
group that uses it to deceive or exclude nonusers.
3. Colloquial Language
Anything not employed in formal writing or conversation, including terms that might fall
under one or more of most of the other categories in this list, is a
colloquialism. Colloquial and colloquialism may be perceived to be pejorative terms, but
they merely refer to informal terminology.
Colloquial language — whether words, idiomatic phrases, or aphorisms — is often
regionally specific; for example, variations on the term “carbonated beverage” —
including soda, pop, and coke — differ in various areas of the United States.
4. Creole
A creole is a more sophisticated development of a pidgin, derived from two or more parent
languages and used by people all ages as a native language.
5. Dialect
A dialect is a way of speaking based on geographical or social factors.
6. Jargon
Jargon is a body of words and phrases that apply to a specific activity or profession, such
as a particular art form or athletic or recreational endeavor, or a medical or scientific
subject. Jargon is often necessary for precision when referring to procedures and materials
integral to a certain pursuit.
However, in some fields, jargon is employed to an excessive and gratuitous degree, often
to conceal the truth or deceive or exclude outsiders. Various types of jargon notorious for
obstructing rather than facilitating communication are given names often appended with
-ese or -speak, such as bureaucratese or corporate-speak.
7. Lingo
This term vaguely refers to the speech of a particular community or group and is therefore
loosely synonymous with many of the other words in this list.
8. Lingua Franca
A lingua franca is a language often adopted as a common tongue to enable communication
between speakers of separate languages, though pidgins and creoles, both admixtures of
two or more languages, are also considered lingua francas.
9. Patois
Patois refers loosely to a nonstandard language such as a creole, a dialect, or a pidgin,
with a connotation of the speakers’ social inferiority to those who speak the standard
language.
10. Pidgin
A simplified language arising from the efforts of people speaking different languages to
communicate is a pidgin. These languages generally develop to facilitate trade between
people without a common language. In time, pidgins often evolve into creoles.
11. Slang
A vocabulary of terms (at least initially) employed in a specific subculture is slang. Slang
terms, either invented words or those whose meanings are adapted to new senses,
develop out of a subculture’s desire to disguise — or exclude others from — their
conversations. As US society becomes more youth oriented and more homogenous, slang
becomes more widespread in usage, and subcultures continually invent new slang as older
terms are appropriated by the mainstream population.
12. Vernacular
A vernacular is a native language or dialect, as opposed to another tongue also in use,
such as Spanish, French, or Italian and their dialects as compared to their mother
language, Latin. Alternatively, a vernacular is a dialect itself as compared to a standard
language (though it should be remembered that a standard language is simply a dialect or
combination of dialects that has come to predominate).
100 Words for Facial Expressions
By Mark Nichol
Face it — sometimes you must give your readers a countenance-based clue about what a
character or a subject is feeling. First try conveying emotions indirectly or through dialogue,
but if you must fall back on a descriptive term, try for precision:
1. Absent: preoccupied
2. Agonized: as if in pain or tormented
3. Alluring: attractive, in the sense of arousing desire
4. Appealing: attractive, in the sense of encouraging goodwill and/or interest
5. Beatific: see blissful
6. Bilious: ill-natured
7. Black: angry or sad, or see hostile
8. Bleak: see grim and hopeless
9. Blinking: surprise, or lack of concern
10. Blissful: showing a state of happiness or divine contentment
11. Blithe: carefree, lighthearted, or heedlessly indifferent
12. Brooding: see anxious and gloomy
13. Bug eyed: frightened or surprised
14. Chagrined: humiliated or disappointed
15. Cheeky: cocky, insolent
16. Cheerless: sad
17. Choleric: hot-tempered, irate
18. Coy: flirtily playful, or evasive
19. Crestfallen: see despondent
20. Darkly: with depressed or malevolent feelings
21. Deadpan: expressionless, to conceal emotion or heighten humor
22. Dejected: see despondent
23. Derisive: see sardonic
24. Despondent: depressed or discouraged
25. Doleful: sad or afflicted
26. Dour: stern or obstinate; see also despondent
27. Downcast: see despondent
28. Dreamy: distracted by daydreaming or fantasizing
29. Ecstatic: delighted or entranced
30. Etched: see fixed
31. Faint: cowardly, weak, or barely perceptible
32. Fixed: concentrated or immobile
33. Furtive: stealthy
34. Gazing: staring intently
35. Glancing: staring briefly as if curious but evasive
36. Glaring: see hostile
37. Glazed: expressionless due to fatigue or confusion
38. Gloomy: see despondent and sullen
39. Glowering: annoyed or angry
40. Glowing: see radiant
41. Grim: see despondent; also, fatalistic or pessimistic
42. Grave: serious, expressing emotion due to loss or sadness
43. Haunted: frightened, worried, or guilty
44. Hopeless: depressed by a lack of encouragement or optimism
45. Hostile: aggressively angry, intimidating, or resistant
46. Hunted: tense as if worried about pursuit
47. Impassive: see deadpan
48. Inscrutable: mysterious, unreadable
49. Jeering: insulting or mocking
50. Languid: lazy or weak
51. Leering: see meaningful; also, sexually suggestive
52. Meaningful: to convey an implicit connotation or shared secret
53. Mild: easygoing
54. Mischievous: annoyingly or maliciously playful
55. Moody: see sullen
56. Pained: affected with discomfort or pain
57. Pallid: see wan
58. Peering: with curiosity or suspicion
59. Peeved: annoyed
60. Petulant: see cheeky and peeved
61. Pitying: sympathetic
62. Pleading: seeking apology or assistance
63. Pouting: see sullen
64. Quizzical: questioning or confused
65. Radiant: bright, happy
66. Roguish: see mischievous
67. Sanguine: bloodthirsty, confident
68. Sardonic: mocking
69. Scornful: contemptuous or mocking
70. Scowling: displeased or threatening
71. Searching: curious or suspicious
72. Set: see fixed
73. Shamefaced: ashamed or bashful
74. Slack-jawed: dumbfounded or surprised
75. Sly: cunning; see also furtive and mischievous
76. Snarling: surly
77. Sneering: see scornful
78. Somber: see grave
79. Sour: unpleasant
80. Stolid: inexpressive
81. Straight-faced: see deadpan
82. Sulky: see sullen
83. Sullen: resentful
84. Taunting: see jeering
85. Taut: high-strung
86. Tense: see taut
87. Tight: see pained and taut
88. Unblinking: see fixed
89. Vacant: blank or stupid looking
90. Veiled: see inscrutable
91. Wan: pale, sickly; see also faint
92. Wary: cautious or cunning
93. Wide eyed: frightened or surprised
94. Wild eyed: excited, frightened, or stressful
95. Wistful: yearning or sadly thoughtful
96. Withering: devastating; see also wrathful
97. Woeful: full of grief or lamentation
98. Wolfish: see leering and mischievous
99. Wrathful: indignant or vengeful
100. Wry: twisted or crooked to express cleverness or a dark or ironic feeling
20 Names of Body Parts and Elements and Their Figurative
Meanings
By Mark Nichol
In past weeks, I’ve compiled lists of figurative meanings of the names of sense
organs, parts of the head, and parts of the hand. Here’s a roster in which I’ve accumulated
such references for other parts and elements of the body.
1. Arm: something resembling an arm in form and/or function, a part of a garment covering
the arm, might or power or ability, a component or division, or support
2. Blood: refers to kinship or lineage, or to a quality intrinsic to someone because it’s
supposedly a hereditary trait, or to bloodshed; as a verb, refers to providing a hound with a
scented object to prompt a hunt, or to introducing to bloodshed or killing
3. Bone: the core, essence, or heart of something, or the design or framework of a
composition, or a subject (usually in the idiom “bone of contention”) or an inclination or
talent or, more often, the lack thereof (“I don’t have an artistic bone in my body”), or
something intended to placate (“Throw him a bone”)
4. Breast: the location of emotion, something resembling a breast, or part of a garment that
covers the literal breast (the sometimes-synonym chest first referred to a box and then was
applied, by association, to the section of the body)
5. Foot: something resembling a foot in form and/or function, a lower or opposite end or
edge or the bottom of something, a standard length, a unit of meter in verse, or a step or
speed
6. Heart: courage or fortitude or persistence, affection or compassion or feelings, the center
or essential or vital part of something, or a stylized representation of the organ, or one or
more playing cards featuring such a symbol or a card game focusing on this suit
7. Hip: an angle of an intersection of parts of a roof
8. Intestine: the phrase “intestinal fortitude,” describing courage, derives from the
association of the intestines with bravery (compare the informal synonym guts)
9. Leg: a limblike component, the part of an article of clothing or footwear that covers the
leg, part of a journey or race, or one competition among several similar events, or long-term
appeal or interest
10. Liver: a grayish and reddish brown, and seen in the expression “lily livered,” meaning
“cowardly”
11. Lungs: a respiratory aid or device, or a variation of the literal meaning referring to
someone’s capacity for producing loud sounds
12. Muscle: physical force, especially for intimidation or persuasion; as a verb, to infiltrate
(often in the phrase “muscle in”)
13. Neck: a geographical or structural feature resembling a neck, or a narrow margin (as in
the finish of a race), or, informally, a part or region; as a verb, to narrow, or to caress and
kiss passionately
14. Shoulder: the side of an artificial or natural structure, as the shoulder of a road or of a
mountain; as a verb, to push aside, or to bear, as with responsibility
15. Stomach: courage or fortitude, or desire or inclination, or appetite; in verb form, to put
up with or withstand
16. Torso: an artistic representation of the human trunk, or something incomplete or
damaged
17. Vein: a channel of water or a bed of mineral in rock or ice, or a quality or style, or an
aptitude or mood
18: Viscera: in the adjectival form, visceral, corresponds to the adjective gut (for example,
“gut feeling”), meaning “instinctive” (as in “She had a visceral sense that she was in
danger”); alternatively, it means “earthy” (“The movie has a visceral tone, with its coarse
characters and rough action”)
19. Waist: something resembling a waist in form and/or function (as part of an aircraft or
marine vessel), an article (or part of an article) of clothing worn on or around the waist, or a
line around the waist or a measurement of the line
20. Womb: a space resembling a womb in form and/or function, or the literal or figurative
birthplace of an idea, product, or other physical or intellectual creation
Inquire vs Enquire
By Ali Hale
One of our readers, Susabelle wrote to ask:
Can you take on explaining the difference between “inquire” and “enquire?”
These are two spellings of the same word, which means to seek information about
something or to conduct a formal investigation (usually when followed by “into”). The
corresponding noun is enquiry or inquiry.
Either spelling can be used, but many people prefer enquire and enquiry for the general
sense of “ask”, and inquire and inquiry for a formal investigation:
 I enquired his name
 The first enquiry in my inbox today was about lost property.
 We are going to inquire into the incident.
 The lawyers asked when the inquiry will be completed.
In practice, enquire and enquiry are more common in British English,
and inquire and inquiry are more common in US English, for both informal questions and
formal investigations. However, the Guardian (a British newspaper) tells writers
to “use inquiry” and the Oxford English Dictionary seems to recognise inquire as the more
dominant form, deeming enquiry:
”An alternative form of INQUIRE. The mod. Dicts. give inquire as the standard form, but
enquire is still very frequently used, esp. in the sense ‘to ask a question’.”
So, it’s up to you which spelling you use, though if you’re writing for a particular publication,
it’s worth asking about their house style. Sticking with inquire is probably best if you’re at
all unsure, and whichever you pick, be consistent!
Quotation with Inquire and Enquire
… or if we are called to your home; Ziman said. Even in misdemeanor arrest situations, we
are not going to inquire about immigration status. The department does pursue that
avenue in conjunction with the federal … (www.chicagotribune.com)
… Mr. Sessions’s overlooked role as a key witness in the investigation into whether Mr.
Trump tried to obstruct the inquiry itself. It also suggests that the obstruction investigation
is broader than it is widely understood to be … (www.nytimes.com)
… to publicly pressure Mr. Mueller to stick to that timeline and trying to assuage the
president by predicting the inquiry will end soon, a strategy that some of his other lawyers
tried, with mixed results. … (www.nytimes.com)
Philisophical enquiry allows children the opportunity to discuss a topic or issue as a class,
regardless of their background or ability to speak English. (www.theguardian.com)
50 Incorrect Pronunciations That You Should Avoid
By Maeve Maddox
Fred Astaire drew laughs back in the Thirties with his song “Let’s Call the Whole Thing Off”
in which the lovers can’t agree on the pronunciation of words like either, neither,
and tomato.
On a personal level, I cringe when I hear someone sound the “t” in often or
pronounce pecan with a short “a,” but I have to acknowledge that both these pronunciations
are widely accepted alternate pronunciations that can be justified by the spelling.
Alternate pronunciations, however, are a different matter from out-and-out
mispronunciations. The latter, no matter how common, are incorrect, either because of the
spelling that indicates another pronunciation, or because of what is widely agreed upon to
be conventional usage. Word of caution: I’m writing from an American perspective.
Here are 50 frequently mispronounced words. The list is by no means exhaustive, but
provides a good start.
1. aegis – The ae in this word is pronounced /ee/. Say EE-JIS/, not /ay-jis/. In mythology
the “aegis” is associated especially with the goddess Athene. It is her shield with the
Gorgon’s head on it.
2. anyway – The problem with this word is not so much pronunciation as the addition of an
unnecessary sound. Don’t add an s to make it “anyways.” The word is ANYWAY.
3. archipelago – Because the word is from Greek, the ch is pronounced with a /k/ sound.
Say /AR-KI-PEL-A-GO/, not /arch-i-pel-a-go/.
4. arctic – Note the C after the R. Say /ARK-TIK/, not /ar-tik/.
5. accessory – the first C has a “hard” sound. Say /AK-SESS-OR-Y/, not /ass-ess-or-y/.
6. ask – The S comes before the K. Say /ASK/ not /aks/.
7. asterisk – Notice the second S. Say /AS-TER-ISK/, not /as-ter-ik/.
8. athlete – The word has two syllables, not three. Say /ATH-LETE/, not /ath-uh-lete/.
9. barbed wire– Notice the AR in the first syllable. Say /BARBD/, not /bob/.
10. cache – The word is of French origin, but it does not end with an accented syllable. A
cache is a hiding place or something that is being hidden: a cache of supplies; a cache of
money; a cache of drugs. Say /KASH/, not /ka-shay/.
11. candidate – Notice the first d. Say /KAN-DI-DATE/, not /kan-i-date/.
12. cavalry – This word refers to troops that fight on horseback. Say /KAV-UL-RY/, not
/kal-vuh-ry/. NOTE: Calvary refers the place where Jesus was crucified and IS
pronounced /kal-vuh-ry/.)
13. chaos – The spelling ch can represent three different sounds in English: /tch/ as in
church, /k/ as in Christmas, and /sh/ as in chef. The first sound is heard in words of English
origin and is the most common. The second sound of ch, /k/, is heard in words of Greek
origin. The third and least common of the three ch sounds is heard in words adopted from
modern French. Chaos is a Greek word. Say /KAY-OS/, not /tchay-os/.
14. clothes – Notice the TH spelling and sound. Say /KLOTHZ/, not /kloz/.
15. daïs – A daïs is a raised platform. The pronunciation fault is to reverse the vowel
sounds. The word is often misspelled as well as mispronounced. Say /DAY-IS/ not /dī-is/.
16. dilate – The word has two syllables, not three. Say /DI-LATE/, not /di-a-late/.
17. drowned – This is the past participle form of the verb drown. Notice that there is no D
on drown. Don’t add one when using the word in its past form. Say /DROWND/, not /drown-
ded/.
18. et cetera – This Latin term is often mispronounced and its abbreviation is frequently
misspelled. Say /ET CET-ER-A/, not /ex cet-er-a/. For the abbreviation, write ETC., not ect.
19. February – Just about everyone I know drops the first r in February. The spelling calls
for /FEB-ROO-AR-Y/, not /feb-u-ar-y/.
20. foliage – The word has three syllables. Say /FO-LI-UJ/, not /fol-uj/.
21. forte – English has two words spelled this way. One comes from Italian and the other
from French. The Italian word, a musical term meaning “loud,” is pronounced with two
syllables: /FOR-TAY/. The French word, an adjective meaning “strength” or “strong point,”
is pronounced with one syllable: /FORT/.
22. Halloween – The word for the holiday Americans celebrate with such enthusiasm on
October 31 derives from “Hallowed Evening,” meaning “evening that has been made holy.”
The word “hallow” comes from Old English halig, meaning “holy.” Notice the a in the first
syllable and say /HAL-O-WEEN/, not /hol-lo-ween/.
23. height – The word ends in a /T/ sound, not a /TH/ sound. Say /HITE/, not /hith/.
24. heinous – People unfamiliar with the TV show Law and Order: S.V.U. may not know
that heinous has two syllables. (The show begins with this sentence: “In the criminal justice
system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous.”) Say /HAY-NUS/,
not /heen-i-us/.
25. hierarchy – The word has four syllables. Say /HI -ER-AR-KY,/ not /hi-ar-ky/.
26. Illinois – As with Arkansas, the final “s” in Illinois is not pronounced. Say /IL-I-NOY/
(and /Ar-kan-saw/, not /il-li-noiz/ or /ar-kan-sas/). NOTE: Some unknowledgeable folks may
still be trying to pronounce Arkansas as if it had something to do with Kansas. The
pronunciation /ar-kan-zuz/ is waaay off base.
27. interpret – The word has three syllables. Don’t add one! Say /IN-TER-PRET/, not /in-
ter-pre-tate/.
28. incident – Something that happens is an “incident.” Don’t say “incidence” when you
mean a specific event. There IS a word “incidence,” but it has a different meaning.
29. “irregardless” – See the real word, regardless.
30. jewelry – The word has three syllables. Say /JEW-EL-RY/, not /jew-el-er-y/. The
pronunciation /jewl-ry/ is common but not correct, as it removes one syllable from the word.
31. library – Notice where the R comes in the word. Say /LI-BRAR-Y/, not /li-ber-ry/.
32. medieval – The word has four syllables. The first E may be pronounced either short
[med] or long [meed]. Say /MED-EE-EEVAL/ or /MEE-DEE-EEVAL/, not /meed-eval/.
33. miniature – The word has four syllables. Say /MIN-I-A-TURE/, not /min-a-ture/.
34. Mischievous – This is the adjective form of mischief whose meaning is “calamity” or
“harm.” Mischievous is now associated with harmless fun so that the expression “malicious
mischief” has been coined as another term for vandalism. Mischievous has three syllables
with the accent on the first syllable: /MIS-CHI-VUS/. Don’t say /mis-chee-vee-us/.
35. niche – The word is from the French and, though many words of French origin have
been anglicized in standard usage, this is one that cries out to retain a long “e” sound and a
/SH/ sound for the che. Say /NEESH/, not /nitch/.
36. orient – This word has three syllables. As a verb it means to place something in its
proper position in relation to something else. It comes from a word meaning “east” and
originally meant positioning something in relation to the east. Now it is used with a more
general meaning. Say /OR-I-ENT/, not /or-i-en-tate/.
37. old-fashioned – This adjective is formed from a past-participle: “fashioned.” Don’t
leave off the ED. Say /OLD-FASHIOND/, not /old-fashion/.
38. picture – There’s a K sound in picture. Don’t confuse picture with pitcher. Say /PIK-
TURE/, not /pitch-er/. Pitcher is a different word. A pitcher is a serving vessel with a handle.
39. precipitation – This is a noun that refers to rain or snow, or anything else that normally
falls from the sky. As with prescription (below), the prefix is PRE-. Say /PRE-CIP-I-TA-
TION/, not /per-cip–i-ta-tion/.
40. prescription – Note the prefix PRE- in this word. Say /PRE-SCRIP-TION/, not /per-
scrip-tion/ or /pro-scrip-tion/.
41. preventive – The word has three syllables. A common fault is to add a syllable. Say
PRE-VEN-TIVE/, not /pre-ven-ta-tive.
42. pronunciation – This word is a noun. It comes from the verb pronounce, BUT it is not
pronounced like the verb. Say /PRO-NUN-CI-A-TION/, not /pro-nounce-i-a-tion/.
43. prostate – This word for a male gland is often mispronounced. There is an
adjective prostrate which means to be stretched out facedown on the ground. When
speaking of the gland, however, say /PROS-TATE/, not /pros-trate/.
44. Realtor – The word has three syllables. Say /RE-AL-TOR/, not /re-a-la-tor/.
45. regardless – The word has three syllables. Please don’t add an IR to make it into the
abomination “irregardless”.
46. sherbet – The word has only one r in it. Say /SHER-BET/ not /sher-bert/.
47. spayed – This is a one-syllable word, the past participle form of the verb to spay,
meaning to remove the ovaries from an animal. Like the verb drown (above) the
verb spay does not have a D in its infinitive form. Don’t add one to the past participle.
Say /SPADE/, not /spay-ded/.
48. ticklish – The word has two syllables. Say /TIK-LISH/, not /tik-i-lish/.
49. tract – Religious evangelists often hand out long printed statements of belief called
“tracts.” That’s one kind of “tract.” Houses are built on “tracts.” Then there’s the word
“track.” Athletes run on “tracks.” Animals leave “tracks.” Don’t say /TRAKT/ when you mean
/TRAK/, and vice-versa.
50. vehicle – Although there is an H in the word, to pronounce it is to sound hicky. Say
/VEE-IKL/, not /vee-Hikl/.
51. wintry – Here’s another weather word often mispronounced, even by the weather
person. The word has two syllables. Say /WIN-TRY/, not /win-ter-y/.
Got any to add to the list?
Confusing “Passed” with “Past”
By Maeve Maddox
Reader Peggy Lanahan asks
Is it correct to say, “how does the food always get passed the bib? or past the bib”?
The frequent confusion between the words passed and past is understandable. They are

pronounced alike and have similar meanings. Careful writers need to find some trick for
remembering the difference.
Both words derive from the same Latin noun: passus “step, pace.” From that noun came a
Vulgar Latin verb passare “to step” or “to walk.” English took the word from Old
French passer.
The form passed is the past participle of the verb to pass.
Pass can be used transitively:
I passed the church on my way to the store.
or intransitively:
He passed through life without a care.
Intransitive pass is also used as a euphemism for “die,” as in When did your father pass?
The word past can be used as an adjective:
Don’t hold grudges for past offenses.
as an adverb:
I thought he would stop, but he just ran past.
and as a preposition:
How does the food always get past the bib?
For more on Past vs Passed, read this post by Ali.
40 Synonyms for “Lie”
By Mark Nichol
Humans may not be the only species capable of deception, but we’re probably the most
sophisticated animals when it comes to lying, and our languages contain many words to
describe variations of untruth. Here’s a roster of synonyms in English for referring to lies
and similar creations:
1. Bluff: a statement intended to deceive or confuse

2. Canard: an unsubstantiated story or report
3. Deceit: a deceptive statement
4. Deception: A statement or action intended to mislead
5. Distortion: a deviation from the true meaning, or an overstatement of proportion
6. Equivocation: a misleading or confusing statement based on the possibility of differing
interpretations
7. Exaggeration: an overstatement or overemphasis
8. Fable: a fictitious statement or story, in the sense of something made up to explain or
justify an unmerited action or state of affairs
9. Fabrication: a made-up fact or incident
10. Fairy tale: a misleading story, especially a simplistic one that would not be expected to
deceive anyone
11. Fallacy: a deceptive or erroneous statement; also, a false idea or a flawed argument
12. Falsehood: something untrue or inaccurate
13. Falsification: an alteration of facts in order to deceive
14. Falsity (see falsehood)
15. Fib: a simple, perhaps transparent lie
16. Fiction: an invented statement or story
17. Half-truth: a statement with some basis in truth that nevertheless serves to deceive
18. Humbug: a false, deceptive, or nonsensical statement
19. Invention: a statement crafted to deceive
20. Jive: a deceptive, insincere, or nonsensical statement
21. Libel: a written or similarly presented lie that defames a person
23. Mendacity: an act of lying
23. Misconception: a poor understanding, perhaps deliberate, of a fact
24. Misinformation: a purported fact presented with the intent to deceive
25. Misinterpretation: a deviation from the facts or from a reasonable analysis of them
26. Misreport: an inaccurate account
27. Misrepresentation: an erroneous or unfair interpretation of facts
28. Misstatement: an inaccurate or erroneous comment
29. Myth: a perpetuated notion, belief, or tradition that is suspect or unfounded
30. Obliquity: a deviation from the truth to obscure or confuse
31. Perjury: a lie presented under oath
32. Pose: a false or deceptive position or self-representation
33. Pretense: an unsupported claim, an insincere purpose or intention, or a superficial
effort
34. Prevarication: a deviation from the truth
35. Slander: an injuriously false statement about a person
36. Story: a lie, or a rumor
37. Tale: a false representation
38. Taradiddle: nonsense (also, see fib)
39. Untruth: a deviation from truth or the facts
40. Whopper: an outsized lie
Writing Prompts 101
By Simon Kewin
Even if you are not a professional writer you probably already
heard about writing prompts. They represent a very effective tool for any writing project, so
it’s a good idea to know how to use them.
What Is A Writing Prompt?

If you’re a fiction writer, you may want to consider using writing prompts to kick-start your
creativity. A writing prompt is simply a topic around which you start jotting down ideas. The
prompt could be a single word, a short phrase, a complete paragraph or even a picture,
with the idea being to give you something to focus upon as you write. You may stick very
closely to the original prompt or you may wander off at a tangent.
You may just come up with rough, disjointed notes or you may end up with something more
polished and complete, a scene or even a complete story. The point is to simply start
writing without being held back by any inhibitions or doubts.
Here are four good reasons for writing to prompts :
1. Sometimes it’s hard to start writing when faced with a blank page. Focusing on an
unrelated prompt for a while helps get the creative juices flowing. If you write for just ten
minutes on a prompt, you should then find it easier to return to the piece you intended to
write. You may also find that if you stop trying to think so hard about what you wanted to
write and switch you attention to the prompt instead, the words and ideas for your original
piece start to come to you after all.
2. The things you write in response to a prompt may also end up as worthwhile
material in their own right. The prompt may give you ideas from which a complete story
grows or you may get fresh ideas for another piece you are already working on. It’s often
surprising how much material you come up with once you start.
3. Writing to a prompt regularly helps to get you into the habit of writing. This can act
as a sort of exercise regime, helping to build up your “muscles” so that you start to find it
easier and easier to write for longer and longer.
4. Prompts can be a great way to get involved in a writing community. Sometimes
writing groups offer a prompt for everyone to write about, with the intention being for
everyone to come up with something they can then share. This can be a source of great
encouragement, although knowing that others will read what you have written can also
inhibit your creativity.
Examples of Writing Prompts
The following are twenty writing prompts that you could use to spark your imagination. If
you want to use one, don’t worry about where the ideas take you or whether what you’ve
written is “good”. The point is just to get into the flow of writing. You can come back later
and polish if you wish to.
1. It was the first snowfall of the year.

2. He hadn’t seen her since the day they left High School.
3. The city burned, fire lighting up the night sky.
4. Silk.
5. She studied her face in the mirror.
6. The smell of freshly-cut grass.
7. They came back every year to lay flowers at the spot.
8. The streets were deserted. Where was everyone? Where had they all gone?
9. This time her boss had gone too far.
10. Red eyes.
11. Stars blazed in the night sky.
12. He woke to birdsong.
13. ‘Shh! Hear that?’ ‘I didn’t hear anything.’
14. He’d always hated speaking in public.
15. She woke, shivering, in the dark of the night.
16. The garden was overgrown now.
17. He’d never noticed a door there before.
18. She’d have to hitch a ride home.
19. ‘I told him not to come back too!’
20. His feet were already numb. He should have listened.
Where To Find Writing Prompts Online
The internet is a wonderful source of writing prompts. There are sites dedicated to
providing them which a quick search will turn up. Examples include :
 CreativeWritingPrompts.com
 WritersDigest.com
 Creative-Writing-Solutions.com
Perhaps even more valuable are the lists compiled by authors and websites. Here are
some suggestions:
 200+ Writing Prompts to Inspire You

There are numerous blogs that offer a regular writing prompt to inspire you and where you
can, if you wish, post what you’ve written. Examples include :
 SundayScribblings.blogspot.com
 DragonWritingPrompts.blogspot.com
There are also many other sites that can, inadvertently, provide a rich seam of material for
writing prompts – for example news sites with their intriguing headlines or pictorial sites
such as Flickr.com that give you access to a vast range of photographs that can prompt
your writing.
If you’re on Twitter, there are users you can follow to receive a stream of prompts, for
example :
 twitter.com/writingprompt
 twitter.com/NoTelling
 twitter.com/writingink
Another idea is just to keep an eye on all the tweets being written by people all over the
world, some of which can, inadvertently, be used as writing prompts.
How To Make Your Own Writing Prompts

You can find ideas for writing prompts of your own from all sorts of places : snatches of
overheard conversation, headlines, signs, words picked from a book and so on. Get used
to keeping an eye out for words and phrases that fire your imagination, jot them down and
use them as writing prompts to spark your creativity. You never know where they might
take you.
Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check
 50 Incorrect Pronunciations That You Should Avoid
 How to Punctuate with “However”
 Capitalizing Titles of People and Groups
How to Punctuate with “However”
By Mark Nichol
However are you going to keep this information straight? The usage of punctuation
with however may seem confusing; however, the distinctions are straightforward.
However has several distinct uses. In all but one, it is an adverb — a word that modifies a
verb. One adverbial use is much more common and syntactically variable than the other: It
can appear at any of several points in a sentence to signal that a counterpoint will follow.
For example, after the sentence “My point was valid,” the following sentence might appear:
“However, its significance was lost in the ensuing argument.”
However can also be introduced after the subject of the sentence: “Its significance,
however, was lost in the ensuing argument.” Alternatively, it can be appended to the end of
the sentence as a tag: “Its significance was lost in the ensuing argument, however.”
The two statements from the first paragraph could also be combined into one sentence:
“My point was valid; however, its significance was lost in the ensuing argument.” (Here,
too, however can be placed after the subject in the second independent clause or at the
end of it.) Note that the semicolon takes the place of the period because these two
statements are so closely related that they need not be segregated into separate
sentences, but because however is an interjection, the comma following the word must be
retained.
Although one could write, following a sentence such as “He scoffed at my comment,” the
statement “My point was valid, however,” a simple comma following however is incorrect if
an independent clause follows. That is why “My point was valid, however, its significance
was lost in the ensuing argument” is erroneous: However seems to refer to the first
independent clause, but it is introducing the second one.
None of the other uses of however, which are relatively rare, requires a comma: The other
adverbial uses are as a synonym for “to whatever degree (or extent),” as in “I have been
aware of that for however many years,” and as an intensifier equivalent to the expression
“how in the world,” as in “However did you know I was going to say that?”
The other use of however is as a conjunction. It can be a synonym for “no matter how,” as
in “My point, however you look at it, is valid” or for “in whatever manner or way that,” as in
“They will assist us however they can.”
Latin Words and Expressions: All You Need to Know
By Daniel Scocco
Even though Latin is considered a dead language (no country officially speaks it), its
influence upon other languages makes it still important. Latin words and expressions are
present in virtually all the languages around the world, as well as on different scientific and
academic fields.
Below you will find a list with the most used and important Latin words and expressions,
enjoy!
Common Latin Words
alibi: elsewhere
alter: another
bellum: war
bonus: good
borealis: northern
corpus: body
derma: skin
dies: day
domus: home/house
ego: I/me
erectus: upright
gens: family
homo: human
malus: bad
magnus: great
nemo: nobody
omnis: everything
pax: peace
primus: first
qui: who
rex: king
sapiens: wise
terra: earth
tempus: time
virtus: virtue
vivo: live
vox: voice
Latin/Greek Numeral Prefixes
semi: half
uni: one
duo, bi: two
tri, tris: three
quadri, tetra: four
penta: five
hexa: six
hepta: seven
octo: eight
ennea: nine
deca: ten
Other Latin/Greek Prefixes
ad: towards
ambi: both
endo: within
extra: in addition to
exo: outside
hyper: over
hypo: under
infra: below
inter: between
intro: within
iso: equal
liber: free
macro: large
micro: small
mono: single
multi: many
omni: all
proto: first
poli: many
tele: distant
trans: across
General Latin Expressions
a priori: from the former. If you think something a priori, you are conceiving it before seeing
the facts. Presupposing.
ad hoc: to this. Ad hoc refers to something that was creating for a specific purpose or
situation. An ad hoc political committee, for instance, is formed for one specific case.
ad infinitum: to infinity. Something that goes ad infinitum keeps going forever. You could
say that your wife hassles you ad infinitum, for example.
ad valorem: to the value. This expressed is used when something is related to the value of
an object or transaction, like an ad valorem tax which is proportional to the value of the
product.
ceteris paribus: other things being equal. This expressions if often used in economics
where, in order to impact of something on the economy (e.g., inflation or unemployment),
you need to hold other variables fixed.
de facto: common in practice, but not established by law. For example, English is the de
facto official language of the United States.
honoris causa: for the sake of the honour: This is an honorary degree where an academic
institution grants a doctorate to someone without the formal requirements (exams and the
like). Usually the person receiving the degree has connections with the University or has
made important achievements in a certain field.
in toto: entirely.
mutatis mutandis: with necessary changes. This expression is used to express agreement
to something that, however, still need to be changed or amended.
per se: by itself. If something exists per se, for instance, it exists by itself, regardless of
external factors.
sic: thus. Sic is usually used in newspapers or other publications (placed within square
brackets [sic]) to indicate that the spelling error or unusual phrase on a quotation was
reproduced as it was in the source, and therefore it is not an editorial error.
vice versa: the other way around. If you write “John loves Mary, and vice versa,” it means
that Mary also loves John.
Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum): which was to be demonstrated. This Latin
abbreviation is often used at the end of mathematical theorems in order to demonstrate that
proof is complete.
Legal Latin Expressions
bona fide: good faith. In contract law, for instance, parties must always act in good faith if
they are to respect the obligations.
de jure: by law. Some states are currently working on legislation that would make English
the de jure official language of the United States.
dictum (plural dicta): a statement that forms part of the judgment of a court.
obiter dicta: a judge’s opinion offered in the course of a judgment but having no legal
force.
ex parte: from, by, or for one party in a dispute. An ex parte decision is one decided by a
judge without requiring all of the parties to the controversy to be present.
habeas corpus: (we command that) you bring forth the body. In this case, the “body”
(corpus) refers to a living person who is being held in prison. The phrase has nothing to do
with producing the corpse of an allegedly-murdered person.
ipso facto: by the fact itself. Parents who have deliberately mistreated their child are ipso
facto unfit custodians.
mens rea: guilty mind. The U.S. legal system requires that when a crime is committed, the
perpetrator must have the intention to commit the crime. For example, a driver who strikes
and kills a pedestrian because of faulty brakes is guilty of manslaughter, but not of murder.
There was no intent to kill so the mind was not guilty. On the other hand, the wife who
repeatedly runs over her husband with her SUV is guilty of murder because of her mens
rea.
pro bono: (the original phrase is pro bono publico) for the public good. Sometimes high-
priced lawyers come forward to defend suspects who would otherwise have to take their
chances with someone from the Public Defender’s office. They work on the case pro bono,
i.e., they don’t charge a fee.
prima facie: by first instance – this refers cases with sufficient evidence to warrant going
forward with an arraignment.
quid pro quo: something for something. For example, the ADAs (assistant district
attorneys) make deals with criminals, giving them shorter sentences in exchange for
information that will enable them to convict other criminals. Another example of quid pro
quo might occur between two lawyers, each of whom gives up some advantage to gain
another.
Famous Latin Phrases
divide et impera: Divide and reign. It was a theory proposed by Niccolò Machiavelli and
used previously by the Roman Senate to dominate the Mediterranean.
alea jacta est: the die is cast: This famous phrase was said by Julius Caesar upon
crossing the Rubicon. Caesar was violating a law of the Roman Empire, hence why he was
playing with luck.
veni vidi vici: I came, I saw, I conquered. Another phrase said by Julius Caesar, this time
upon the victory over Pharnaces, king of Pontus.
cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am. This phrase was originally said in French by René
Descartes, and it represents a corner-stone of the Western philosophy. The Latin
translation is more widely used, though.
carpe diem: seize the day. This phrase comes from a poem by Horace. The phrase was
made famous when it was used on the movie Dead Poets Society.
deus ex machina: God out of a machine. In ancient Greece when a plot was complicated
or tangled, the play writers would just insert a God in the final act in order to solve all the
problems. Usually a crane machine was used to drop the actor on stage, hence the name.
homo homini lupus: man is a wolf to men. This phrase was originally said by Plauto, but
other philosophers also used it, including Bacon and Hobbes. The meaning is quite straight
forward.
This article was written collaboratively by Daniel and Maeve. If you think there is Latin word
or expression missing just let us know and we will update it.
Ulterior and Alterior
By Maeve Maddox
A reader brought alterior to my attention by asking if a use of “ulterior motive” he read in an

article should have been “alterior motive.”
Although I found several speculative “definitions” of alterior on various sites, neither the
OED nor Merriam-Webster offers an entry for this word.
Because it seems always to occur with motive or motives, I conclude that alterior is an error
for ulterior.
The adjective ulterior derives from Latin ulterior: “further, more distant.” An ulterior motive is
one that lies beyond the apparent motive. For example, when a popular product develops a
feature that makes the product more convenient, the apparent motive is to make the
product easier for the customer to use. The ulterior motive is to earn more money by selling
more merchandise.
The mistaken use of alterior is especially common on sites related to emotional
involvements, television, sports, and political opinion. Here are some examples, with
corrections:
INCORRECT: I’m not convinced he’s doing anything out of the kindness of his heart for
women or anyone. Feels like he always has alterior motives.—Soap opera blog.
CORRECT : I’m not convinced he’s doing anything out of the kindness of his heart for
women or anyone. Feels like he always has ulterior motives.
INCORRECT: The thing that bothers me the most is that there is no honesty or real
emotion into anything that they say. Everything they say has an alterior motive.—Therapy
blog.
CORRECT : The thing that bothers me the most is that there is no honesty or real emotion
in anything that they say. Everything they say has an ulterior motive.
INCORRECT: People like to put on fronts and might have alterior motives when you don’t
have a shared history that can easily fool you.—Quora user.
CORRECT : People like to put on fronts and might have ulterior motives when you don’t
have a shared history that can easily fool you.
INCORRECT: The [remarks of] the salesman sounded like they came from a politician. He
seemed to dodge every question, whether it be from lack of knowledge or alterior
motives I don’t know.—Yelp review.
CORRECT : The [remarks of] the salesman sounded like they came from a politician. He
seemed to dodge every question, whether it be from lack of knowledge or ulterior
motives I don’t know.
INCORRECT: I usually appreciate good sportsmanship, but that was just weird. It was very
obvious that there was an alterior motive, because of the way the groups were
separated. —TV fan blog.
CORRECT : I usually appreciate good sportsmanship, but that was just weird. It was very
obvious that there was an ulterior motive, because of the way the groups were
separated.
Educational vs. Educative
By Maeve Maddox
A reader asks,
Is there any difference between the adjectives educational and educative? I’m beginning to

see the latter in contexts where I’d expect the former.
My first response to the question was that educative is simply a less familiar word
for educational. Both the OED and Merriam-Webster indicate that this is so:
OED
educational adjective: 1. Of or relating to the provision of education; educational.
2. Serving or intended to educate or enlighten; educational.
M-W
educational adjective: 1. having to do with education; educational. 2. tending to educate;
instructive.
However, when I explored uses of educative on the Web, I began to sense that the word
might have acquired a meaning other than educational. Here are some examples:
A Values-Engaged, Educative Approach for Evaluating Education Programs
An Educative Approach to Behavior Problems: A Practical Decision Model for Interventions

With Severely Handicapped Learners
A humanistic-educative approach to evaluation in nursing education
A textbook publisher explains its use of educative this way:

Curriculum materials for Grades K–12 that are intended to promote teacher learning in
addition to student learning have come to be called educative curriculum materials.
Although my Oxford Thesaurus gives instructive and educational as synonyms
of informative, the writer of an academic paper with the title “Can and Should Educational
Research be Educative?” offers to prove that “research cannot be educative, only
informative.”
In some contexts, educative is paired with holistic or pragmatic, as in this chapter title:
Ethics and ethical theory in educative leadership: A pragmatic and holistic approach.
The effect of pairing educative with pragmatic or holistic is to suggest that educative is

“practical and wide-ranging”—as opposed to educational, which implies “theoretical,
impractical, and narrow.”
As far as I can make out, the use of educative is closely tied to what educators now refer to
as “action research.”
Back in my days as a classroom teacher, when large numbers of my students failed a test,
I would analyze their papers and revise my lessons in an effort to get better results next
time. That, apparently, was a form of “action research.” What I learned by examining my
unsuccessful practice for the purpose of improving my methods was educative, as opposed
to merely educational or informative.
I conclude that the new meaning of educative is “of educational value to the person or
persons doing a systematic study of their work methods with the intention of getting better
results.”
Both Google and Word view the word educative with suspicion, sometimes underlining it in
red or green.
When your intended meaning is instructive or “relating to education,” go with educational.
Leave educative to speakers of Educationese.
Here are some synonyms of educational as in “an educational experience”:
instructive,
informative
illuminating
enlightening
edifying
Awoken or Awakened?
By Maeve Maddox
Carson Buckingham requests a post on
“awake in all its bizarre forms—-awokened???????”
The past tense of the verb awake gives lots of people fits. Should it be “awoken” or
“awakened”? The same confusion attaches to the verbs awaken, wake, and waken.
In modern usage, all of these verbs may be used intransitively or transitively:
awake
intransitive: to come out of the state of sleep; to cease to sleep
transitive: to arouse (someone) from sleep.
awaken
intransitive: to arise or spring into existence
transitive: to rouse from sleep
wake
intransitive: to be or remain awake; to keep oneself, or be kept, awake
transitive: to rouse from sleep or unconsciousness
waken
intransitive: to cease to sleep; to become awake
transitive: To rouse (a person or animal) from sleep or unconsciousness.
Confusion about the past tense forms stems from the fact that the words evolved from two
Old English verbs, one of which was “strong” and one of which was “weak.”
Note: Certain OE “strong” verbs developed past tense forms that end in -en in modern
English. OE “weak” verbs developed past tense forms that end in -ed in modern English. In
the case of awake and wake, we may choose to use either the strong or the weak endings:
awake / awoke / (have) awoken
awake / awaked / (have) awaked
wake / woke / (have) woken
wake / waked / (have) waked
In the case of awaken and waken, the weak ending is standard.
awaken / awakened / (have) awakened
waken / wakened / (have) wakened
Although these words mean more or less the same thing, I think they’ve all remained in the
language because they express different slivers of meaning about waking and
wakefulness.
Wake, wake up, and waken are possibly the most commonly used words for the literal act
of rousing a sleeper.
Around 6 a.m. the technician returns to wake the patient and remove the sensors.
Why does Atticus wake the children in the middle of the night?
Getting your teenager to wake up in the morning
your cries have woken the master
I have woken up in the middle of the night not being able to breathe…
The thunder woke me.
I was woken by the thunder.
Next comes waken:
In 29% of patients, the pain is severe enough to waken the patient.
I often waken in the night and can’t go back to sleep.
Just when you thought there was nothing going on, the sun is going to waken!
Awake and Awaken are also used for the literal waking of a sleeper, but in addition, these
words carry literary and theological connotations that simple wake does not. Sinners are
exhorted to awaken to their transgressions. Self-help gurus show us how to awaken
various aspects of our personalities:
How to Awaken your Divine Intuition
How to Awaken Your Inner Child
Awaken the Writer Within
Both awake and awaken are popular title words:
When We Dead Awaken
Awaken the Giant Within
14 Steps to Awaken the Sacred Feminine
Awake
The sleeper awakes
And of course, there’s Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening.”
Journalists use awaken to establish a serious tone:

Omar Bongo’s Demise Should Awaken Continent’s Tyrants
Oil spill should awaken us to nuclear danger.
This grave incident should awaken society to rid itself of prejudice.
Here are a few more examples showing the different forms in action. You may find that you
want to use different words for transitive and intransitive use.
transitive
Don’t wake the baby.
Don’t waken the baby.
She woke the patient at 3 a.m.
Has she waked the patient for her meds?
You have woken the patient too soon!
The alarm never wakes him.
Have you awakened the guards?
intransitive
Sometimes I wake in the night.
Sometimes I waken in the night.
Sometimes I awake in the night.
Sometimes I awaken in the night.
I awoke at midnight.
Bottom line: Choose the form or forms you prefer. There’s so much confusion and
disagreement about these words and their past tense forms that you ought to be safe no
matter what you decide. (As long as you stay away from inventions like “awokened.”)
41 Words That Are Better Than Good
By Michael
The soul of writing is specificity, yet all too often, we lean on general-purpose words instead
of choosing the most precise ones. Most of our daily communication probably depends on
less than 1,000 words. Of course, that includes words such as you, I, is, are, of, and for,
which are already the best words for the job. I admit that sometimes in conversation, I
deliberately limit my vocabulary because I don’t want others to look at me quizzically: “Who
does he think he is, anyway: one of the authors of a writing tips blog?” The result is vague,
even boring, conversation, using words so general, they could fit almost everything in the
world.
How was your trip? Fine.
How do you feel? Good.
Choosing other words is no improvement, if we always choose the same words. A world
where everything is cool or awesome is not much more interesting than a world where
everything is fine or good.
So let’s buck the trend. Here are 41 alternatives to good that can’t be used to describe
everything in the world because they each have specific meanings, or at least,
different connotations.
1. breathtaking – amazing, surprising, astonishing, enough to make you gasp with
pleasure, and almost enough to make you forget to breathe.
2. choice – preferred, prized, specially selected. In New Zealand, the exclamation
“Choice!” is used similarly to “Great!” in the United States.
3. dazzling – amazing, splendid, brilliant, shining so bright that it’s hard to see it.
4. delectable – highly delicious, usually describing food, from the Latin for “delight.”
5. delightful – causing joy, delight or pleasure, producing positive emotion, with the
same Latin root as “delectable.”
6. deluxe – high quality, related to luxury, from the Latin for “excess.”
7. enjoyable – pleasant, bringing pleasure and satisfaction – bringing joy.
8. excellent – superior, best in its class, of the highest quality, making a person shout
“Excelsior!”
9. exceptional – uncommon, rare, and better for being so.
10. exemplary – an example of high quality, a model for others.
11. fine – delicate, exquisite, almost as good as it gets. Related to the French and Latin
words for “finished” and “exact.” Overused until often it merely means “acceptable.”
12. exquisite – exceptionally fine or rare, with the sense of extreme
13. favorable – helpful, encouraging, positive, convenient, such as getting hoped-for
results.
14. first-rate – exceptionally good, in the highest class. Describing a British naval
vessel with more than 100 guns.
15. first-string – the starting players on a sports team; that is, the best of them. Many
other expressions begin with the word first.
16. five-star – from the hotel rating system in which a five-star hotel is among the
world’s best.
17. formidable – causing awe, respect, wonder or even fear, perhaps because it’s so
large or strong.
18. gilt-edged – high quality, from the practice of putting a thin layer of gold on the
edges of a book.
19. gratifying – pleasing, satisfying, making someone content.
20. incredible – amazing, beyond belief, almost too good to be true.
21. luxurious – fine or comfortable, such as an expensive hotel room. I use it to show
gratitude for a gift that is too fancy for my tastes.
22. magnificent – splendid, elegant, noble. From the Latin word for “great deeds.”
23. opulent – showy, extravagant, magnificent, sumptuous – more than luxurious, with
the sense of “more than you really need”
24. pleasing – giving cheer, pleasure, or enjoyment – something that pleases you
25. positive – certain, good, favorable. Currently used in expressions such as “positive
energy” or “positive vibes.”
26. precious – beloved, valuable, worthy, of high price. “Precious” writing is euphuistic:
overly cute and takes itself too seriously.
27. prime – first, as in first quality.
28. rare – uncommon, scarce, and therefore valuable. The gravestone of an influential
English playwright is inscribed with the (misspelled) tribute “O rare Ben Johnson”.
29. satisfying – sufficient, pleasing, more than adequate.
30. select – privileged, specially chosen, high-quality.
31. shipshape – well-organized, fully prepared, meticulous, tidy. Before you embark on
an ocean voyage, you want your ship to be in shape.
32. sound – healthy, solid, secure, complete. If a floor is sound, you won’t fall through.
33. sterling – of high, verifiable value, as in sterling silver, which is 92.5% pure silver.
Originally referring to British coins, which had a star or a starling on them in the Middle
Ages.
34. striking – impressive, memorable, calling to mind the striking of a coin.
35. sumptuous – costly, expensive, as in a meal with many courses of great variety.
We’ve got a whole article about sumptuous.
36. top-notch – belonging to the highest level, possibly from some 19th century game
that used notches to keep score.
37. subtle – clever and crafty, though that’s an older meaning. A subtle flavor is not
overbearing, and the chef will be pleased if you tell him so.
38. up to snuff – meeting the standard, adequate, sharp. Snuff is a more expensive
powdered tobacco, which was sniffed by higher-class gentlemen as a stimulant in the 19th
century.
39. valuable – worthy of esteem, having high worth or value.
40. welcome – anticipated, a pleasure to see, received with gladness, as in “welcome
news.” From the Old English for “a wished-for guest.”
41. well-made – built right, properly constructed, sound.
When to use “on” and when to use “in”
By Maeve Maddox
Nate asks: What are the proper usages of the words “in” and “on” in a sentence? I often
confuse the two. Here are some examples: “The boat is in/on the water,” “We are in/on the
planet,” “We’re going to the concert in/on July 1st.”
The use of prepositions in English is frequently idiomatic. General guidelines exist, but be
prepared to learn individual expressions in which the preposition does not adhere to the
guidelines.
In the case of the prepositions in and on, here are the most usual uses.
In
in mainly denotes “rest at”:
PLACE: He lives in the country. He lives in Chicago. (BUT, He lives at 2300 Wabash Ave.)
TIME: I’ll be there in an hour.
MANNER: The child ran down the steps in tears.
REFERENCE: In my opinion we need a referendum. They are happy in their marriage.
On
on indicates proximity and position above or outside:
PLACE: He sat on the fence.
TIME: He was not thinking well on that occasion.
REFERENCE: He asked my opinion on the matter.
CONDITION: We’ll hire him on your recommendation.
The examples given in the question:
We are on the planet.
We are going to the concert on July 1.
But
We are going to the concert in July.

As for the example about the boat, either is correct, according to what is meant:
The boat is in the water. (As opposed to being on dry land for the winter)
The boat is on the water. (Look at all those boats out there on the water!)
However, it would be unidiomatic to say The ship is in the ocean or in the sea, unless you
mean that it has sunk. The ship is on the sea.
Related to the question of when to use in is that of when to use into. While in denotes the
state of being “at rest” in a place, or at least being (in a sense) surrounded by
something, into denotes motion towards:
The dog jumped into the water.
The children (who were already in the water) jumped in the water.
When deciding whether to use in or into, ask yourself if the person or thing you are talking
about is moving from one place to another. If so, use into.
More about prepositions in later posts. Stay tuned!
Comma Before Too?

By Jacquelyn Landis
Most of us were taught to place a comma before a sentence-ending “too”:
We’re going shopping, out to dinner, and then to a movie, too.
But is that comma really necessary? “Too” in this context means “also,” but you’re not likely
to see the sentence written like this:
We’re going shopping, out to dinner, and then to a movie, also.
No one seems to know how this particular quirk started, but it’s firmly entrenched in our
over-cluttered writers’ brains. Even journalists do it, and modern-day practice is to strip
news stories of as many commas as possible without hopelessly obfuscating meaning. Still,
that niggling comma before “too” persists.
The editors at the Chicago Manual of Style share their opinion:

Use commas with too only when you want to emphasize an abrupt change of thought:
He didn’t know at first what hit him, but then, too, he hadn’t ever walked in a field strewn
with garden rakes. In most other cases, commas with this short adverb are unnecessary.
The bottom line is, there’s no clear rule that either specifies using the comma or forbids it.
It’s the writer’s choice. The rules of grammar don’t often allow writers to have choices. It’s
kind of nice to be thrown a bone from time to time.
100 Beautiful and Ugly Words
By Mark Nichol
One of the many fascinating features of our language is how often words with pleasant
associations are also quite pleasing on the tongue and even to the eye, and how many
words, by contrast, acoustically and visually corroborate their disagreeable nature — look
no further than the heading for this post.
Enrich the poetry of your prose by applying words that provide precise connotation while
also evoking emotional responses. (Note the proportion of beautiful words to ugly ones in
the compilation below; it’s easier to conjure the former than the latter, though I omitted
words associated with bodily functions, as well as onomatopoeic terms.)
Notice how often attractive words present themselves to define other beautiful ones, and
note also how many of them are interrelated, and what kind of sensations, impressions,
and emotions they have in common. Also, try enunciating beautiful words as if they were
ugly, or vice versa. Are their sounds suggestive of their quality, or does their meaning
wholly determine their effect on us?
Beautiful Words
Amorphous: indefinite, shapeless

Beguile: deceive
Caprice: impulse
Cascade: steep waterfall
Cashmere: fine, delicate wool
Chrysalis: protective covering
Cinnamon: an aromatic spice; its soft brown color
Coalesce: unite, or fuse
Crepuscular: dim, or twilit
Crystalline: clear, or sparkling
Desultory: half-hearted, meandering
Diaphanous: gauzy
Dulcet: sweet
Ebullient: enthusiastic
Effervescent: bubbly
Elision: omission
Enchanted: charmed
Encompass: surround
Enrapture: delighted
Ephemeral: fleeting
Epiphany: revelation
Epitome: embodiment of the ideal
Ethereal: celestial, unworldly, immaterial
Etiquette: proper conduct
Evanescent: fleeting
Evocative: suggestive
Exuberant: abundant, unrestrained, outsize
Felicity: happiness, pleasantness
Filament: thread, strand
Halcyon: care-free
Idyllic: contentedly pleasing
Incorporeal: without form
Incandescent: glowing, radiant, brilliant, zealous
Ineffable: indescribable, unspeakable
Inexorable: relentless
Insouciance: nonchalance
Iridescent: luster
Languid: slow, listless
Lassitude: fatigue
Lilt: cheerful or buoyant song or movement
Lithe: flexible, graceful
Lullaby: soothing song
Luminescence: dim chemical or organic light
Mellifluous: smooth, sweet
Mist: cloudy moisture, or similar literal or virtual obstacle
Murmur: soothing sound
Myriad: great number
Nebulous: indistinct
Opulent: ostentatious
Penumbra: shade, shroud, fringe
Plethora: abundance
Quiescent: peaceful
Quintessential: most purely representative or typical
Radiant: glowing
Redolent: aromatic, evocative
Resonant: echoing, evocative
Resplendent: shining
Rhapsodic: intensely emotional
Sapphire: rich, deep bluish purple
Scintilla: trace
Serendipitous: chance
Serene: peaceful
Somnolent: drowsy, sleep inducing
Sonorous: loud, impressive, imposing
Spherical: ball-like, globular
Sublime: exalted, transcendent
Succulent: juicy, tasty, rich
Suffuse: flushed, full
Susurration: whispering
Symphony: harmonious assemblage
Talisman: charm, magical device
Tessellated: checkered in pattern
Tranquility: peacefulness
Vestige: trace
Zenith: highest point
Ugly Words
Cacophony: confused noise

Cataclysm: flood, catastrophe, upheaval
Chafe: irritate, abrade
Coarse: common, crude, rough, harsh
Cynical: distrustful, self-interested
Decrepit: worn-out, run-down
Disgust: aversion, distaste
Grimace: expression of disgust or pain
Grotesque: distorted, bizarre
Harangue: rant
Hirsute: hairy
Hoarse: harsh, grating
Leech: parasite,
Maladroit: clumsy
Mediocre: ordinary, of low quality
Obstreperous: noisy, unruly
Rancid: offensive, smelly
Repugnant: distasteful
Repulsive: disgusting
Shriek: sharp, screeching sound
Shrill: high-pitched sound
Shun: avoid, ostracize
Slaughter: butcher, carnage
Unctuous: smug, ingratiating
Visceral: crude, anatomically graphic
What did I miss? Add to these lists in a comment below.
Best Websites to Learn English
By Sharon
Whether you are learning English as a second language or trying to polish your already
adequate grammar and style skills, the seven websites below can help.
1. Memrise
Memrise is an online flashcard website where people can upload their own flashcard
stacks. You can find a range of topics ranging from Geography to Electronics to Fashion.
These flashcards are great if you want to learn English vocabulary for specific topics, as the
majority of flashcards come with pictures and sounds to aid your learning.
Even if you know English very well, Memrise can help you learn higher-level English, with
flashcards covering SAT and GRE English, and more.
2. Duolingo
If your first language is not English, and you are confused about where to go first, I suggest
Duolingo. Duolingo is a language-learning website that transforms the language-learning
process into a game. You are given tasks like matching words to flashcards, picking the
most appropriate word for a sentence, writing what you hear, and more, all in your native
language.
Duolingo will help you take your English abilities in reading, writing, listening, and speaking,
to a basic conversational level once you finish the course. From there, you can take the
reverse course, translating from English into your native language. The learning never
stops at Duolingo. I often find myself redoing the courses to solidify my abilities.
3. Dictionary.com
Everyone, at one time or another, needs a dictionary. There are hundreds of thousands of
words in the English language and not many people know them all. Everyone, from the
most basic of beginners to the more advanced speakers of the English language, should
bookmark Dictionary.com for future reference.
You never know when you will need to learn what a word means, like hesperidium. Use
that in a sentence!
4. Readable.io
Sometimes, the best learning happens when we teach ourselves. It is one thing to learn
from others, but we can really solidify the lessons learnt by going over our own mistakes,
and correcting them.
Readable.io checks your typed text for you, highlighting your ease and ability at writing.
Using readability scores, text analytics, keyword densities, and sentiment analysis, you can
learn where your writing skills are lacking, and how to correct them. This website can be a
very valuable tool for the self-taught writer. I used it all throughout school on academic
paper drafts.
5. Purdue Online Writing Lab
Run by Purdue University, the Purdue Online Writing Lab can teach you how to form
grammatically-perfect sentences. Although the website is meant for university-level
students, anyone can improve their grammar and abilities in English via the site. You can
learn how to improve your general writing abilities, perform better research and cite that
research, and more. There is even a section on English as a Second Language.
Regardless of your English abilities, you should use this resource if you are performing
research of any kind. From grade-school assignments to masters-level citations, any
student can benefit from the Purdue Online Writing Lab.
6. Grammarly
Sometimes, you just want to check your grammar, sentence by sentence. Grammarly will
provide suggestions based on your written input. You can use this website to increase your
vocabulary range and your written skills.
There are many words in the English language that can confuse even the most ardent of
English speakers. I still meet adults today who misuse “two,” “too,” and “to.” Understanding
the differences that words can make in the meanings of sentences is vital to improving your
English. While Grammarly is not free, it is worth every penny.
7. Upwork
While Upwork is not exactly a website where you can learn English, it can help you improve
your reading, writing, and speaking abilities by helping you hire a tutor. Upwork is an online
marketplace where you can hire individuals to help you with a variety of things. Rates are
affordable and each person offering a service has a complete profile with ratings and
review from previous clients.
For a reasonable price, you can contract an English tutor to speak with you online and help
you with your English. They can help improve your conversational English abilities, grade
your written English, teach you new concepts in the English language and more. Due to the
versatility, affordability, and accessibility of online marketplaces like Upwork, this resource
can be one of the most valuable ones you use as you learn English online.
Good luck.
Latin Plural Endings
By Mark Nichol
Pluralization of Latin-based nouns is a complicated field. Preference for Latin or English
plural endings is inconsistent in similarly constructed words, as is the presence of
alternative forms at all.
Here’s a guide to plural forms for Latin words, identifying, for more than a hundred nouns of
Latin origin and a few similarly constructed terms from other languages, which ending
among two or three alternatives is preferred for particular words or in which contexts
various alternative forms are employed. When two or more alternatives are listed, the first
is the more (or most) common.
Words ending in a, plural -s or -ae

alga: algae or algas
antenna: antennas or antennae (only antennae is correct for the sensory organs on
animals; antennas in more common in other contexts)
formula: formulas or formulae
larva: larvae or larvas
nebula: nebulae or nebulas: the former ending is employed in astronomy, and the latter
applies in medical contexts
vertebra: vertebrae or vertebras (vertebrae is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to a
single vertebra)
Words ending in ex, plural -exes or -ices
apex: apexes or apices
index: indexes or indices
vortex: vortices or vortexes
Words ending in eau, plural -eaus or -eaux
bureau: bureaus or bureaux (the latter form is rare for this word and the other two in this
category)
château: châteaus or châteaux
plateau: plateaus or plateaux
Words ending in ion, plural -ia
criterion: criteria
ganglion: ganglia or ganglions
Words ending in is, plural -es
analysis: analyses
axis: axes
basis: bases
crisis: crises
diagnosis: diagnoses
ellipsis: ellipses
hypothesis: hypotheses
oasis: oases
paralysis: paralyses
parenthesis: parentheses
synopsis: synopses
synthesis: syntheses
thesis: theses
Words ending in ix
appendix: appendixes or appendices
matrix: matrices or matrixes
Words ending in o, plural -os or -i
graffito: graffiti (the plural form is almost invariable used in place of the singular form)
libretto: librettos or libretti
virtuoso: virtuosos or virtuosi
Words ending in o, plural -os or -oes
armadillo: armadillos
avocado: avocados or avocadoes
banjo: banjos or banjoes
bistro: bistros
calypso: calypsos or calypsoes (the former spelling pertains to either the flower or the
music style, and the latter form applies only to the music form)
cargo: cargoes or cargos
casino: casinos
contralto: contraltos
dingo: dingoes
domino: dominoes or dominos
dynamo: dynamos
echo: echoes or echos
ego: egos
embargo: embargoes
flamingo: flamingos or flamingoes
folio: folios
grotto: grottoes or grottos
hero: heroes
hippo: hippos
innuendo: innuendos or innuendoes
lasso: lassos or lassoes
mango: mangoes or mangos
motto: mottoes
paparazzo: paparazzi
pistachio: pistachios
portfolio: portfolios
potato: potatoes
radio: radios
ratio: ratios
rhino: rhinos or rhino
stiletto: stilettos or stilettoes
studio: studios
tornado: tornadoes or tornados
torpedo: torpedoes
veto: vetoes
volcano: volcanoes or volcanos
weirdo: weirdos
Words ending in oo, plural -oos
cockatoo: cockatoos
kangaroo: kangaroos
zoo: zoos
Words ending in um, plural -a or -ums
addendum: addenda or addendums
agendum: agenda or agendums (agenda is almost invariably used in place of the singular
form, and agendums is rare)
aquarium: aquariums or aquaria
atrium: atria or atriums
bacterium: bacteria
candelabrum: candelabra or candelabrums
corrigendum: corrigenda
curriculum: curricula or curriculums
datum: data or datums (data is often used as a mass noun, taking a singular verb and
being substituted by a singular pronoun)
erratum: errata
gymnasium: gymnasiums or gymnasia
maximum: maxima or maximums
medium: mediums or media (media is the correct alternative to refer to forms of expression
or information or in biological contexts)
memorandum: memorandums or memoranda
millennium: millennia or millenniums
minimum: minima or minimums
moratorium: moratoriums or moratoria
podium: podiums or podia
referendum: referenda or referendums
spectrum: spectra or spectrums
stratum: strata
symposium: symposiums or symposia
Words ending in us, plural -uses or -i
alumnus/alumna: alumni or alumnae (alumnus refers to a man and alumna to a
woman, alumni pertains to men or to men and women and alumnae to women; alumni is
often employed in the singular, and alum/alums are used informally as gender-neutral
singular and plural forms)
bacillus: bacilli
cactus: cacti or cactuses
focus: foci or focuses
fungus: fungi or funguses
hippopotamus: hippopotamuses or hippopotami
locus: loci
narcissus: narcissi or narcissuses or narcissus
platypus: platypuses or platypi
radius: radii or radiuses
stimulus: stimuli
syllabus: syllabi or syllabuses
terminus: termini or terminuses
Words ending in on, plural -a or -ons
automaton: automotons or automata
phenomenon: phenomena or phenomenons
Assorted
cherub: cherubim or cherubs (the former alternative applies to angels and the latter
pertains to depictions of winged children or to cherubic-looking people)
rhinoceros: rhinoceroses or rhinoceros or rhinoceri
seraph: seraphim or seraphs
Probable vs. Possible
By Mark Nichol
What’s the difference between probable and possible? Strictly speaking, they’re unrelated,
but in popular usage, their distinction is merely one of degree.
Possible — the noun form is possibility — means “having the potential.” (Potential, along
with the latter word’s root, potent, shares an etymological origin with the former
word.) Possible stems from the Latin term possibilis, which derives in turn from posse,
which means “power” or “to be able.” Posse itself was borrowed into English from the
Medieval Latin phrase posse comitatus, which literally means “power of the county.”
(This term, later shortened to posse, referred to the authority of a local official to conscript
men to respond to an emergency; such a deputized detail features in many works of filmed
or printed fiction in the western genre, but now, the term is most commonly heard as a
jocular slang synonym for a celebrity’s entourage or retinue or anyone’s group of friends.)
Probable, which means “likely,” comes from the Latin term probabilis, which itself stems
from probare, meaning “to approve, prove, or test.” Related words referring to the first
sense include approbation and probity; prove itself is akin to probable, as
is probe. Probability is the term for the branch of mathematics dealing with chance and is
used in logic to refer to the degree to which two statements confirm each other.
Probable refers to what is likely to be done, to occur, or to be true; possible refers to
what can be done, to occur, or to be true. If you say something is probable, you are
expressing more confidence about it than if you state that it is possible. But the distinction
is significant: It is possible, for example, for anyone to become fabulously wealthy, but the
probability is infinitely variable.
ours faithfully or Yours sincerely?
By Maeve Maddox
In 1928 H. W. Fowler listed these phrases and their uses:

Yours faithfully (to unknown person on business)
Yours truly (to slight acquaintance)
Yours very truly (ceremonious but cordial)
Yours sincerely (in invitations and friendly but not intimate letters)
With slight variations between British and American usage, these forms are still in use.
If you don’t know the name of the recipient…

Yours faithfully is British usage. It is used when the recipient is not addressed by name,
as in a letter with a “Dear Sir” salutation. I have never seen it in correspondence between
Americans. That’s not to say it won’t catch on. I’ve come across letter-writing guides on the
web that imply that it is standard American usage.
Yours truly is the American equivalent of “yours faithfully” that I was taught by my
American business teachers. When I begin a letter “Dear Sir,” I close it with “Yours truly.”
When you do know the name of the recipient…
Yours sincerely is also British. Americans tend to reverse the order and write Sincerely
yours.
When I worked in England, I was told that to write Sincerely without the Yours was very
bad form. Now, of course, Sincerely is a common and acceptable close for American
business letters.
Which words to capitalize…
Only the first word is capitalized:
Yours faithfully,
Yours sincerely,
Sincerely yours,
85 Synonyms for “Help”
By Mark Nichol
There are so many ways to help — at least eighty-five, I discovered. Here are that number
of synonyms and idiomatic phrases for the verb help:
1. Abet: to actively help with an endeavor
2. Accommodate: to offer something, especially to help meet a need or want
3. Advance: to speed up the development of an initiative or cause
4. Advise: to recommend or warn
5. Aid: to provide something necessary to help
6. Alleviate: see relieve, and to help correct or remove a problem
7. Ameliorate: to make better or more manageable
8. Amend: to help by improving
9. Assist: to supplement an effort
10. Attend: to stand ready to help
11. Back: to help with actions or words, or to help financially
12. Backstop: see bolster
13. Bail out: to help someone suffering hardship; also, to abandon an enterprise
14. Ballyhoo: see hype
15. Bear a hand: see “lend a hand”
16. Be of use: see benefit
17. Befriend: to become a friend of
18. Benefit: to be helpful
19. Bolster: to help in order to strengthen
20. Boost: to physically help one up from below, or to help publicly; also, slang for “steal”
21. Buck up: see bolster
22. Buttress: to strengthen figuratively or literally
23. Care for: to help someone recover
24. Champion: to advocate or protect
25. Cheer: to make someone feel better through deeds or words; also, to applaud vocally
26. Comfort: to provide hope or strength, or to console
27. Contribute: to give financial or material help or to provide services
28. Cooperate: to proactively offer help, or to compromise
29. Counsel: see advise
30. Deliver: to convey something to another
31. Ease: to make easier
32. Embolden: to give courage to
33. Encourage: to inspire, or to help by offering a positive comment or making a helpful
gesture
34. Endorse: to approve or recommend
35. Facilitate: to help enable something to occur
36. Favor: to give partisan help to someone
37. Forward: see encourage
38. Foster: see encourage and nurture
39. Further: see encourage
40. Go to bat for: see back
41. Guide: see advise, or to show or demonstrate
42. Hearten: see encourage
43. Hype: to provide extravagant publicity
44. Intercede: to become involved on another’s behalf
45. Launch: to help someone start an enterprise
46. Lend a hand: to provide material help
47. Meliorate: see ameliorate
48. Mentor: see advise
49. Minister to: to give help to, especially in terms of emotional or physical needs
50. Mitigate: see relieve and mollify
51. Mollify: to assuage, soften, or soothe
52. Nurture: to help develop
53. Oblige: to indulge a request for help
54. Open doors: to provide help through influence or recommendation
55. Palliate: to reduce discomfort or pain, or to excuse
56. Patronize: to provide help through influence or financial support
57. Plug: see promote
58. Promote: provide help by advertising or by enabling publicity
59. Prop up: see bolster
60. Push: to help in reaching an objective
61. Reinforce: see encourage, or to strengthen
62. Relieve: to remove a burden or obligation, or to take one’s place in performing a task
63. Remedy: see relieve
64. Rescue: to help someone or something harmed, in poor conditions, or in financial
straits
65. Restore: to improve by returning to a previous, better condition, or to help rejuvenate
66. Revive: to bring back to life or former improved circumstances
67. Root for: to publicly make positive comments, or to applaud vocally
68. Sanction: to approve, especially in an official capacity; can also mean to ratify, or to
censure)
69. Save: see rescue
70. Second: see assist and reinforce
71. See (something) through: to help accomplish or complete a task
72. Serve: to satisfy or supply needs or wants
73. Sponsor: see patronize
74. Stand by: see back
75. Stick up for: see back
76. Stimulate: see restore
77. Stump for: see promote
78. Succor: see relieve
79. Support: see assist and promote
80. Sustain: see assist and relieve
81. Take under (one’s) wing: see patronize
82. Treat: to care for
83. Stand one in good stead: see bolster
84. Uphold: see assist
85. Work for: to help accomplish a goal
Careful with Words Used as Noun and Verb
By Maeve Maddox
English has numerous word pairs that are spelled alike, but pronounced differently
according to whether the word is being used as a noun or as a verb.
Some examples are conduct, digest, escort, insult, produce, and record. With each of
these words, and others like them, the accent shifts according to the part of speech. Here
are some examples:
I do not approve of his cónduct. John Williams will condúct the symphony .
He subscribes to the Congressional Dígest. Some food is difficult to digést.
Charlie will be her éscort. He will escórt her to the Prom.
That last remark was an ínsult. How dare you insúlt your father?
Celery and tomatoes are fresh próduce. These factories prodúce the finest widgets.
That’s his fifth platinum récord. Let’s recórd the baby’s first word.
You will notice that for the noun the accent falls on the first syllable; for the verb, on the
second.
Some noun/verb pairs shift in pronunciation and in spelling. These are the ones writers
need to be aware of. Here are a few that I’ve seen misused :
Take his advice with a grain of salt. Who will advise the king?
He likes a warm bath. They bathe in the river.

It’s cold enough to see our breath. Don’t breathe the chemical fumes.
The shoes are made of cloth. Feed the hungry and clothe the naked.
He felt grief at the death of the child. He must be allowed time to grieve.
Here, I’ll give you half. The new invention will halve production costs.
What is the proof of your contention? He worked night and day to prove his innocence.
A prophecy of Merlin foretold the Maid. Prophesy unto the wind, for the wind will listen.
75 Contronyms (Words with Contradictory Meanings)
By Mark Nichol
The English language includes an interesting category of words and phrases called
contronyms (also spelled contranyms, or referred to as autoantonyms) — terms that,
depending on context, can have opposite or contradictory meanings. When you use these
words, be sure the context clearly identifies which meaning is intended:
1. Apology: A statement of contrition for an action, or a defense of one
2. Aught: All, or nothing
3. Bill: A payment, or an invoice for payment
4. Bolt: To secure, or to flee
5. Bound: Heading to a destination, or restrained from movement
6. Buckle: To connect, or to break or collapse
7. Cleave: To adhere, or to separate
8. Clip: To fasten, or detach
9. Consult: To offer advice, or to obtain it
10. Continue: To keep doing an action, or to suspend an action
11. Custom: A common practice, or a special treatment
12. Dike: A wall to prevent flooding, or a ditch
13. Discursive: Moving in an orderly fashion among topics, or proceeding aimlessly in a
discussion
14. Dollop: A large amount (British English), or a small amount
15. Dust: To add fine particles, or to remove them
16. Enjoin: To impose, or to prohibit
17. Fast: Quick, or stuck or made stable
18. Fine: Excellent, or acceptable or good enough
19. Finished: Completed, or ended or destroyed
20. First degree: Most severe in the case of a murder charge, or least severe in reference
to a burn
21. Fix: To repair, or to castrate
22. Flog: To promote persistently, or to criticize or beat
23. Garnish: To furnish, as with food preparation, or to take away, as with wages
24. Give out: To provide, or to stop because of a lack of supply
25. Go: To proceed or succeed, or to weaken or fail
26. Grade: A degree of slope, or a horizontal line or position
27. Handicap: An advantage provided to ensure equality, or a disadvantage that prevents
equal achievement
28. Help: To assist, or to prevent or (in negative constructions) restrain
29. Hold up: To support, or to impede
30. Lease: To offer property for rent, or to hold such property
31. Left: Remained, or departed
32. Let: Allowed, or hindered
33. Liege: A feudal lord, or a vassal
34. Literally: Actually, or virtually
35. Mean: Average or stingy, or excellent
36. Model: An exemplar, or a copy
37. Off: Deactivated, or activated, as an alarm
38. Out: Visible, as with stars showing in the sky, or invisible, in reference to lights
39. Out of: Outside, or inside, as in working out of a specific office
40. Overlook: To supervise, or to neglect
41. Oversight: Monitoring, or failing to oversee
42. Peer: A person of the nobility, or an equal
43. Presently: Now, or soon
44. Put out: Extinguish, or generate
45. Puzzle: A problem, or to solve one
46. Quantum: Significantly large, or a minuscule part
47. Quiddity: Essence, or a trifling point of contention
48. Quite: Rather (as a qualifying modifier), or completely
49. Ravel: To entangle, or to disentangle
50. Refrain: To desist from doing something, or to repeat
51. Rent: To purchase use of something, or to sell use
52. Rock: An immobile mass of stone or figuratively similar phenomenon, or a shaking or
unsettling movement or action
53. Sanction: To approve, or to boycott
54. Sanguine: Confidently cheerful, or bloodthirsty
55. Scan: To peruse, or to glance
56. Screen: To present, or to conceal
57. Seed: To sow seeds, or to shed or remove them
58. Shop: To patronize a business in order to purchase something, or to sell something
59. Skin: To cover, or to remove
60. Skinned: Covered with skin, or with the skin removed
61. Splice: To join, or to separate
62. Stakeholder: One who has a stake in an enterprise, or a bystander who holds the
stake for those placing a bet
63. Strike: To hit, or to miss in an attempt to hit
64. Table: To propose (in British English), or to set aside
65. Temper: To soften, or to strengthen
66. Throw out: To dispose of, or to present for consideration
67. Transparent: Invisible, or obvious
68. Trim: To decorate, or to remove excess from
69. Trip: A journey, or a stumble
70. Unbending: Rigid, or relaxing
71. Variety: A particular type, or many types
72. Wear: To endure, or to deteriorate
73. Weather: To withstand, or to wear away
74. Wind up: To end, or to start up
75. With: Alongside, or against
“Based in” and “based out of”
By Maeve Maddox
M. Arun writes:
Is it correct to say “I work out of New York”- to mean that one’s workplace is in New York.
Or to say “I am based out of New York” to mean you live in New York? It sounds a wrong to
me!
The use of “out of” described here may be a regional thing. It is not standard English.
Ordinarily, the expression “to work out of a place” is used this way:
Mr. Patel works out of his house.

Mr. Patel has a home office where he runs his business or fulfills the obligations of a job
(telecommuting).
George works out of New York.
George lives in New York, or his company’s office is in New York, but his work takes him to
various places.
As for “based,” a person or a business can be based in New York. To say that one is based
out of New York seems to mean that the person or business is located somewhere other
than in New York.
It seems a curious choice for someone to say “I’m based out of New York” to mean merely
“I live in New York.” I suppose that the use of based in this context could represent an effort
to distance oneself from the place lived in: I’m based in New York for now, but my real
home is in Alabama.
10 Types of Transitions
By Mark Nichol
Writing is simply a matter of expressing ideas, but as we all know, it’s not so simple after
all. One challenge is to coherently connect those ideas. This post lists ten categories of
words and phrases one can employ to signal a transition, with several examples for each
type.
These words and phrases can be used within a sentence as well as at the beginning. Note,
too, that many can apply to more than one category. (These groupings are arbitrary,
created for the sake of presentation; transitional terms can be organized in various ways.)
1. Addition
“Also, I have to stop at the store on the way home.”
“Besides, it would give me great satisfaction to help you.”
“First, I’d like to thank you for inviting me to speak tonight.”
2. Comparison
“In the same way, the author foreshadows a conflict between two minor characters.”
“Likewise, the sequel was very successful.”
“Similarly, we observed no differences in response rate.”
3. Concession
“Granted, you did not ask ahead of time.”
“Naturally, the final decision is up to her.”
“Of course, he will want to examine the documents himself.”
4. Contrast
“At the same time, what she said has some truth to it.”
“However, I don’t see what that has to do with anything.”
“Otherwise, how can they expect us to comply?”
5. Consequence
“Accordingly, I have consulted with him for a second opinion.”
“As a result, I’m not sure what to do.”
“For this reason, we have decided to halt the project.”
6. Emphasis
“Above all, we must exercise discretion.”
“Certainly, he’ll find out for himself in time.”
“In fact, they’re on their way right now.”
7. Example
“For example, he could have asked for advice first.”
“In particular, I draw your attention to the stain on the carpet.”
“Namely, consider the consequences of your decision.”
8. Sequence
“Earlier, you had mentioned a report.”
“Eventually, we’ll see some improvement.”
“Meanwhile, I’ve been waiting for you.”
9. Space
“Below, you’ll find instructions for assembling the shelf.”
“In the distance, he could see the approaching figure.”
“Off to one side, a package wrapped in plain paper caught her attention.”
10. Summary
“In conclusion, I see no reason to delay any longer.”
“In other words, they’re incompetent.”
“Therefore, your decision leaves me no choice.”
Quiet or Quite?
By Maeve Maddox
The words quiet (two syllables) and quite (one syllable) are frequently confused.

Quiet! Please be quite. Quiet!
I encountered this bit of dialogue in a mystery published by W.W. Norton. A character is

being kidnapped and the words are spoken by one of the kidnappers. Obviously all three
words are meant to be quiet.
Quiet can be used as an adjective meaning “of little activity,” or as a noun meaning
“tranquility” or “silence.”
After lunch the children enjoyed an hour of quiet play. (adjective)
We enjoyed the quiet of the countryside. (noun)
Quite is an adverb and has the sense of “totally” or “completely.”
She was quite exhausted after the warm-up exercise.
Quiet can also be used as a verb meaning “to cause to be quiet.”
The man behind us shouted “Quiet down, can’t you?”
The leader quieted the protesters so the mayor could be heard.
Note: the words “quieten” and “quietened” are not standard American usage.
70 “Home” Idioms and Expressions
By Mark Nichol
1. A man’s home is his castle: a sentiment that a man should have freedom to do what
he wants in his home (originally “An Englishman’s home is his castle”)
2. A woman’s place is in the home: a largely outdated notion that a woman’s activities
should be limited to child-rearing and housekeeping
3. At home: comfortable or proficient in an endeavor, matching or suitable for an
environment, or competing in an athletic event at the team’s own facility rather than while
visiting another team
4. Bring home: make clearly appreciated or understood (usually said of something
unpleasant)
5. Bring home the bacon: earn a wage, or be successful
6. Charity begins at home: a sentiment that one should take care of family and friends
before offering aid to others
7–8: Chickens will/have come home to roost: said as an admonition that actions have
consequences
9. Close to home: deeply affecting one’s feelings
10. Come home: said of something (often, an unpleasant realization) becoming clear to
someone
11. Come home to roost: return to cause trouble, in an analogy to chickens returning to
their coop at the end of the day
12. Down-home: simple, as in something typical of traditional rural life
13–15. Drive/hammer/ram home: emphasize, often by repeating
16-17. Go big/hard, or go home: a slang expression meaning “Put effort into something,
or give up trying”
18. Go home and get (one’s) beauty sleep: said jocularly of or by one who must depart
early, facetiously because of the necessity of getting enough rest to avoid being considered
unattractive because of sleep deprivation
19. Go home in a box: be sent home after death (box refers to a coffin)
20. Go home to mama: give up on marriage or a relationship, from the notion of returning
home to live with one’s mother, with the implication of defeat and humiliation
21. Hearth and home: one’s home and family
22. Hit (one) where one lives: affect someone personally
23–24: Hit/strike home: make sense, cause awareness or acceptance of an idea
25–26. Home and dry/hosed: to have completed an activity or project (British English and
Australian English, respectively)
27. Home away from home: a place one is visiting that is as comfortable and welcoming
as one’s own home
28–33. Home boy/home girl/homeslice/holmes/homes/homie: a person with whom one
is very close (from the notion that one grew up in the same neighborhood as that person)
34. Home free: certain of success because the most difficult phase of a task has been
completed
35. Home game: an athletic event hosted by a team at its facility
36. Home ground/turf: the environment one has grown up in and is comfortable in
37. Home in on: literally or figuratively aim toward
38. Home is where (one) hangs (one’s) hat: the practical notion that one’s home is where
one lives, as distinct from the sentimental notion of home
39. Home is where the heart is: a proverb conveying that one is most comfortable living
where (or with whom) one wants to be
40. Home run: a successful endeavor, from an analogy with scoring a run in baseball that
entitles one to safely round the bases and return to home plate
41–42. Home straight/stretch: the final phase of a difficult activity, from an analogy with
the last portion of a horse race
43. Home sweet home: an expression of relief that one has returned to the comfort of
home after an extended absence
44. Home truth: an unpleasant fact difficult to acknowledge or admit
45. Home, James: a passenger’s humorous exhortation to a driver to bring the passenger
home swiftly (originally, “Home, James, and don’t spare the horses,” from the notion that
James is a common name for a carriage driver)
46. Homesick: feeling uncomfortable about being away from home
47. Homework: practice of learning exercises; figuratively, preparation for an event or
eventuality, or acquisition of practical knowledge
48. Keep the home fires burning: maintain a household in good order while one is away
(perhaps at war)
49. Leave home: set out to live apart from one’s parents
50. The longest way around is the shortest way home: a proverb expressing that doing
something painstakingly saves time because doing it carelessly may require that it be done
over
51. Make yourself at home: a host’s exhortation to a visitor to encourage the person to
feel comfortable and behave as if he or she lives there
52. Money from home: something welcome, or, in underworld slang, easily obtained
money or goods (comparable to “Like taking candy from a baby”), from the notion of
receiving money from one’s family when one is living or traveling abroad
53–58. Not something/anything, or nothing much, to write home about/worth writing
home about: uneventful, from the notion that something that happened is not worth
informing one’s family about
59. See (one) home: escort someone to his or her residence
60. Stay-at-home: said of a parent who does not work outside the home
61–62. Take (one’s) ball/toys and go home: said in figurative reference to a person
petulantly abandoning an activity with necessary implements, thereby inconveniencing the
remaining participants
63. Take home: retain a concept, idea, or thought conveyed at a conference or an
educational event
64. The lights are on, but nobody’s home: said of an unintelligent person, from the
comparison of the person’s “empty” head with a vacant house
65. There’s no place like home: a sentiment that home is the most satisfying place to be
66. Till the cows come home: an exaggeration meaning “for a long time,” from the notion
of cows returning to the barn from the pasture at the end of the day
67–68. What is/who is (someone or something) when it’s (or he’s or she’s) at home?:
a fanciful way of asking, “Who (or “what”) is that?” (British and Australian English)
69. Yankee go home: an expression of anti-American sentiment
70. You can’t go home again: the sentiment that once one leaves home, one is changed
and conditions will not be the same
Loan, Lend, Loaned, Lent
By Ali Hale
Renee wrote to us to ask:
Can you please clarify the proper way to use these words: loan, lend, loaned, lent? Thank
you!
If you’ll lend me a few minutes of your time, Renee, I’d be glad to!

How to use the word “loan” as a noun and verb
The word loan is most commonly used as a noun, and usually means a sum of money
which will be paid back with interest (though can refer to any item which is borrowed
temporarily.) This is the definition from Merriam-Webster:
1 a: money lent at interest b: something lent usually for the borrower’s temporary use
For example, the word “loan” is a noun in all of these sentences:
 I took out a loan to pay for my new car.

 If you can’t get another loan, you’ll have to save up.”
 The loan of your car was very helpful to me.
Loan can also be used as a verb in American English, and can replace “lend” when the
meaning is (from Merriam-Webster):
(1): to give for temporary use on condition that the same or its equivalent be returned (2): to
put at another’s temporary disposal b: to let out (money) for temporary use on condition of
repayment with interest
Note that “lend” is used almost exclusively in British English except for when referring to the
formal act of borrowing money at interest. “Loan” can sound odd or old-fashioned, and the
Merriam-Webster dictionary states:
Although a surprising number of critics still voice objections, loan is entirely standard as a
verb. You should note that it is used only literally; lend is the verb used for figurative
expressions, such as “lending a hand” or “lending enchantment.”
Examples of loan being used as a verb are:

 Please could you loan me some money.
 I’ll loan him the car if he really needs it.
When can “lend” be used instead of “loan”?

In many cases, the verb lend can be substituted for the verb loan – note that lend can
never be used as a noun, though. (“I took out a lend to pay for my new car” doesn’t make
sense!) Lend doesn’t have the same connotations of a financial transaction as loan, and
you can lend both physical objects and intangible concepts. For example:
 I will lend you my bicycle so you can get to work on time.
 When I’ve finished reading my book, I’ll lend it to you.
 Could you lend a hand with this suitcase?
 The new carpet lends the room a cheerful air.
What should “lent” and “loaned” be used?

The word lent is the past tense of the verb to lend. For example:
 I lent you my bicycle last week. Why haven’t you given it back yet?
 When I lent you my book, you promised not to write in it.
 No-one lent a hand with my suitcase.
(If you’re used to British English, be careful not to confuse this with leant, the past tense of
the verb to lean, which is pronounced in the same way. If you’re American, you’ll probably
use “leaned”, but British English uses “leant” and this can cause a lot of confusion.)
The word loaned is the past tense of the verb to loan. For example:
 He loaned me a thousand pounds to start my business.
 If you had loaned me the money when I asked for it, I’d have succeeded.
 When I loaned him my tractor, I had no idea what he was going to do with it.
Hope that clarifies the use of “loan, lend, loaned and lent”, and do ask in the comments – or
on the Daily Writing Tips forum – if there’s anything you’re still unclear on.
May Have vs. Might Have
By Maeve Maddox
Speaking of a murderer who was apprehended in 1998, a law enforcement officer was
quoted as saying:
When all this happened, if I wasn’t there, he may have gotten away with it.
As the speaker was there in the past and the murderer did not get away, standard usage
calls for this construction:
When all this happened, if I hadn’t been there, he might have gotten away with it.
Might is the past tense of may. Ideally, may is the form to use when talking about a current
situation, and might is the form to use in referring to an event from the past. In practice, the
two forms are used interchangeably, as demonstrated by these headlines from different
Web sites:
10 Civilizations That Might Have Beaten Columbus To America
Polynesians may have beaten Columbus to South America.
US-bound passengers may have to switch on mobile phones for security
[Cellphone] owners might have to undergo extra screening before boarding
Researchers May Have Discovered The Consciousness On/Off Switch
Scientists might have just found the brain’s “off switch”
6 Signs That You Might Be Psychic
Signs You May be Psychic
7 Mistakes You Might Make Before Your Job Interview
5 Money Mistakes Even Good Savers May Make
Fans might have to wait weeks before Dodgers games come to their TVs
Apple Fans May Have to Wait Longer for Larger iPhone
Most of the time, the interchange of may and might does not present a problem. The
Oxford Dictionaries site declares that if the truth of a situation isn’t known at the time of use,
then either is acceptable.
The one context in which might is always the better choice is one in which the event
mentioned did not in fact occur:
If JFK had not been assassinated, civil rights legislation might have been delayed.
If the English had defeated the Normans at Hastings, we might have inherited fewer
spelling problems.
Mood vs. Tense
By Maeve Maddox
Judging by comments I’ve read on this and other language sites, many people are not quite
clear as to the difference between the grammatical terms mood and tense. For example,
I’ve seen such expressions as “subjunctive tense” and “progressive mood.”
Because both tense and mood have to do with verbs, the confused terminology is
understandable. Tense, however, refers to time, whereas mood refers to manner of
expression.
Tense
The three possible divisions of time are past, present, and future. For each, there is a
corresponding verb tense:
Present: He walks now.
Past: Yesterday he walked.
Future: Tomorrow he will walk.
Each of these tenses has a corresponding complete tense: perfect, past perfect
(pluperfect), and future perfect:
Perfect: He has walked every morning since Monday.

Past Perfect: He had walked a mile by the time we joined him.
Future Perfect: By tomorrow, he will have walked twenty miles.
Each of these tenses has a continuous or progressive form:
Present Continuous: I am still walking.

Past Continuous: I was still walking when you phoned.
Future Continuous: I shall/will be walking when you reach town.
Perfect Continuous: I have been walking since early morning.
Past Perfect Continuous: I had been walking for an hour when you phoned.
Future Perfect Continuous: When you see me, I shall have been walking for six hours.
Mood
Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is
expressed. Mood distinguishes between an assertion, a wish, or a command. The
corresponding moods are: Indicative (assertion), Subjunctive (wish), and Imperative
(command).
Note: Unlike some languages, English does not have an “Interrogative Mood”; questions
are formed by changing word order and not by altering the verb.
The word indicative derives from Latin indicare, “to declare or state.” Indicative
Mood expresses an assertion, denial, or question about something:
Assertion: I liked him very much before he did that.
Denial: He is not going to remain on my list of friends.
Question: Will you continue to see him?
The word imperative derives from Latin imperare, “to command.” Imperative
Mood expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice:
Command: Go thou and do likewise.
Prohibition: Stay out of Mr. MacGregor’s garden!
Entreaty: Remember us in your prayers.
Advice: Beware of the dog.
The “true subjunctive” equivalent to the Latin Optative Mood (opare, “to wish”) is rare in
modern English. Examples of the “true” subjunctive: “If I were king,” “God save the Queen!”
In most contexts dealing with unreal situations, speakers used a mixed subjunctive. The
use of the auxiliaries may, might, should, and would creates a mixed subjunctive in which
one verb is in subjunctive and another in indicative mood:
If I should see him, I will tell him.
He came that they might have life.
According to the Penguin Dictionary of English Grammar,
The distinctive subjunctive forms are now confined to the verb be and to the third-singular
forms of other verbs; they are still common in American English, while in British English
they are confined to very formal styles.
In American English, the subjunctive often occurs with the following verbs:
suggest: I suggest that she refuse his offer.

demand: They are demanding that he go to London for an interview.
propose: The father proposed that his son be locked up to teach him a lesson.
insist: We all insisted that he accept treatment.
British usage tends to use should in such constructions: I suggest that she should refuse
his offer.
Comparative Forms of Adjectives
By Maeve Maddox
Adjectives have inflections. That is, adjectives change in spelling according to how they are
used in a sentence.
Adjectives have three forms: positive, comparative, and superlative.
The simplest form of the adjective is its positive form. When two objects or persons are
being compared, the comparative form of the adjective is used. When three or more things
are being compared, we use the adjective’s superlative form.
A few adjectives, like good and bad form their comparatives with different words:
That is a good book. This is a better book. Which of the three is the best book?
He made a bad choice. She made a worse choice. They made the worst choice of all.
The comparative forms of most adjectives, however, are formed by adding the suffixes
–er and –est, or by placing the words more and most in front of the positive form.
RULES FOR FORMING COMPARATIVES:
1. One syllable words form the comparative by adding -er and -est:
brave, braver, bravest
small, smaller, smallest
dark, darker, darkest.
2. Two-syllable words that end in -y, -le, and -er form the comparative by adding -er
and -est:
pretty, prettier, prettiest
happy, happier, happiest
noble, nobler, noblest
clever, cleverer, cleverest
3. Words of more than two syllables form the comparative with more and most:
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.
resonant, more resonant, most resonant
4. Past participles used as adjectives form the comparative with more and most:
crooked, broken, damaged, defeated, etc.
5. Predicate adjectives (adjectives used to describe the subject of a sentence) form
the comparative with more and most:
afraid, mute, certain, alone, silent, etc.
Ex. She is afraid. He is more afraid. They are the most afraid of them all.
So far, so good, but when it comes to two-syllable words other than the ones covered
by Rule 2, the writer must consider custom and ease of pronunciation.
Usually, two syllable words that have the accent on the first syllable form the comparative
by adding –er and –est.
Ex. common, cruel, pleasant, quiet.
BUT tasteless, more tasteless, most tasteless.
Some two-syllable words that have the accent on the second syllable form the comparative
by adding –er and –est: polite, profound,
BUT: bizarre, more bizarre, most bizarre.
The rules given above should prevent abominations like “more pretty” or “beautifuler.”
When in doubt, look up the preferred inflected forms in the dictionary.
50 Words with Alternative Spellings

By Mark Nichol
What is one to do when one finds a choice of spellings in the dictionary? Most dictionaries
specify the preferred variant when two or more spellings of a word are listed, but others
aren’t so clear.
According to Merriam-Webster’s website, the former spelling is more common than the
latter for the following words and is the preferred alternative:
1. acknowledgment / acknowledgement
2. adapter / adaptor
3. adviser / advisor (but advisory)
4. aeon / eon
5. ambience / ambiance
6. amok / amuck
7. appall / appal
8. around / round
9. ax / axe
10. caliber / calibre
11. counselor / counsellor
12. doughnut / donut
13. enclose / inclose
14. enroll / enrol
15. furor / furore
16. glamour / glamor
17. gray / grey
18. impostor / imposter
19. ingrain / engrain
20. inquire / enquire
21. judgment / judgement
22. lambaste / lambast
23. likable / likeable
24. linchpin / lynchpin
25. meager / meagre
26. mollusk / mollusc
27. movable / moveable
28. ocher / ochre
29. omelet / omelette
30. opossum / possum (but playing possum)
31. pincer / pinchers
32. pixilated / pixillated (distinct from pixelated)
33. pompon / pom-pom
34. racket / racquet (but racquetball)
35. sherbet / sherbert
36. somber / somber
37. specter / spectre
38. sulfur / sulphur
39. T-shirt / tee shirt
40. theater / theatre
41. till / ’til or til
42. timbre / timber
43. vial / phial
44. woolen / woollen
45. woolly / wooly
46. yogurt / yoghurt
Discussion of distinctions in alternative spellings of some other words follows:
47. Bologna is the name of the meat product; baloney is a quaint slang synonym for
nonsense.
48. Lasagne is an alternate spelling for the pasta usually referred to as lasagna; the latter
spelling predominates for the name of the baked dish.
49. Mic and mike are both acceptable as short versions of microphone.
50. Savannah is spelled as such only as the name of the city in Georgia or the name of a
hybrid of the serval, an African cat, and the domestic cat; otherwise, it’s spelled savanna.
This list omits spelling variations that are primarily distinct in usage in American English
versus British English (though some, such as gray/grey and specter/spectre, are also
variations divided by an ocean). See this discussion on that topic with a list of categories of
spelling differences. (But it’s a stick and tricky matter, so check out the comments for input
from site visitors as well.)
Phrasal Verbs and Phrasal Nouns
By Mark Nichol
A phrasal verb is a verb consisting of two or more words—a verb and (usually) a
preposition or a particle—that, when combined, describe an action. When formed into a
closed or hyphenated compound, however, a phrasal verb is transformed into a phrasal
noun, which can, alternatively, be employed as an adjective. This post explains the
distinction, with examples.
Forming Phrasal Verbs
Take just about any basic verb, and it can likely be paired with one or more words to form a
phrasal verb. (A phrasal verb is also called a compound verb, or a prepositional verb or a
particle verb, depending on the function of the word following the verb, along with other
names.) Consider walk, for example. One can walk in a line, out a door, through a tunnel,
up a flight of stairs, down a street, on a rug, near a park, by a shop, off a cliff, or away from
a fight. In many cases, however, a writer can name the action by combining the verb and
the preposition or particle into a compound.
Walk-in, for example, describes someone who arrives at a location without an appointment,
or it serves as a truncation of “walk-in refrigerator” or functions as an adjective in “walk-in
closet” or “walk-in apartment.” A walkout, by contrast, is a labor strike or an action in which
a number of people leave a meeting or a location to express disapproval. (Notice the
inconsistency of treatment; the former word is hyphenated, while the latter is closed.) A
walk-through is an inspection or a rehearsal, and a walk-up is a building with no elevator to
the upper floors. (As an adjective, the word might refer to a window where a customer can
be served without entering a business location.)
“Walk down” can also refer to an act of walking to help oneself recover from illness or
poisoning or to wear someone down to exhaustion (“wear down” is also a phrasal verb), but
—so far, at least—English-language speakers and writers have not felt a need for a
corresponding phrasal noun. (That is the case with a couple of other phrasal verbs in this
list.) But a walk-on is a small theatrical role (from the fact that such parts often involve an
actor simply walking onstage, perhaps to deliver a message to a main character, for
example) or a person who attempts to join an athletic team without an invitation or a
scholarship offer. Walk-off, meanwhile, describes a final winning play in a baseball game.
Note that with any of the phrasal verbs listed, at best, a sentence’s meaning will differ if the
preposition or particle is omitted; at worst, it won’t make sense. One can, for example, walk
a line, but that means something different than a reference to walking in a line, while “walk
a door” is meaningless. However, some phrasal verbs are redundant, though they are often
used colloquially. Such phrases, which often unnecessarily pair a verb with up or down,
include “climb up,” “meet up,” “rest up,” “sit down,” “stand up,” and “write down.” (One may
climb down, but descend is a better alternative for that phrase.)
Note, though, that some of these redundant phrases can be legitimately repurposed as
phrasal nouns or adjectives when hyphenated. For example, meet-up is an informal
synonym for gathering, and a sit-down is a work stoppage or protest or a meeting
convened to resolve a conflict or problem. (As an adjective, the term also pertains to a meal
or a restaurant at which one is seated.) Meanwhile, a stand-up comic is one who performs
while standing, though the term may also informally denote the quality of integrity (“He’s a
real stand-up guy”) or simply refer to something literally upright. The term alone can also
refer to the entertainment form or a television broadcast with a similar setup—there’s
another phrasal verb transformed into a compound verb—or to the performer.
“Write down” does not have a corresponding noun. However, the words write and up,
though they do not form a phrasal verb (“write it up” comes close), are used, linked with a
hyphen, to describe a report, review, or summary, as in “Did you see the write-up about the
game in today’s paper?”
Numerous other examples exist. Note, however, that as in the case of walk-in and walkout,
treatment of two words with a common verb may differ: One performs a turnaround but
comes up with a work-around. A blow-up is not the same as a blowout, and the compounds
are not styled the same. And though hand-down is not (yet) a word—it might someday be
coined to describe an edict or pronouncement—a hand-me-down is something passed on
(such as an article of clothing given to a child when an older sibling outgrows it).
When contemplating using a phrasal noun (or a phrasal adjective), first, use a dictionary to
determine 1) whether the term exists and 2) whether the phrasal noun is hyphenated or
closed. (And double-check that the adjectival form is the same as the phrasal noun.
Exceptions exist, including the noun/adjective pairs castoff/cast-off and takeout/take-out.)
For example, when one calls out, it is a callout, but when one logs in, it is (usually) a log-in.
(Login is also employed; the correct form is the one that appears in the dictionary or style
guide you consult.)
45 Synonyms for “Food”
By Mark Nichol
Food means “a substance we eat for nutritional and/or gustatory purposes,” but that word is
bland. For a tastier experience, use one of its synonyms listed below to convey the
connotation you desire your readers to digest:
1. Aliment: food as nourishment
2. Bite: a bite’s worth of food, but also a small amount of food, such as a snack, or a casual
reference to a larger amount
3. Board: the food laid out on a table, from the association of board with table; also
denotes the part of the housing arrangement known as room and board, where room refers
to lodging and board to meals
4. Bread: a synecdochic reference to food (synecdoche is a rhetorical device in which a
part stands for a whole, as in “All hands on deck” for “All sailors on deck”)
5. Chow: food (slang); also a verb, as in “Chow down”
6. Comestible: food (formal or mock-formal); also a synonym for the adjective edible
7. Comfort food: food that satisfies nostalgic yearnings for traditionally prepared meals
8. Cooking: food, especially as specifically prepared, as in “I like her cooking”
9. Cuisine: food prepared in a specific fashion, as according to cultural tradition, or the
manner or style of cooking
10. Diet: the particular combination of food for a person, group, or society, or a combination
of food specified for or by a person for health reasons and/or weight loss; also a verb
referring to the process of improving or maintaining health and/or losing weight
11. Dish: a preparation of food served in a single container as part of a meal; also, a
container or piece of dinnerware for cooking, serving, or eating food, or an attractive
person, or a verb meaning “to gossip”
12. Eatable: food; also a synonym for edible
13. Eats: food, especially convenient or simple food (slang)
14. Entrée: the main course of a meal
15. Fare: food, in the sense of what is available or what is traditionally eaten
16. Fast food: food prepared rapidly, especially in restaurants that serve food quickly and
at a high volume; also, used as an adjective in this sense or in that of something produced
with little regard for quality
17. Feed: food for livestock; also used to describe an informal fund-raising event such as a
crab feed in which a featured food is served with other dishes
18. Fodder: see feed; also refers to material in general that is readily available for use or
consumption (“cannon fodder”)
19. Foodstuff: something used as food, especially as a raw ingredient in a food product
20. Goodies: edible treats
21. Groceries: food purchased at a store
22. Grub: see eats
23. Handout: food given free for charitable purposes
24. Home cooking: food prepared at home in a traditional manner, with the nostalgic
connotation of comfort and familiarity
25. Larder: a supply of food, from the synonym for pantry
26. Meal: the food served at a particular sitting
27. Meat: see bread, or food consisting of the flesh of an animal other than a fish
28. Menu: the food served during a meal, or a list of food to be served; also, any list of
offerings or choices
29. Mess: a meal served to a group of people who routinely eat together, as a ship’s crew;
also, that group of people or the location where they eat, or a certain amount of food
30. Nourishment: food in the sense of something that satisfies the need to eat; also, the
act or state of nourishing or being nourished, or something other than food that provides a
corollary benefit
31. Nutriment: something that satisfies the need for nutrition
32. Pabulum: food prepared in a semiliquid state for ease of eating and/or digestion; also,
communication of minimal value or sophistication thought to be acceptable to lowest-
common-denominator consumers, or, rarely, communication thought to be intellectually
stimulating
33. Provender: see feed, or food in general
34. Provisions: a supply of food made available for specific use, as by an expedition
35. Ration: a supply of food made available for a specific person, as a member of a military
unit, or, in plural form, such food in general; also, a supply of another commodity as
dictated by availability
36. Refreshment: a snack or small meal intended to sustain until the next meal
37. Slop: low-quality food, or leftovers given to livestock; also, garbage, excrement, or
slush, or effusive communication
38. Store: see larder
39. Subsistence: the minimum amount of food necessary for survival; also, the equivalent
in nonedible commodities
40. Sustenance: see aliment
41. Table: see meal and larder
42. Take-out: food obtained from a restaurant to be eaten elsewhere
43. Viand: see dish, or a piece or item of food, especially a particularly delicious one, and,
in plural form, see provisions
44. Victuals: food, or see provisions; as victual, a verb synonymous with provision in the
sense of supplying with provisions
45. Vittles: food (a dialectical spelling of victuals)
100 Mostly Small But Expressive Interjections
By Mark Nichol
They often seem disreputable, like sullen idlers loitering in a public thoroughfare, but they
actually do a lot of hard work and are usually persnickety about the tasks to which they are
put. They are interjections — one class of them, anyway: those lacking etymological origins
but packed with meaning.
But how do you know how to distinguish similar ones — or spell them, for that matter?
Here’s an incomplete inventory of interjections (not including variations of actual words
such as yeah for yes or onomatopoeic echoes of externally produced sounds like boom):
Ack communicates disgust or dismissal.
Ah can denote positive emotions like relief or delight (generally, pronounced with a long a).
Aha signals triumph or surprise, or perhaps derision.
Ahem is employed to gain attention.
Argh, often drawn out with additional h’s, is all about frustration.
Aw can be dismissive or indicative of disappointment, or, when drawn out, expressive of
sympathy or adoration.
Aye denotes agreement.
Bah is dismissive.
Blah communicates boredom or disappointment.
Blech (or bleah or bleh) implies nausea.
Boo is an exclamation to provoke fright.
Boo-hoo is imitative of crying and is derisive.
Boo-ya (with several spelling variants) is a cry of triumph.
Bwah-hah-hah (variously spelled, including mwah-hah-hah) facetiously mimics the
stereotypical archvillain’s triumphant laugh.
D’oh is the spelling for the muttering accompanying Homer Simpson’s trademark head-
slapping self-abuse.
Duh derides someone who seems dense.
Eek indicates an unpleasant surprise.
Eh, with a question mark, is a request for repetition or confirmation of what was just said;
without, it is dismissive.
Er (sometimes erm) plays for time.
Ew denotes disgust, intensified by the addition of one or more e’s and/or w’s.
Feh (and its cousin meh) is an indication of feeling underwhelmed or disappointed.
Gak is an expression of disgust or distaste.
Ha expresses joy or surprise, or perhaps triumph.
Ha-ha (with possible redoubling) communicates laughter or derision.
Hamana-hamana, variously spelled, and duplicated as needed, implies speechless
embarrassment.
Hardy-har-har, or har-har repeated as needed, communicates mock amusement.
Hee-hee is a mischievous laugh, while its variants heh and heh-heh (and so on) can have a
more derisive connotation.
Hey can express surprise or exultation, or can be used to request repetition or call for
attention.
Hist signals the desire for silence.
Hm, extended as needed, suggests curiosity, confusion, consternation, or skepticism.
Hmph (also hrmph or humph) indicates displeasure or indignation.
Ho-ho is expressive of mirth, or (along with its variant oh-ho) can indicate triumph of
discovery.
Ho-hum signals indifference or boredom.
Hubba-hubba is the vocal equivalent of a leer.
Huh (or hunh) is a sign of disbelief, confusion, or surprise, or, with a question mark, is a
request for repetition.
Hup, from the sound-off a military cadence chant, signals beginning an exerting task.
Hurrah (also hoorah, hooray, and hurray, and even huzzah) is an exclamation of triumph or
happiness.
Ick signals disgust.
Lah-de-dah denotes nonchalance or dismissal, or derision about pretension.
Mm-hmm, variously spelled, is an affirmative or corroborating response.
Mmm, extended as needed, conveys palatable or palpable pleasure.
Mwah is suggestive of a kiss, often implying unctuous or exaggerated affection.
Neener-neener, often uttered in a series of three repetitions, is a taunt.
Now (often repeated “Now, now”) is uttered as an admonition.
Oh is among the most versatile of interjections. Use it to indicate comprehension or
acknowledgment (or, with a question mark, a request for verification), to preface direct
address (“Oh, sir!”), as a sign of approximation or example (“Oh, about three days”), or to
express emotion or serves as a response to a pain or pleasure. (Ooh is a variant useful for
the last two purposes.)
Oh-oh (or alternatives in which oh is followed by various words) is a warning response to
something that will have negative repercussions.
Olé, with an accent mark over the e, is borrowed from Spanish and is a vocal flourish to
celebrate a deft or adroit maneuver.
Ooh, with o’s repeated as needed, conveys interest or admiration, or, alternatively, disdain.
Ooh-la-la is a response to an attempt to impress or gently mocks pretension or finery.
Oops (and the jocular diminutive variation oopsie or oopsy and the variant whoops) calls
attention to an error or fault.
Ouch (or ow, extended as needed) signals pain or is a response to a harsh word or action.
Oy, part of Yiddish expressions such as oy gevalt (equivalent to “Uh-oh”), is a lament of
frustration, concern, or self-pity.
Pff, extended as needed, expresses disappointment, disdain, or annoyance.
Pfft, or phfft, communicates abrupt ending or departure or is a sardonic dismissal akin to
pff.
Phew, or pew, communicates disgust, fatigue, or relief. (Phooey, also spelled pfui, is a
signal for disgust, too, and can denote dismissal as well. PU and P.U. are also variants.)
Poof is imitative of a sudden disappearance, as if by magic.
Pooh is a contemptuous exclamation.
Pshaw denotes disbelief, disapproval, or irritation or, alternatively, communicates facetious
self-consciousness.
Psst calls for quiet.
Rah, perhaps repeated, signals triumph.
Shh (extended as necessary) is an imperative for silence.
Sis boom bah is an outdated encouraging cry, most likely to be used mockingly now.
Tchah communicates annoyance.
Tsk-tsk and its even snootier variant tut-tut are condemnations or scoldings; the related
sound tch is the teeth-and-tongue click of disapproval.
Ugh is an exclamation of disgust.
Uh is an expression of skepticism or a delaying tactic.
Uh-huh indicates affirmation or agreement.
Uh-oh signals concern or dismay.
Uh-uh is the sound of negation or refusal.
Um is a placeholder for a pause but also denotes skepticism.
Va-va-voom is an old-fashioned exclamation denoting admiration of physical
attractiveness.
Whee is an exclamation of excitement or delight.
Whew is a variant of phew but can also express amazement.
Whoa is a call to halt or an exclamation of surprise or relief.
Whoop-de-doo and its many variants convey mocking reaction to something meant to
impress.
Woo and woo-hoo (and variations like yahoo, yee-haw, and yippee) indicate excitement.
(Woot, also spelled w00t among an online in-crowd, is a probably ephemeral variant.)
Wow expresses surprise.
Yay is a congratulatory exclamation. (Not to be confused with yeah, a variant of yes.)
Yikes is an expression of fear or concern, often used facetiously.
Yo-ho-ho is the traditional pirates’ refrain.
Yoo-hoo attracts attention.
Yow, or yowza, is an exclamation of surprise or conveys being impressed.
Yuck (also spelled yech or yecch) signals disgust. (Not to be confused with yuk, a laugh.)
Yum, or yummy, is a response to the taste of something delicious and, by extension, the
sight of an attractive person.
Zoinks is an expression of surprise or amazement popularized by the cartoon character
Shaggy, of Scooby Doo fame.
Zowie, often in combination following wowie, a variant of wow, expresses admiration or
astonishment.
Definitely use “the” or “a”
By Michael
When to use the indefinite article a and when to use the definite article the depends mostly
on how specific you want to be. During a wedding ceremony the groom would say, “Give
me the ring! The wedding ring!” because he must have a particular ring, while a carpenter
would say, ‘Hand me a nail” because he doesn’t care which nail in the box he uses. Usually
the bigger problem is not whether to use a definite or indefinite article, but whether to use
an article at all.
So many choices! When do you use a? When do you use an? When do you use the? But
relax. We’ll guide the way. We already talked about when to use a when to use an in the
article Give me an “A”: a vs. an, but we’ll give you a few more examples here.
 A: you use this when you’re not necessarily referring to a specific thing (such as a
nail, any nail). It’s called an indefinite article, because you’re not being definite or particular.
There are many nails in this big world.
o She owns a cat.
o I work on a golf course.
 An: it’s used just like a, but when preceding a vowel sound. It probably
comes from Old German, on which Old English was based. My theory is that the use
of an survives after all these centuries because it sounds better before vowels. Saying, “I
want a apple” sounds odd, compared to, “I want an apple.” For the same reason, the fake
French sentence, “À Anne, on en a un,” sounds even more odd.
o May I borrow an egg?
o He is an arrogant critic.
 The: you’re talking about a definite item, which is why the is called a definite
article. Of course it only makes sense if both you and your listeners know which item you
mean. If I commanded you, “Give me the money,” you would rightfully ask, “What money? I
don’t owe you any money.”
o The house on that corner once belonged to Charles Dickens.
o The weather is very pleasant today.
 You can use the the second time you refer to something, even if you
used an the first time. We know what you’re referring to, because you just told us. You can
do this, but I wouldn’t recommend it. Read these examples – repeating the noun might
sound monotonous.
o We visited a palace on our vacation. The palace was built in 1546.
o We also went to a concert. The concert was too loud for me.
 When it comes to geography, you don’t use the before the names of most

nations, provinces, states,lakes or islands. But there are many exceptions: the United
States, the Ukraine, or the Congo. On the other hand, the Ukrainians and Congolese
people I’ve met say, “Ukraine” and “Congo,” so go figure. If the name refers to plural items,
such as the United States, or the Maldives, you would use the definite article. You would do
the same for rivers and oceans, such as the Amazon, the Nile, and the Caspian Sea. Bays
need the definite article.
o He moved to Nepal near Mount Everest.
o They spent their honeymoon in eastern Maine, on Penobscot Bay.
 Unlike some languages such as French and Spanish, English sometimes

does not use any article at all. You don’t need one when making a general statement, or
when talking about meals and transportation.
o I prefer folk music.
o She hates making noodles.
o She eats breakfast at home.
o She traveled to college by train.
 British writers don’t use an article for some places that Americans would.
o British: I go to university.
o American: I go to college.
o American: I transfered to the university last year.
o British: I felt so ill that I went to hospital.
o American: I got so sick I had to go to the hospital.
Some rules apply all the time. Some rules apply only in certain situations, and only
experience and reading can help you get them all right. And some rules apply only in
certain situations in certain cultures: British and American English is sometimes different,
as you may have learned by now.
Cost-Effective vs. Cost-Efficient
By Maeve Maddox
A reader has asked about the use of these two terms:
I was wondering if you would care to comment on the difference between cost-

efficient and cost-effective. In both, Oxford and Webster (the free online versions), cost-
effective is properly defined while the cost-efficient page points to that of cost-effective. It
looks like cost-efficient is a tolerated synonym of a lesser status.
As always, my starting place is The Oxford English Dictionary. There I find a reference
to cost-effective in the entry for cost:
cost-effective adj. designating or pertaining to a project, etc., that is effective in terms of its
cost.
The first OED citation given for cost-effective is dated 1967. I find no entry for cost-efficient.
Merriam-Webster Unabridged provides entries for both terms:
cost-effective adjective: economical in terms of tangible benefits produced by money
spent.
cost-efficient adjective: cost-effective.
M-W gives 1970 as the “first known use of cost-efficient.”
I conclude that there is no difference of meaning between cost-effective and cost-efficient.

Is one term of “lower status” than the other?
The most that can be said is that one is more common than the other.
The OED and M-W date the terms from 1967 and 1970, but the Ngram Viewer shows
that cost-effective was present in printed sources as early as 1836. Both terms are
documented in works printed in 1887. Cost-effective shows a bump on the graph in the
1940s, but then both terms remain more or less even until the 1960s, when cost-
effective soars ahead.
A Google search also shows a preference for cost-effective:
“cost-effective”: about 83,600,000 results
“cost-efficient”: about 7,840,000 results
My advice is to use the more common term: cost-effective.
Writing the Century
By Maeve Maddox
Melvin Merzon sets me this multi-part question:
How would you write “21st Century”? In a legal document? In a business letter? In fiction?
In a nonfiction context?

21st Century?
21st century?
Twenty-first Century?
Twenty-First Century?
twenty-first century?
My short answer for all specified contexts is twenty-first century.
Unless the name of the century begins a sentence or is part of a proper name, it is written
in all lowercase letters: We are living in the twenty-first century.
When a century is part of a proper name, no hard and fast rule can apply. Someone
naming a program, company or a book may express the century any way they wish:
Twenty-first Century Scholars

Twenty-First Century Foundation
Twenty-First-Century Gateways (In this book title the century name has become an
adjective.)
20th Century Fox
Century 21 Realty
Newspaper headline writers may also exercise freedom when writing the century: New
Year Rings in 21st Century
Bottom line: go with twenty-first century unless there is some reason not to–for example,
contrary guidelines in a style manual you are required to follow.
Writing the Decades
Decades may be spelled out or expressed in numerals:
the eighties
the 1980s
NOTE: There’s no apostrophe between the numerals and the letter s.
The same rule about capitalization applies to decades as to centuries: if the decade is part
of a proper name or title, it will be capitalized; otherwise leave it in lowercase. For example,
write “the nineties,” but “the Gay Nineties”
Referring to the first two decades of a century can be tricky.
For example, if you want to talk about the first decade of the century, you can’t write the
1900s, or the 2000s because too many readers would assume you’re referring to the entire
century.
Another problem is that not all authors agree as to what years are included in a decade. Is
the “first decade” of the 1900s 1900 to 1909, or 1900-1910?
And what about the second decade? Some writers talk about the “teens” of a century, but
what about the years ending in -10, -11, and -12?
When writing about the first two decades of a century, it’s probably best to be a little wordy
for the sake of clarity. For example: History seemed to repeat itself in the decade 2000-
2009.
Body Parts as Tools of Measurement
By Maeve Maddox
An online writer relating the history of luggage tells how in the old days, holiday makers
didn’t try to manage with a mere suitcase when they went to the seaside for a week or so.
They took the same kind of large trunks they would use if they were going on a long
voyage:
…after all they had to change several times a day and not into dresses that barely covered
their private parts but into foot-long petticoats and skirts. –Marie-Luise Stromer
I don’t think that a foot-long petticoat would cover much of a lady’s anatomy.
The writer was reaching for an expression to convey the fact that in those days, a woman’s
dress extended all the way to her feet.
A choice of “foot-length” may not have been as jarring as “foot-long.” The reader could
probably infer a meaning of “extending to the feet.”
The usual idiom for what the writer intended is floor-length.
Ex. She wore a floor-length gown.
The expression foot-long, on the other hand, means “a foot (12 inches) in length.”
Ex. They sell foot-long hotdogs here.
English possesses several measurement words that derive from body parts.
cubit – from Latin cubitum, “the elbow.” A cubit was a measurement based on the forearm
from elbow to fingertip. The exact length varied according to whose arm was being used
and could be from 18 to 22 inches.
digit – In Latin, digitus could mean either “finger” or “toe.” The same is true of digit in
modern English. People use the digits of their hands to count to ten. And just think, we
imagine we’re so modern and up-to-date because we live in a Digital Age.
fathom – Old English faethm was “the length of the outstretched arm,” about six feet.
Water depth is measured in fathoms. Miners use the term to describe an area equal to six
square feet.
hairbreadth – According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, hairbreadth is said to have
once been a formal unit of measure equal to one-forty-eighth of an inch.
hand – Originally, a “hand” was a measurement of three inches, but now it is four inches.
This measurement is stil used to reckon the height of horses.
handful – This is an indeterminate quantity of some dry measure, such as grain, that can
be held in the cupped hand. A Greek word for “handful” is the origin of the Greek coin
called a drachma.
span – In Old English a span was “the distance between the thumb and little finger of an
extended hand,” roughly nine inches. Again, it all depended on whose hand.
thumb was probably the basis of the measurement now called an inch. We don’t measure
things in “thumbs,” anymore, but we do talk about thumbnail sketches and thumbnails in
the sense of “small images.”
The expression rule of thumb probably originated with carpenters who used their thumbs
to take rough measurements. The notion that the expression originated with a law
permitting a husband to beat his wife with a stick “no larger in circumference than his
thumb,” has no historical basis.
NOTE: The article that triggered this post is interesting and, considering that the author
may be writing English as a second language, extremely well-written.
Disappointed + Preposition
By Maeve Maddox
A reader asks:
Could you write about which preposition should be used after “disappointed” (e.g., in, at,
with, by…)? Please explain the instances to use them correctly.
I don’t think it’s possible to lay down a hard and fast rule about which preposition should
follow disappointed, but I’ve gathered some headlines and quotations from the Web that
illustrate what seems to me to be the most common usage.
His military dad was disappointed in him.
My parents are disappointed in me.
Disappointment is an emotion. The preposition that follows disappointed hints at the

intensity of the emotion involved.
“Disappointed in” suggests that a betrayal has taken place. The source of the
disappointment is usually a loved and trusted person whose actions are seen by another as
a betrayal. The trusted person’s very character is in question. This kind of disappointment
shakes a relationship.
In is also used when trust has been placed in an entity or institution from which something
else was expected:
New Hope parents, students disappointed in court’s decision
Drivers in Liberia are expressing frustration and disappointment in the Federation of Road
Transport Union (FRTUL) for its alleged failure to meet their needs.
“Disappointed by” lacks the sense of betrayal conveyed by “disappointed in”; with by the
emotion seems to be more one of surprise:
Kim Simplis Barrow says she’s disappointed by church’s position
“Disappointed with” seems to have the broadest application. We’re disappointed with
products or with how things are done:
”I am deeply disappointed with how WorkSafe conducted this investigation,” Clark told
reporters.
iPhone users are disappointed with the iOS 7.1 software update that’s draining their
batteries
Julien Disappointed With Bruins’ Effort In Winnipeg
Chase disappointed with outcome of 2014 Legislative sessions
Preposition use is changing rapidly. For example, nonstandard “excited for” is challenging
standard “excited about” in the speech of younger speakers. If the established uses of
“disappointed in” and “disappointed by” are displaced, it will be by “disappointed with,” as in
this comment by Drake Bennett:
Being disappointed with a person feels different from being disappointed with an outcome,
and demands a different response.
10 Colloquial Terms and Their Meanings
By Mark Nichol
Why is there a taint surrounding ain’t? Why do editors get ornery or riled, or have
conniptions or raise a ruckus, if writers try to use these and other words?
The ebb and flow of the English language’s vocabulary is caused by competing
crosscurrents. Neologisms come in with each tide, some of them washing ashore and
others drifting back out to sea. But pronouncements from self-appointed experts and tacit
disapproval by the self-selected better classes can also result in the relegation of certain
terms and idioms to the realm of substandard or nonstandard usage. Here are ten words
that, at least in terms of one sense, have been demoted by an association with rural dialect.
1. Ain’t: Once a fully legitimate contraction of “am not” employed at least in familiar
conversation by speakers of all social classes, ain’t came to be identified with less well-
educated people, and in the United States specifically with poor rural dwellers. It’s
unfortunate that in writing, its use is restricted to humorous emphasis or idiomatic
expressions (“Say it ain’t so!”).
2. Allow: The sense of allow meaning “concede” or “recognize” has been relegated to
obscurity; seldom is this usage employed except in faux-rural contexts.
3. Conniption: This word for an emotional fit, usually appearing in plural form (“having
conniptions”), is still employed occasionally in a jocular sense. It was first attested almost
two hundred years ago, but its origin is obscure, though it’s possibly a corruption
of corruption, which once had a connotation of anger, or might be derived from a dialectal
form of captious (“fallacious”).
4. Fetch: Fetch has a colloquial air about it, and it’s unfortunate that the word lacks
respectability, because it is more vivid and thorough a term than get (“Could you fetch that
for me?”), and more compact than, for example, “Could you go over there and bring that
back for me?” It survives in one formal sense, however: far-fetched (originally, “brought
from afar,” but used figuratively for most of its centuries-long life span).
5. Ornery: This contraction of ordinary, influenced by the latter word’s less common senses
of “coarse” and “ugly,” developed a connotation of cantankerous or mean behavior. Today,
it’s used only in a humorous or scornful sense.
6. Reckon: The sense of reckon that means “suppose” (“I reckon I ought to get home”) is
one of the most high-profile examples of stereotypical rural dialect, but it’s absent from
formal usage.
7. Rile: This dialectal variant of roil, in the sense of “stir up,” is used informally to describe
irritation or anger.
8. Ruckus: Ruckus, probably a mash-up of ruction (“disturbance”) and rumpus (“boisterous
activity”) — themselves both dialectal terms — is now used only light-heartedly.
9. Spell: The sense of spell that means “an indefinite period of time,” related to the use of
the word to mean “substitute,” is confined to rural dialect or affectation of such usage.
10. Yonder: This formerly standard term meaning “over there” is now known only in rural
dialect (or spoofing of it) or in a poetic sense.
Wether, Weather, Whether
By Sharon
Wether is a prime example of a word that will slip past the spell check. It is easily confused
with two of its homonyms, whether and weather. Flying fingers find it easy to miss the
single letter that separates them. Unless you’re a farmer, you might not even know
that wether is either a:
male sheep or ram (the Oxford Dictionary of Etymology traces its roots to Old English, Old
High German, Old Norse and Goth)
or a:
castrated ram or billy goat (according to A Word A Day).
We all know that MS Word can be easily confused, but there’s no need for us to face the
same confusion.
Weather, that stuff up there in the sky, is the ‘condition of the atmosphere with respect to
heat or cold, calm or storm, etc’. That’s according to the Oxford Dictionary of Etymology.
Interestingly, when it was first used in Old English in the 12th century, weather always
had adverse implications. In the 14th century, the term also referred to the wind direction,
and its roots lie in various terms meaning either wind or storm.
Weathering, derived from weather, is the result of exposure to wind and weather.
The frequently misspelled whether is used to introduce a question, often outlining a choice
between options. Its roots lie in Old English and Old High German.
Here’s my attempt at using them all in a sentence. The farmer wondered whether the
adverse weather had affected his wether.
10 Techniques for More Precise Writing
By Mark Nichol
Here are ten ways to produce more vivid, direct, concise prose by replacing wordy phrases
with fewer words and reorganizing sentences. It is not advisable to employ these strategies
indiscriminately, but prose will usually be improved by following the recommendations
below.
1. Use Active Voice
When a sentence includes be or any other copulative verb, such as is or are, recast the
sentence to omit the verb.
Before: “The meeting was seen by us as a ploy to delay the project.”
After: “We saw the meeting as a ploy to delay the project.”
2. Avoid Vague Nouns
Phrases formed around general nouns such as aspect, degree, and situation clutter

sentences.
Before: “She is an expert in the area of international relations.”
After: “She is an expert in international relations.”
3. Use Words, Not Their Definitions
Replace explanatory phrases with a single word that encapsulates that explanation.
Before: “The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell any
yields that exceeded what they personally required.”
After: “The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell any
surplus.”
4. Avoid Noun Strings
Reorganize sentences to eliminate series of nouns used as adjectives.

Before: “The lack of a secure transfer may hamper computer security incident response
efforts.”
After: “The lack of a secure transfer may hamper responses to computer-security
incidents.”
5. Convert Nouns to Verbs
When a sentence includes a noun ending in -tion, change the noun to a verb to simplify the
sentence.
Before: “They will collaborate in the creation of new guidelines.”
After: “They will collaborate to create new guidelines.”
6. Reduce Verb Phrases to Simple Verbs
Identify the verb buried in a verb phrase and omit the rest of the phrase.
Before: “The results are suggestive of the fact that tampering has occurred.”
After: “The results suggest that tampering has occurred.”
7. Replace Complex Words with Simple Ones
Choose simpler synonyms for multisyllabic words.

Before: “The department will disseminate the forms soon.”
After: “The department will pass out the forms soon.”
8. Avoid Expletives
Don’t start sentences with “There is,” “There are,” or “It is.”
Before: “There are many factors in the product’s failure.”
After: “Many factors contributed to the product’s failure.”
9. Eliminate Prepositional Phrases
Replace “(noun1) of the (noun2)” phrasing with “(noun2)’s (noun1)” phrasing.

Before: “The decision of the committee is final.”
After: “The committee’s decision is final.”
10. Reduce Wordy Phrases to Single Words
Replace phrases that signal a transition with simple conjunctions, verbs, or other linking
words.
Before: Due to the fact that the project is behind schedule, today’s meeting has been
postponed.
After: Because the project is behind schedule, today’s meeting has been postponed.
Comma After Introductory Phrases
By Maeve Maddox
A reader asks why there is no comma after the introductory phrase in the following
sentence from one of my recent posts:
At a recent writers’ conference I heard a successful self-published author say, “Readers are
not looking for great writing; they’re looking for a great story.”
I formerly put a comma after every introductory word or adverb phrase of any length, but
I’ve begun leaving it out unless I think its absence will create reader double take, as in the
following:
Before eating the members held the business portion of the meeting.
Below the cars covered the lawn.
Until the morning fishing is out of the question.
These introductory phrases demand to be set off:
Before eating, the members held the business portion of the meeting.
Below, the cars covered the lawn.
Until the morning, fishing is out of the question.
Authoritative recommendations vary.
An online grammar site sponsored by Capital Community College in Hartford, Connecticut

states:
It is permissible, even commonplace, to omit a comma after most brief introductory

elements — a prepositional phrase, an adverb, or a noun phrase.
The Chicago Manual of Style also indicates that the comma after an introductory adverb
phrase may be left out:
An introductory adverbial phrase is often set off by a comma but need not be unless
misreading is likely. Shorter adverbial phrases are less likely to merit a comma than longer
ones.
The Purdue Owl also advises that the comma after some introductory elements, such as “a
brief prepositional phrase,” may be left out. Unlike some of the other sources, the OWL
gives us a clue as to what we may consider “brief”: “a single phrase of fewer than five
words.”
But while some authorities condone leaving out the comma if no confusion can result,
others caution discretion as the better part of valor:
The Longman Handbook: Sometimes the comma after an introductory word or word group
is required; sometimes it is optional. When you are uncertain, stay on the safe side: use a
comma.
Penguin Writer’s Manual: Even where there is no real danger of confusion or absurdity, it is
usually better to insert a comma than not.
And our own Precise Edit: Use commas even after short introductory descriptions for
consistency.
As with whether to use the serial comma in a list of adjectives, writers have a choice
regarding the use of a comma to set off an introductory phrase.
The Difference Between “Un-” and “Dis-“
By Maeve Maddox
A reader asks about differences between the prefixes un- and dis-.

The question is not easy to address.
The prefix un- has been in the language longer than dis-.

The Old English prefix on- (now spelled un-) was added to verbs to indicated a reversal of
the action:
wind/unwind
bind/unbind
fold/unfold
do/undo
This prefix has remained alive, giving us such verb opposites as:
fasten/unfasten
buckle/unbuckle
cover/uncover
wrap/unwrap
Old English also had the prefix of negation un- that was added to adjectives, such
as unborn and unburied. We continue to form negative adjectives in this way:
unhappy
unknown
unwanted
unavailable
unconventional
uncool
unputdownable
Dis- came into English during the Middle English period, along with many Latin and French
words. The prefix dis- is related to bis, (two), and can be used in the sense of separation:
disjoin
disable
In the course of centuries, distinctions between un- and dis- have blurred. Sometimes the
prefixes are interchangeable. Sometimes not.
Sometimes a perceived difference may exist only in the mind of the individual English
speaker.
Many speakers distinguish between disorganized and unorganized.

Disorganized applies to the sort of person who stuffs receipts into the sock drawer and
can never find the car keys. Unorganized applies to things which have not yet been
arranged in an organized manner. By this reasoning, a person would be disorganized, but
an office would be unorganized.
At one time, unease and disease (first syllable stressed) could be used interchangeably
with the meaning “state of anxiety.” Now disease (second syllable stressed) has taken on
the meaning of “illness.”
Angry arguments are waged over the differentiated meanings
of uninterest and disinterest. The argument is that uninterested should be used with the
sense of “indifferent, lacking in interest, while disinterested should be used only when the
intended meaning is “impartial.” Some argue against the distinction on historical grounds,
but the perceived difference in modern usage is a useful one.
When it comes to language, those who value logic above all else are just asking for
elevated blood pressure.
For example, the noun discontent is matched with the adjective discontented, but the
adjective that corresponds to the noun discomfort is uncomfortable.
About all one can safely say about the use of the prefixes un- and dis- is that their correct
use is often a matter of idiom.
The best way to master them is to read, listen, and look up questionable forms in a
trustworthy dictionary.
10 Varieties of Syntax to Improve Your Writing
By Mark Nichol
English is a remarkably flexible language in terms of syntax, because a simple statement
can be rendered in so many ways. Take, for example, the statement “I went for a walk,”
and consider all the ways you can attach the additional information included in the
statement, “I saw a dinosaur.” Here are just some of the most basic of many variations in
syntactical organization:
1. Write the statements as consecutive sentences: “I went for a walk. I saw a dinosaur.”
2. Add the second statement to the first as a dependent clause: “I went for a walk and
saw a dinosaur.” (The second statement does not stand on its own.)
3. Add the second statement to the first as an independent clause: “I went for a walk,
and I saw a dinosaur.” (The second statement stands on its own, which means it can be
separated into two sentences, as in the first example.)
4. Begin the sentence with a dependent marker that turns the initial statement into a
modifying phrase that expands on the second statement: “While I was walking, I saw a
dinosaur.”
5. Begin with the second statement and reword the first statement as a modifying
phrase that follows it: “I saw a dinosaur on my walk this morning.”
6. Insert a nonessential phrase, which must be bracketed by commas, one of two
ways: Locate the phrase between a pair of independent clauses (but after the coordinating
conjunction), each consisting of one of the two statements: “I went for a walk and, to my
surprise, I saw a dinosaur.” (Notice that “to my surprise,” which can be omitted without
altering the sentence’s meaning, modifies the second statement and so must follow and;
note, too, that the comma preceding the coordinating conjunction can be omitted.)
Or, separate two statements with a nonessential phrase inserted before the coordinating
conjunction: “I went for a walk, following my usual route, and I saw a dinosaur.” (Notice that
“following my usual route,” which also does not alter the sentence’s meaning if it is omitted,
modifies the first statement and so must precede and.)
7. Emphasize a nonessential phrase by bracketing it with em dashes to indicate an

interruption of thought: “I went for a walk and — no, I was not hallucinating — I saw a
dinosaur.” (Alternatively, to deemphasize the phrase, or for humorous effect, enclose it in
parentheses.)
8. Insert an essential clause — one whose absence would alter the meaning the
sentence — between two statements: “I went for a walk that followed my usual route and
saw a dinosaur.”
9. Attach a variation of the second statement to the first, preceded by a semicolon
when the second statement is an independent clause that is nevertheless closely
associated with the first one: “I went for a walk; a dinosaur was grazing along my route.”
10. Separate two statements with a semicolon when the second statement is
preceded by an adverb or an adverbial phrase, which requires a subsequent comma:
“I went for a walk; unexpectedly, I saw a dinosaur along the way.”
It is this rich variety of word and phrase order and variation in punctuation that makes prose
— fiction or nonfiction — readable. As you review your writing, make sure that you vary
sentence structure among these and other constructions to create a pleasant reading
experience devoid of lockstep syntax — questionable enough for a Dick-and-Jane reading
level, and deadly for more sophisticated readers.
If you found a treasure chest buried in your garden, what would you most like to discover
inside?
30 Synonyms for “Meeting”

By Mark Nichol
Humans, being social animals, have many reasons for meeting — and many words to
describe doing so in various degrees of formality and format. Here are thirty ways to label a
meeting, depending on the particulars.
1. Assembly: a meeting for entertainment, legislation, or worship

2. Caucus: a meeting, often in a political context, to select candidates or policy
3. Clinic: a problem-solving meeting or one at which participants acquire knowledge or
skills
4. Colloquium: a meeting at which experts, usually in an academic setting, give
presentations on one or more topics and engage in a question-and-answer period
5. Colloquy: a serious, important meeting (also, a synonym for conversation and dialogue)
6. Conclave: a private or secret meeting, especially that of Roman Catholic cardinals
convened to select a new pope, or any gathering of an organization
7. Confab: a chat, discussion, or meeting (informal usage)
8. Conference: a meeting for discussing issues or topics of interest to all participants,
usually including keynote speeches and a wide variety of sessions on specific subjects
9. Congress: a meeting or session, especially of delegates to discuss and act on an issue
or topic
10. Convention: a meeting to bring together representatives of a trade, profession, or
interest group, or to assemble representatives of a political party to select candidates and
policy
11. Convocation: a meeting of attendees called together, of a college or university’s
members, or of clergy (and perhaps laypeople)
12. Council: a meeting to discuss or advise on one or more issues
13. Demonstration: an informal mass meeting, usually held outdoors on public property, to
protest about or bring attention to a topic or issue
14. Forum: a meeting that involves a discussion among experts or between them and
audience members
15. Gathering: a meeting (informal usage)
16. Get-together: an informal meeting
17. Huddle: a meeting (informal usage)
18. Panel: a meeting at which participants discuss a topic or issue in front of an audience
19. Palaver: a meeting, especially one between disparate parties
20. Parley: a meeting to resolve conflict or negotiate with an enemy
21. Powwow: a meeting or a social event, or a meeting to celebrate Native American
culture
22. Rally: a mass meeting to inspire enthusiasm and/or action
23. Round-robin: a small meeting to discuss or decide on a topic or issue
24. Roundtable: see round-robin
25. Seminar: a meeting for disseminating and discussing information
26. Session: a meeting or series of meetings, or a portion of an extended meeting or one
of various simultaneous meetings as part of a larger event
27. Summit: a meeting of high-level leaders
28. Symposium: a formal meeting at which several specialists deliver short addresses on
a topic or on related topics
29. Synod: a meeting of clergy
30. Workshop: an educational meeting or program
Words That Begin with Q
By Maeve Maddox
Although Scrabble resources list hundreds of “English words” beginning with the letter q,
there are only about 80 (not counting inflections) that most people are likely to encounter in
their reading. I’ll categorize them according to “Basic Vocabulary,” “General Vocabulary,”
and “Advanced Vocabulary.”
Note: In English orthography, q is usually followed by the letter u. The conventional
pronunciation of qu is [kw]. In a few words, qu is pronounced [k]; I’ll note them.
Basic Vocabulary
quail
quaint
Quaker
qualify
quality
quantity
quarrel
quarry
quart
quartet
quartz
queen
queer
query
quest
question
queue [kju]
quiche [keesh]
quick
quiet
quilt
quintet
quip
quit
quite
quiz
quota
quote
quotient
General Vocabulary
quack
quaff
quagmire
quake
qualm
quandary
quantum
quark
quash
quasi
quaver
quay [kee]
quell
quench
queasy
quibble
quicken
quid
quieten
quill
quince
quirk
quirt
quiver
quixotic
Quixote (Standard American pronunciation of Quixote: [kee-HOH-tee]; Standard British
pronunciation: [KWIK-sit])
quorum
quoth
Advanced Vocabulary
quaestor
quahog (also spelled quohog; some speakers pronounce the qu as [k])
quai [kay] (this is the word for the quays in Paris)
quartile
quean
quern
quiddity
Quietism
quietude
quietus
quiff
quire
quoin [KOYN]
quoit [koit] and [kwoit]
quondam
Related post: Q in English Words
The Six Spellings of “Long E”
By Maeve Maddox
Some of you have had the opportunity to attend, but we wanted our members to have a
sneak peak at what they have to offer.
The above quotation is from a club announcement.
The words “sneak peak” certainly seem as if they ought to match, but the word “peak” is a
misspelling in this context.
The word meaning “a surreptitious look” is spelled peek.

A peak is “a projecting point.”
As I pointed out in English Spelling is Not Total Chaos, English has more phonograms
(sound symbols) than it needs.
This multiplicity of spellings applies especially to the vowel sounds.
“Long E” is the vowel sound represented by the e in me.

This “long e” sound can also be represented by five other phonograms:
ee
Achilles was wounded in his heel.
The “double e” spelling ee always represents the “long e” sound: see, kneel, feel, tee (golf
term).
ea
Physician, heal thyself.
“Long e” is the most common sound represented by ea: read, zeal, appeal, deal, meal,
real. (The spelling ea can also represent two other vowel sounds.)
ei
That man is filled with conceit.
This ei spelling for “long e” occurs in words in which the ei follows the letter c: ceiling,
conceit, perceive, receipt, receive. (There’s a rule that often helps: “i before e except
after c…”)
ie
Let’s plant oats in that field.
“Long e” is spelled ie in several common words: believe, belief, brief, chief, field, niece,
priest, siege, achieve, piece.
ey
Follett wrote The Key to Rebecca.
The ey spelling for “long e” is not common in one-syllable words. Key is the only one I can
think of. The phonogram ey to represent “long e” does appear at the end of two-syllable
words like valley, alley, and galley. (The spelling ey more often represents the “long a”
sound, as in they.)
It’s too bad that we have so many ways to spell the “long e” sound, but it’s probably too late
to do anything about it–other than learn the variants.
Even Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), an early advocate of English spelling reform, had to
concede that
No set of rules can cover all points; some things must be left to observation and daily
practice.*
*Baugh, A History of the English Language p. 255)

40 Synonyms for Praise
By Mark Nichol
Last week, I offered a list of synonyms for the word criticize. To avert criticism
(admonishment, censure, chastising, and so on), I offer here a roster of synonyms for its
antonym, praise, in that word’s verb form as well as when it’s used as a noun.
1. Acclaim: To applaud or praise; also a noun referring to the action of applause or
cheering.
2. Acknowledge: To recognize someone or something for services rendered; the word
also has the connotation of “to confirm rights or authority.”
3. Adore: To honor or worship in a religious sense, although its meaning has extended to
“to be fond of, to admire.”
4. Adulate: “To express excessive praise.” This rarely used verb form of adulation has a
connotation of flattery. (See flatter below.)
5. Applaud: To express approval in general, as well as to clap hands or otherwise praise
nonverbally.
6. Belaud: To praise, but the sense is of excessive acclaim.
7. Bless: To praise or to glorify in a religious sense; the word also has a secular sense of
“to approve” as well as “to favor” (the latter in usage such as “blessed with remarkable
talent”).
8. Carol: To praise with song, or in a like manner.
9. Celebrate: To publicly honor in a secular sense as well as a religious one.
10. Chant: A close synonym of carol and hymn.
11. Cheer: To cheer in applause or to express triumph.
12. Cite: To formally call attention to for praise. However, this term also has an opposite
meaning of “to reprimand,” as well as the senses of “to quote” or “to refer to,” so the context
should be clear.
13. Commemorate: To observe a ceremony of remembrance, or to provide a memorial.
14. Commend: To praise with approval, or to recommend.
15. Compliment: To communicate respect or admiration for someone to that person or
another.
16. Crack up: Slang used to refer to someone or something that may or may not be as
worthy of praise as previously thought; generally restricted to phrases such as “not all it’s
cracked up to be.”
17. Deify: To glorify, as if to equate the person being praised with a god; this sense
coexists with the literal religious sense of according someone the status of a god.
18. Emblazon: Originally meant to inscribe or decorate a heraldic device or bearings; now,
the sense is extended to praising, especially in writing, as if to permanently establish the
subject as praiseworthy.
19. Eulogize (British English: eulogise): To praise in speech or writing; usually, the
connotation is that the subject of praise is deceased.
20. Exalt: To praise extensively.
21. Extol (or extoll): To praise generously.
22. Fete: To honor with a celebration, or to honor in general.
23. Flatter: To praise insincerely or only for selfish motives. The word also has similar
senses of “to depict with excessive favor” or “to present to one’s advantage,” as well as “to
deceive, as in “I flatter myself that I acted wisely.”
24. Glorify: To praise with the intent of making the subject appear glorious, but it also
means “to make something or someone seem to be better than it or they really is.”
25. Hail: To greet enthusiastically as a show of approval; the term also has a mundane
sense of “to call or greet.”
26. Honor: To express respect or admiration.
27. Hymn: A close synonym of carol and chant.
28. Idolize: To worship, with a connotation of excessive praise.
29. Laud: To praise; also, capitalized, a religious ceremony. (The adjective form is
laudable.)
30. Magnify: To praise, in the sense, as the etymology suggests, of making someone or
something appear greater than they or it is.
31. Mention: To identify someone or something for mild praise, often in the form of a
consolation prize called “Honorable Mention.”
32. Rave: To praise enthusiastically.
33. Recognize: To publicly thank someone for their service or otherwise indicate
appreciation.
34. Recommend: To endorse or propose as commendable, in addition to the more
pedestrian connotations such as “to advise.”
35. Renown: To offer praise. (In its more common noun form, it means “fame.”)
36. Resound: To praise, or to become one praised, with the sense of loud approval. The
word has an additional sense, more commonly used, of echoing or reverberating.
37. Rhapsodize: To praise excessively, from the noun form, rhapsody, which refers to a
literary work that rouses emotions (originally, it denoted recitation of an epic poem).
38. Salute: To praise or honor, in addition to the sense of gesturing to show respect or to
otherwise acknowledge someone as a courtesy.
39. Tout: To promote or endorse. It also means
“to spy,” especially in the sense of obtaining information about a racehorse to improve
one’s betting odds.
40. Worship: To extravagantly praise, as if the subject were a deity.
10 Grammar Mistakes You Should Avoid
By Maeve Maddox
If you want to write clear, correct English, you certainly need to pay attention to the
grammar rules. To help you with that, we collaborated with the folks
from Grammarly and Write To Done to create a list with 30 common grammar mistakes you
should avoid. Enjoy!
Mistake 1: Using whom as a subject
INCORRECT: Fire personnel radioed deputies to stop the driver, whom, according to
reports, appeared to have been under the influence of intoxicants.
CORRECT : Fire personnel radioed deputies to stop the driver, who, according to reports,
appeared to have been under the influence of intoxicants.
In this sentence, the pronoun is the subject of the verb appeared and therefore requires the
subject form who. The object form of who is whom, which functions as the object of a verb
or as the object of a preposition:
That is the man whom I saw at the window. (object of the verb saw)
Did he say to whom he sent the letter? (object of the preposition to)
The misuse of whom as a subject frequently occurs when a phrase intervenes between the
pronoun and its subject. Be especially careful with such expressions as “according to so-
and-so,” “in my opinion,” “one suspects,” etc. Less frequently, but more
embarrassingly, whom is sometimes substituted for who when little or nothing stands
between it and its verb, as in this sentence taken from a news account: “An off-duty fireman
whom lives in the area provided immediate assistance.”
Mistake 2: Unnecessary would in a wish about the past
INCORRECT: Ten Things I Wish I Would Have Known When I Was Twenty
CORRECT : Ten Things I Wish I Had Known When I Was Twenty
The opportunity for knowing the ten things existed in the past, but exists no longer. The
tense required, therefore, is the past perfect (had + past participle).
Mistake 3: Dangling modifier
INCORRECT: At the age of four, Sam’s family moved from Florida, Missouri, to Hannibal.
CORRECT : At the age of four, Sam moved with his family from Florida, Missouri, to
Hannibal.
Modifiers should be positioned as closely as possible to the element they modify. The
modifying phrase “At the age of four” modifies “Sam,” not “Sam’s family.”
Mistake 4: Subject-Verb disagreement with delayed subject

INCORRECT: There goes Sally and Greg on their way to the movies.
CORRECT : There go Sally and Greg on their way to the movies.
Subjects and verbs must agree in number. When a sentence begins with here or there, the
true subject of the sentence follows the verb. “Sally and Greg” is a plural subject, so the
verb go must also be plural: “Sally and Greg go.”
Mistake 5: Incorrect use of object pronouns
INCORRECT: Me and my brothers all have college degrees in business.
CORRECT : My brothers and I all have college degrees in business.
Several English pronouns retain different forms that indicate their function in a
sentence. Me is an object form. In the example, it is incorrectly used as the subject of the
verb have. Other object forms often used incorrectly are him, her, us, them, and whom.
Mistake 6: Incorrect use of subject pronouns
INCORRECT: The owner was most kind to my wife and I as we toured the grounds.
CORRECT : The owner was most kind to my wife and me as we toured the grounds.
I is a subject pronoun form. It is correctly used as the subject of a verb. Its object form
is me, which is used as the object of a verb or, as in this example, the object of a
preposition (to). Not all English pronouns retain an object form. The pronouns that do have
subject and object forms are he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them, and who/whom.
Mistake 7: Inappropriate use of reflexive pronoun forms
INCORRECT: Jack and myself built the company from scratch.
CORRECT : Jack and I built the company from scratch.
A pronoun that ends in -self or -selves is called a reflexive pronoun. This type of pronoun
refers to a noun or personal pronoun that occurs elsewhere in the sentence. For example,
“He cut himself shaving.” In this example, himself refers to the same person as the one
meant by He. A typical error is to use a reflexive pronoun in place of a personal pronoun:
INCORRECT: Thank you for everything you did for myself and my family.
CORRECT : Thank you for everything you did for me and my family.
Note: A more polite usage is to put me last in the phrase: Thank you for everything you did
for my family and me.
Mistake 8: Incorrect use of did instead of had in certain “if clauses”
One use of the conjunction if is to introduce a clause that states an action that would have
changed an outcome. For example, “If I hadn’t missed the train, I would be in London now.”
A common error is to use did instead of had, as in this headline:
INCORRECT: [Celebrity] thinks he would be dead now if he didn’t give up alcohol and
drugs
CORRECT : [Celebrity] thinks he would be dead now if he hadn’t given up alcohol and
drugs
The person mentioned in the headline actually said (correctly), “I honestly don’t think I’d be
alive if I hadn’t stopped drinking.” The tense required is the past perfect (had + past
participle).
Mistake 9: Incorrect irregular verb forms
Most English verbs form the past and past participle by adding -ed to the base form. For
example:
walk, walked, (has) walked
believe, believed, (has) believed
jump, jumped, (has) jumped
However, a few high-frequency verbs have irregular past forms, for example:
run, ran, (has) run
go, went, (has) gone
come, came, (has) come
Errors with irregular verb forms are becoming common in the media and in articles written
by university graduates. Such errors are perhaps evidence that elementary school teachers
no longer drill their students on the irregular verb forms. Here are typical errors:
INCORRECT: Mary loves to read, has ran for office and has an articulate way of telling it
like it is.—Biographical note, KZNU.
CORRECT : Mary loves to read, has run for office and has an articulate way of telling it like
it is.
INCORRECT: Deluna-Martinez is alleged to have went into one student’s account and
dropped that student’s classes.—News item, KRCR
CORRECT : Deluna-Martinez is alleged to have gone into one student’s account and
dropped that student’s classes.
INCORRECT: Deep Impact could have just so happened to hit one of these cometesimals,
while the gas seen before impact might have came from a different region on the comet
with different chemistry.—Scientific article, NASA site.
CORRECT : Deep Impact could have just so happened to hit one of these cometesimals,
while the gas seen before impact might have come from a different region on the comet
with different chemistry.
Note: A cometesimal is a “mini-comet.”
Mistake 10: Omitting that when it is needed after say
When there is no intervening conjunction, that may be omitted after the verb say:
The witness said she overheard the defendant threaten to burn the man’s house down.
However, if a conjunction such as after, although, because, before, in addition to, until,

or while intervenes between the verb say and its object, that is needed to avoid ambiguity:
INCORRECT: Santana said after he stopped recording, he watched for a few more minutes
but never saw anyone perform CPR.
CORRECT : Santana said that after he stopped recording, he watched for a few more
minutes but never saw anyone perform CPR.
Now visit Write To Done for 10 more grammar mistakes to avoid, and the Grammarly
Blog for yet 10 more!
10 Grammar Mistakes You Should Avoid
By Maeve Maddox
If you want to write clear, correct English, you certainly need to pay attention to the
grammar rules. To help you with that, we collaborated with the folks
from Grammarly and Write To Done to create a list with 30 common grammar mistakes you
should avoid. Enjoy!
Mistake 1: Using whom as a subject
INCORRECT: Fire personnel radioed deputies to stop the driver, whom, according to
reports, appeared to have been under the influence of intoxicants.
CORRECT : Fire personnel radioed deputies to stop the driver, who, according to reports,
appeared to have been under the influence of intoxicants.
In this sentence, the pronoun is the subject of the verb appeared and therefore requires the
subject form who. The object form of who is whom, which functions as the object of a verb
or as the object of a preposition:
That is the man whom I saw at the window. (object of the verb saw)
Did he say to whom he sent the letter? (object of the preposition to)
The misuse of whom as a subject frequently occurs when a phrase intervenes between the
pronoun and its subject. Be especially careful with such expressions as “according to so-
and-so,” “in my opinion,” “one suspects,” etc. Less frequently, but more
embarrassingly, whom is sometimes substituted for who when little or nothing stands
between it and its verb, as in this sentence taken from a news account: “An off-duty fireman
whom lives in the area provided immediate assistance.”
Mistake 2: Unnecessary would in a wish about the past
INCORRECT: Ten Things I Wish I Would Have Known When I Was Twenty
CORRECT : Ten Things I Wish I Had Known When I Was Twenty
The opportunity for knowing the ten things existed in the past, but exists no longer. The
tense required, therefore, is the past perfect (had + past participle).
Mistake 3: Dangling modifier
INCORRECT: At the age of four, Sam’s family moved from Florida, Missouri, to Hannibal.
CORRECT : At the age of four, Sam moved with his family from Florida, Missouri, to
Hannibal.
Modifiers should be positioned as closely as possible to the element they modify. The
modifying phrase “At the age of four” modifies “Sam,” not “Sam’s family.”
Mistake 4: Subject-Verb disagreement with delayed subject

INCORRECT: There goes Sally and Greg on their way to the movies.
CORRECT : There go Sally and Greg on their way to the movies.
Subjects and verbs must agree in number. When a sentence begins with here or there, the
true subject of the sentence follows the verb. “Sally and Greg” is a plural subject, so the
verb go must also be plural: “Sally and Greg go.”
Mistake 5: Incorrect use of object pronouns
INCORRECT: Me and my brothers all have college degrees in business.
CORRECT : My brothers and I all have college degrees in business.
Several English pronouns retain different forms that indicate their function in a
sentence. Me is an object form. In the example, it is incorrectly used as the subject of the
verb have. Other object forms often used incorrectly are him, her, us, them, and whom.
Mistake 6: Incorrect use of subject pronouns
INCORRECT: The owner was most kind to my wife and I as we toured the grounds.
CORRECT : The owner was most kind to my wife and me as we toured the grounds.
I is a subject pronoun form. It is correctly used as the subject of a verb. Its object form
is me, which is used as the object of a verb or, as in this example, the object of a
preposition (to). Not all English pronouns retain an object form. The pronouns that do have
subject and object forms are he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them, and who/whom.
Mistake 7: Inappropriate use of reflexive pronoun forms
INCORRECT: Jack and myself built the company from scratch.
CORRECT : Jack and I built the company from scratch.
A pronoun that ends in -self or -selves is called a reflexive pronoun. This type of pronoun
refers to a noun or personal pronoun that occurs elsewhere in the sentence. For example,
“He cut himself shaving.” In this example, himself refers to the same person as the one
meant by He. A typical error is to use a reflexive pronoun in place of a personal pronoun:
INCORRECT: Thank you for everything you did for myself and my family.
CORRECT : Thank you for everything you did for me and my family.
Note: A more polite usage is to put me last in the phrase: Thank you for everything you did
for my family and me.
Mistake 8: Incorrect use of did instead of had in certain “if clauses”
One use of the conjunction if is to introduce a clause that states an action that would have
changed an outcome. For example, “If I hadn’t missed the train, I would be in London now.”
A common error is to use did instead of had, as in this headline:
INCORRECT: [Celebrity] thinks he would be dead now if he didn’t give up alcohol and
drugs
CORRECT : [Celebrity] thinks he would be dead now if he hadn’t given up alcohol and
drugs
The person mentioned in the headline actually said (correctly), “I honestly don’t think I’d be
alive if I hadn’t stopped drinking.” The tense required is the past perfect (had + past
participle).
Mistake 9: Incorrect irregular verb forms
Most English verbs form the past and past participle by adding -ed to the base form. For
example:
walk, walked, (has) walked
believe, believed, (has) believed
jump, jumped, (has) jumped
However, a few high-frequency verbs have irregular past forms, for example:
run, ran, (has) run
go, went, (has) gone
come, came, (has) come
Errors with irregular verb forms are becoming common in the media and in articles written
by university graduates. Such errors are perhaps evidence that elementary school teachers
no longer drill their students on the irregular verb forms. Here are typical errors:
INCORRECT: Mary loves to read, has ran for office and has an articulate way of telling it
like it is.—Biographical note, KZNU.
CORRECT : Mary loves to read, has run for office and has an articulate way of telling it like
it is.
INCORRECT: Deluna-Martinez is alleged to have went into one student’s account and
dropped that student’s classes.—News item, KRCR
CORRECT : Deluna-Martinez is alleged to have gone into one student’s account and
dropped that student’s classes.
INCORRECT: Deep Impact could have just so happened to hit one of these cometesimals,
while the gas seen before impact might have came from a different region on the comet
with different chemistry.—Scientific article, NASA site.
CORRECT : Deep Impact could have just so happened to hit one of these cometesimals,
while the gas seen before impact might have come from a different region on the comet
with different chemistry.
Note: A cometesimal is a “mini-comet.”
Mistake 10: Omitting that when it is needed after say
When there is no intervening conjunction, that may be omitted after the verb say:
The witness said she overheard the defendant threaten to burn the man’s house down.
However, if a conjunction such as after, although, because, before, in addition to, until,

or while intervenes between the verb say and its object, that is needed to avoid ambiguity:
INCORRECT: Santana said after he stopped recording, he watched for a few more minutes
but never saw anyone perform CPR.
CORRECT : Santana said that after he stopped recording, he watched for a few more
minutes but never saw anyone perform CPR.
Now visit Write To Done for 10 more grammar mistakes to avoid, and the Grammarly
Blog for yet 10 more!
50 Synonyms for “Leader”
By Mark Nichol
Here’s a list of words that can take the place of leader.
1. Administrator: a person with short-term or long-term responsibility — in the latter sense,
usually a generic term; also, one given responsibility over an estate
2. Archon: one who presides (informal), or a chief magistrate in Athens in classical times
3. Autocrat: one with absolute power
4. Boss: someone in authority or control, as a manager or supervisor or a politician who
does not have official status as leader of a political entity but has the actual power
5. Captain: a commander of certain military, law-enforcement, or firefighting units with the
official rank of captain, or one who commands a vessel regardless of actual rank, or, by
analogy, one who is an acknowledged leader (as in the metaphorical phrase “captain of
industry”)
6. Coach: one who helps others acquire knowledge or develop skills, especially in athletics,
either in groups or, as a tutor, individually; also, one of various types of vehicles
7. Chair (or chairman, chairwoman, or chairperson): one who leads a board of directors or
trustees, a committee, or an academic department or presides over a meeting
8. Chief: the leader of an organization or department (informal except in such titles as
“chief of police” and “chief information officer,” or in reference to the leader of a band or
tribe of Native Americans)
9. Chieftain: the leader of a band, clan, or tribe
10. Commandant: a leader of some military units
11. Commander: a leader of a certain military, law-enforcement, or firefighting units with
the official rank of commander, or one in command of such a unit regardless of actual rank,
or the leader of some organizations or societies
12. Commanding officer: the senior officer of a military unit
13. Commissioner: the leader of a bureau or department in the public sector, a leader with
responsibility for some subordinate geopolitical entities, or the administrative leader of a
professional body of athletic teams; also, a member of a commission
14. Conductor: one who coordinates the performance of an orchestra or other large music
ensemble; also, someone who collects fares on public transit, or a material that permits the
flow of energy, heat, or sound
15. Dean: a member of the clergy or a school administrator in charge of part of a church
jurisdiction or part of a learning institution, or responsible for counseling and monitoring
students, or, informally, someone recognized as preeminent in his or her field
16. Demagogue: one who leads a political party or movement and maintains influence
through emotional appeals
17. Director: the leader of an administrative unit, or one of a group of people responsible
for the governance of a corporation or a nonprofit organization, or the person in charge of a
theatrical production or an orchestra or another music ensemble
18. Dictator: an authoritarian head of state, especially one who obtained leadership by
force
19. Doyen (or the feminine form doyenne): a person distinguished in a certain endeavor, or
a senior member of a group
20. Executive: one with administrative or managerial authority
21. Figurehead: one who has the appearance of authority but has only a nominal
leadership role; this term is inappropriate for referring to someone who is actually in
authority or has significant power
22. General: a commander of a military unit with the official rank of general, or one who
leads with the character of a general
23. Generalissimo: the commander in chief of an army, or one who conducts himself or
herself with an authoritarian attitude stereotypical of a military dictator
24. Governor: the chief official of a state, a colony, or another subordinate political entity
25. Guide: one who literally or figuratively leads others toward a goal; also, a handbook or
other informational resource
26. Head: a leader of a department or operation (generic)
27. Headman: a leader of a tribe
28. Manager: a leader of a department, or someone with responsibility for all or part of a
business or operation (sometimes generic); also, one who directs or advises an athlete or a
performer or assists with a sports operation
29. Master: the leader of some institutions or societies, a person in command of a
merchant vessel, or synonymous with governor or ruler; also, one with power or
responsibility over another
30. Mentor: one who counsels or guides, especially in the pursuit of knowledge or skill
31. Minister: a high-ranking government official; also, a diplomatic representative or, in
some religious organizations, a member of the clergy with administrative responsibilities
32. Moderator: one who presides over an assembly, discussion, or meeting to monitor
adherence to procedures and rules
33. Officer: one who holds a position of responsibility in a company or organization or in a
military unit
34. Point person: someone who is the focus of an operation or project
35. Potentate: a powerful sovereign
36. Power broker: an influential person
37. President: one who leads a political entity, a company, or an organization for a fixed
term or temporarily presides over an assembly or a meeting
38. Presider: synonymous with chair, moderator, and president
39. Principal: a person in authority, especially one in charge of a school or other institution;
also, a leading performer, one who delegates to an agent, or a perpetrator of a crime
40. Prolocutor: one who presides or serves as a spokesperson
41. Rector: a member of the clergy in charge of a parish or another jurisdiction, a leader of
some schools or universities, or one who directs
42. Ringleader: a leader of a group engaged in illicit activities or an informal group of
compatriots
43. Ruler: a sovereign leader
44. Shepherd: one who leads and protects a flock of livestock or, by extension, a group of
people, especially a congregation of worshippers
45. Skipper: the commander, master, or senior officer on a vessel or, by extension, any
leader (informal)
46. Spearhead: the leader of an activity, project, or movement
47. Standard-bearer: a charismatic leader of a movement
48. Superintendent: the leader of a school district or another entity; also, the caretaker of
a building
49. Supervisor: a leader of an administrative unit
50. Tyrant: an oppressive leader
(This post features offbeat, informal words for “leader.”)
Arrive To vs. Arrive At
By Maeve Maddox
A prepositional error usually associated with ESL learners seems to be gaining ground with
native English speakers. It’s the error of following the verb arrive with the preposition to:
The 23-year-old actress arrived to her taping of The Tonight Show… sporting a long blonde
beard to match her hair.
When many early Europeans first arrived to our shores, they were surprised at the lack of
organized law enforcement.
As soon we arrived to the restaurant she made sure she was secretive about my daughters
[sic] B’day surprise!!!
Ipanema Flip Flops have arrived to Tony Walker & Co.
To is a preposition of movement. One travels to a restaurant, but arrives at a restaurant.

Prepositions that can follow arrive include at, in, and on.
Use at to express arrival at a small place:
The 23-year-old actress arrived at her taping of The Tonight Show.
As soon as we arrived at the restaurant, they brought out the cake.
Use in to express arrival when the destination is a large one like a country or a city:
We arrived in France in November.
When did you first arrive in Milwaukee?
The sentence that has the Europeans arriving “to our shores” can be rewritten with on:
When many early Europeans first arrived on our shores, they were surprised at the lack of
organized law enforcement.
40 Words Beginning with “Para-“
By Mark Nichol
The prefix para- is versatile, meaning “beside,” “closely related,” or “closely resembling”;
“accessory” or “subsidiary”; “beyond”; or “abnormal” or “faulty.” The commonality is that a
word beginning with para- pertains to the relationship or resemblance of something to
something else. This post lists and briefly defines words with the prefix.
1. parable (“throw beside”): a story illustrating a moral or religious principle
2. parabola (“throw beside”): a roughly U-shaped curve, or a similarly shaped object
3. paracentesis (“stab beside”): a puncturing surgical procedure
4. parachute (“against fall”): a canopy of fabric used to slow the fall of someone or
something from an aircraft (or something figuratively similar), or a similar anatomical
structure on an animal
5. paradigm (“show beside”): an example or pattern
6. parados (“against back”): a rear wall of a military trench
7. paradox (“outside of opinion”): something contrary to expectation
8. paragliding (“against descending smoothly,” on the model of parachute): an airborne
activity involving a person harnessed to a maneuverable parachute-like wing
9. paragon (“beside whetstone”): a model or pattern of excellence
10. paragraph (“written beside”): a short piece of writing on one topic
11. paralanguage (“beside what is said”): vocal effects such as tone that convey additional
meaning
12. paralegal (“beside law”): an assistant to a lawyer
13. paraleipsis (“pass over”): something mentioned only briefly, but emphasized by doing
so
14. parallax (“change beside”): an inclination of two converging lines
15. parallel (“beside each other”): equidistant, or equal or similar, or arranged for
simultaneity
16. parallelogram (“draw equal”): a four-sided shape with parallel sides of equal length
17. paralysis (“loosen beside”): loss of ability to move or act
18. paramagnetic (“abnormally attracting”): weakly magnetic
19. paramecium (“long on one side”): a type of single-celled animal
20. paramedic (“beside doctor”): medical personnel who treat injured or sick people before
and while they are taken to a hospital, or who assist doctors
21. parameter (“beside measure”): a factor or limit
22. paramilitary (“resembling soldiers”): an unofficial military unit
23. paranoia (“beside mind”): delusional mental illness, or irrational suspicion
24. paranormal (“beside usual”): not scientifically explainable
25. parapet (“against breast”): a wall of stone or earth
26. paraphernalia (“beside dowry”): belongings or equipment
27. paraphilia (“beside love”): arousal about improper sexual practices
28. paraphrase (“point out beside”): restatement
29. paraplegia (“strike at one side”): paralysis of the lower body
30. parapraxis (“against practice”): blunder or lapse, or an error that reveals subconscious
motives
31. paraprofessional (“beside skilled person”): one who assists a professional worker
such as a teacher
32. parapsychology (“beside study of the mind”): investigation of psychic phenomena
33. paraquat (“resembling four,” from its chemical composition): an herbicide
34. parasailing (“against sail,” on the model of parachute): an airborne activity involving a
person harnessed to a parachute-like device being pulled by a vehicle
35. parasite (“beside food”): an organism or entity that exploits a host or other entity
36. parasol (“against sun”): an umbrella for shielding the bearer from sunlight
37. parastate (“resembling political entity”): a political territory not recognized by others
38. parasympathetic (“beside feeling with”): pertaining to a part of the nervous system
39. paratransit (“beside travel”): individualized public transit
40. paratrooper (“against soldier,” on the model of parachute): a soldier specializing in
parachuting from an aircraft
Some words beginning with para-, such as parakeet, paramount, and paramour, are
distantly related, not directly associated with the etymology of the prefix, while other words
beginning with or including par- but followed by another vowel or a consonant are closely
cognate; the latter group will be detailed in a subsequent post.

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English Grammar 101: All You Need to Know

Just ask a friend what is the role of prepositions within

Sentences are made of two parts: the subject and the predicate.

Complete sentences need both the subject and the predicate.

Sentences can be broken down into clauses.

Independent clauses act as complete sentences, while subordinate clauses cannot stand

Sammy hit a home run.

The English language has both regular and irregular plural forms of nouns. The most

1. Subjective personal pronouns. As the name implies, subjective pronouns act as

An adjective is a word that describes a noun. There are two

The man felt a paralyzing fear.

 qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French

The words a, an, and the are generally called articles and sometimes classed as a

English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete.

Active Voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action:

1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question:

If I should see him, I will tell him.

If I see him, I will tell him.

To err is human; to forgive, divine. Here, to err and to forgive are used as nouns.

Today I walk. Today he walks.

Tomorrow I shall/will walk.

Today I go. Today he goes.

Tomorrow I shall/will go.

Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective, clause, or another adverb.

The cat is under the table.

The dog was running under the rain.

A conjunction joins words and groups of words.

Goodness, how you’ve grown!

absquatulate: to flee, abscond

Threw and Through

…something happened yesterday that really through me for a loop.

I must admit the appearance of wood through me for a loop.

The menu through me for a loop.

One of our readers, Susabelle wrote to ask:

The frequent confusion between the words passed and past is understandable. They are

1. Bluff: a statement intended to deceive or confuse

What Is A Writing Prompt?

Here are four good reasons for writing to prompts :

1. It was the first snowfall of the year.

 200+ Writing Prompts to Inspire You

How To Make Your Own Writing Prompts

Common Latin Words

A reader brought alterior to my attention by asking if a use of “ulterior motive” he read in an

Is there any difference between the adjectives educational and educative? I’m beginning to

An Educative Approach to Behavior Problems: A Practical Decision Model for Interventions

A humanistic-educative approach to evaluation in nursing education

A textbook publisher explains its use of educative this way:

The effect of pairing educative with pragmatic or holistic is to suggest that educative is

“awake in all its bizarre forms—-awokened???????”

waken / wakened / (have) wakened

Getting your teenager to wake up in the morning

your cries have woken the master

The thunder woke me.

I was woken by the thunder.

I often waken in the night and can’t go back to sleep.

How to Awaken Your Inner Child

Awaken the Writer Within