UNIT-4

Basic SQL Query: Basic SQL querying (select and project) using where clause,
arithmetic & logical operations, Set ,Comparison Operators, NULL values ,
Comparison using Null values, sub queries, grouping, aggregation, ordering,
implementation of different types of joins, Simple Database schema, data types,
table definitions, different types of DML and DDL operations

SQL
o SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing
data in relational database management system (RDMS).
o It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to
create, read, update and delete relational databases and tables.
o All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use SQL
as their standard database language.
o SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like
statements.

Rules:
SQL follows the following rules:

o Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are
written in uppercase.
o Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL
statement on one or multiple text line.
o Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a database.
o SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational algebra.

SQL process:
o When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out
the best way to carry out the request and the SQL engine determines that how
to interpret the task.
o In the process, various components are included. These components can be
optimization Engine, Query engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.
o All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query
engine won't handle logical files.

1
Characteristics of SQL
o SQL is easy to learn.
o SQL is used to access data from relational database management systems.
o SQL can execute queries against the database.
o SQL is used to describe the data.
o SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
o SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
o SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
o SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

Advantages of SQL
There are the following advantages of SQL:

High speed
Using the SQL queries, the user can quickly and efficiently retrieve a large amount of
records from a database.

No coding needed
In the standard SQL, it is very easy to manage the database system. It doesn't require
a substantial amount of code to manage the database system.

Well defined standards

2
Long established are used by the SQL databases that are being used by ISO and ANSI.

Portability
SQL can be used in laptop, PCs, server and even some mobile phones.

Interactive language
SQL is a domain language used to communicate with the database. It is also used to
receive answers to the complex questions in seconds.

Multiple data view

Using the SQL language, the users can make different views of the database structure.

SQL command
o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It
is also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the
table, modify the table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Command:

1. Data definition language (DDL)

o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table,
altering a table, etc.

3
 o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all
the changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax
DROP TABLE ;

Example
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either
to modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);

EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));
ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));

d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space
containing the table.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

4
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of
changes in the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently
save all the changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE

a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row
of a table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME(col1, col2, col3,.... col N) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,
.... valueN);
Or
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
For example:
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(1,'RAMESH',24,'RJY',20000);

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the
table.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHER
E CONDITION]
For example:
UPDATE students SET User_Name = 'Sonoo' WHERE Student_Id = '3'
c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
For example:
DELETE FROM javatpoint WHERE Author="Sonoo";

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.
5
Here are some commands that come under DCL:
o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example
REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE
only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot
be used while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:
COMMIT;

Example:
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25;
COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already
been saved to the database.

Syntax:
ROLLBACK;

Example:
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25;
ROLLBACK;

6
c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling
back the entire transaction.
Syntax:
SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used
to select the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:
SELECT expressions FROM TABLES WHERE conditions;

For example:
SELECT emp_name FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

SQL Operator
There are various types of SQL operator:

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.

7
 Operator Description Example

+ It adds the value of both operands. a+b will give

30

- It is used to subtract the right-hand operand from a-b will give 10

the left-hand operand.

* It is used to multiply the value of both operands. a*b will give

200

/ It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the a/b will give 2

right-hand operand.

% It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the a%b will give 0

right-hand operand and returns reminder.

SELECT 10+20 FROM DUAL;

10+20
30

44170288286817 4 44183034646933

SELECT 10+20 FR 21572909937200 14106352553967 14144690751258

21606912080381 21736625668766

SELECT 10-20 FROM DUAL;

10-20
-10

SELECT 10*20 FROM DUAL;

10*20
200

SELECT 20/10 FROM DUAL;

20/10
2

8
SELECT MOD(20,3) FROM DUAL;

MOD(20,3)
2

SQL Logical Operators

There is the list of logical operator used in SQL:

Operator Description

ALL It compares a value to all values in another value set.

AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL

statement.

ANY It compares the values in the list according to the condition.

BETWEEN It is used to search for values that are within a set of values.

IN It compares a value to that specified list value.

NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator.

OR It combines multiple conditions in SQL statements.

EXISTS It is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified

table.

LIKE It compares a value to similar values using wildcard operator.

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

9
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Here are some simple examples showing usage of SQL Comparison
Operators −

Example 1

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE >= 25 AND SALARY >= 6500;

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 2

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE >= 25 OR SALARY >= 6500;

Output
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 3

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE IS NOT NULL;

Output
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
10
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 4

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE NAME LIKE 'Ko%';

Output
+----+-------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+-------+-----+---------+---------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
+----+-------+-----+---------+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Example 5

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE IN ( 25, 27 );

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 6

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE BETWEEN 25 AND 27;

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 7

SQL> SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE EXISTS (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 6500);

Output
+-----+
11
| AGE |
+-----+
| 32 |
| 25 |
| 23 |
| 25 |
| 27 |
| 22 |
| 24 |
+-----+
7 rows in set (0.02 sec)

Example 8

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE > ALL (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 6500);

Output
+----+--------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+--------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+--------+-----+-----------+---------+
1 row in set (0.02 sec)

Example 9

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE > ANY (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 6500);

Output
+----+----------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+---------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements.

Types of Set Operation

1. Union
2. UnionAll

12
 3. Intersect
4. Minus

1. Union
o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL
SELECT queries.
o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in
both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax

SELECT column_name FROM table1 UNION SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

The First table

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

13
The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

SELECT * FROM First UNION SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing
duplication and sorting the data.

Syntax:

SELECT column_name FROM table1 UNION ALL SELECT column_name FROM table2;

14
Example: Using the above First and Second table.

Union All query will be like:

SELECT * FROM First UNION ALL SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

3. Intersect
o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns
the common rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the
same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax

SELECT column_name FROM table1 INTERSECT SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

Using the above First and Second table.

Intersect query will be:

SELECT * FROM First INTERSECT SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

15
 ID NAME

3 Jackson

4. Minus
o It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to
display the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second
query.
o It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

SELECT column_name FROM table1 MINUS SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example

Using the above First and Second table.

Minus query will be:

SELECT * FROM First MINUS SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

SQL Comparison Operators:

Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.

Operator Description Example

= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if the (a=b) is

values are queal then condition becomes true. not true

16
 != It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if (a!=b) is
values are not equal, then condition becomes true. true

<> It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if (a<>b) is

values are not equal then condition becomes true. true

> It checks if the left operand value is greater than right (a>b) is
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. not true

< It checks if the left operand value is less than right (a<b) is
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. true

>= It checks if the left operand value is greater than or equal (a>=b) is
to the right operand value, if yes then condition becomes not true
true.

<= It checks if the left operand value is less than or equal to (a<=b) is
the right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true
true.

!< It checks if the left operand value is not less than the (a!=b) is
right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. not true

!> It checks if the left operand value is not greater than the (a!>b) is
right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. true

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
17
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Here are some simple examples showing the usage of SQL Comparison Operators
−

Example 1

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 5000;

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 2

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 2000;

Output
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 3

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY != 2000;

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 4

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY <> 2000;

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
18
 | 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 5

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY >= 6500;

Output
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Some other examples:

SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE SALARY=4000;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

3 UDAY 25 RAJAHMUNDRY 4000

44170288286817

44183034646933

SELECT * FROM S

21572909937200 14106352553967 14144690751258

21606912080381

21736625668766

SELECT *FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE>28;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 RAMESH 32 AHMEDABAD 5000

SELECT *FROM STUDENT WHERE AGE!=25;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 RAMESH 32 AHMEDABAD 5000

19
 2 MANIKANTA 27 HYDERBAD 7000
4 SAIKIRAN 26 VIZAG 9000

SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE AGE>27 AND SALARY>1000;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 RAMESH 32 AHMEDABAD 5000

SELECT *FROM STUDENT WHERE AGE<25 OR ADDRESS='VIZAG';

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

4 SAIKIRAN 26 VIZAG 9000

NULL VALUE:

The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL value in a table is a
value in a field that appears to be blank.

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand that a
NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.

Syntax
The basic syntax of NULL while creating a table.

SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

Here, NOT NULL signifies that column should always accept an explicit value of the given
data type. There are two columns where we did not use NOT NULL, which means these
columns could be NULL.

A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank during the record creation.

Example
The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data. However, because when
comparing an unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and not
included in the results. You must use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators to check for
a NULL value.

Consider the following CUSTOMERS table having the records as shown below.

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

20
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now, following is the usage of the IS NOT NULLoperator.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now, following is the usage of the IS NULL operator.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY IS NULL;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL Sub Query

A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and embedded within the WHERE
clause.

Important Rule:
21
 o A subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE clause, FROM
clause, HAVING clause.
o You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE statements along
with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.
o A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is known as the
main query, and the inner query is known as a subquery.
o Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator.
o A subquery is enclosed in parentheses.
o In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But GROUP BY command
can be used to perform the same function as ORDER BY command.

1. Subqueries with the Select Statement

SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select statement.

Syntax

SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name expression operator

( SELECT column_name from table_name WHERE ... );

Example

Consider the EMPLOYEE table have the following records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00

6 Harry 42 China 4500.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

The subquery with a SELECT statement will be:

22
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID FROM EMPLOYEEWHERE
SALARY > 4500);

This would produce the following result:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

2. Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

o SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert statement. In the insert
statement, data returned from the subquery is used to insert into another table.
o In the subquery, the selected data can be modified with any of the character,
date functions.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....)SELECT *FROM table_name

WHERE VALUE OPERATOR

Example

Consider a table EMPLOYEE_BKP with similar as EMPLOYEE.

Now use the following syntax to copy the complete EMPLOYEE table into the
EMPLOYEE_BKP table.

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE_BKP SELECT *FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ID IN(SELECT

ID FROM EMPLOYEE);

3. Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement

The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Update statement. When a
subquery is used with the Update statement, then either single or multiple columns in a
table can be updated.

Syntax

23
UPDATE table SET column_name = new_value WHERE VALUE OPERATOR(SELECT COLU
MN_NAME FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE condition);

Example

Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE

table. The given example updates the SALARY by .25 times in the EMPLOYEE table for
all employee whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29.

UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25 WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AG

E FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP WHERE AGE >= 29);

This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following
records.

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

4 Alina 29 UK 1625.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 2125.00

6 Harry 42 China 1125.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

4. Subqueries with the DELETE Statement

The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Delete statement just like any
other statements mentioned above.

Syntax

DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE VALUE OPERATOR(SELECT COLUMN_NAME FROM

24
TABLE_NAME WHERE condition);

Example

Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE

table. The given example deletes the records from the EMPLOYEE table for all
EMPLOYEE whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29.

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP WHERE
AGE >= 29 );

This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following
records.

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

Views in SQL
o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and
columns.
o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in
the database.
o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of
a table.

Sample table:
Student_Detail

25
 STU_ID NAME ADDRESS

1 Stephan Delhi

2 Kathrin Noida

3 David Ghaziabad

4 Alina Gurugram

Student_Marks

STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE

1 Stephan 97 19

2 Kathrin 86 21

3 David 74 18

4 Alina 90 20

5 John 96 18

1. Creating view
A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can create a view from
a single table or multiple tables.

Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1, column2..... FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

2. Creating View from a single table

In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table Student_Detail.

Query:
CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS SELECT NAME, ADDRESS FROM Student_Details
26
WHERE STU_ID < 4;

Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.
SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad

3. Creating View from multiple tables

View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple tables in the
SELECT statement.

In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from two tables
Student_Detail and Student_Marks.

Query:

CREATE VIEW MarksView AS SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS,

Student_Marks.MARKS FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark WHERE Student_Detail.N
AME = Student_Marks.NAME;

To display data of View MarksView:

SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

27
 David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90

4. Deleting View
A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.

Syntax
DROP VIEW view_name;
Example:
If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:
DROP VIEW MarksView;

SQL Index
o Indexes are special lookup tables. It is used to retrieve data from the database
very fast.
o An Index is used to speed up select queries and where clauses. But it shows
down the data input with insert and update statements. Indexes can be created
or dropped without affecting the data.
o An index in a database is just like an index in the back of a book.
o For example: When you reference all pages in a book that discusses a certain
topic, you first have to refer to the index, which alphabetically lists all the topics
and then referred to one or more specific page numbers.

1. Create Index statement

It is used to create an index on a table. It allows duplicate value.

Syntax
CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Example
CREATE INDEX idx_name ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);

2. Unique Index statement

It is used to create a unique index on a table. It does not allow duplicate value.

Syntax

28
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Example
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx ON websites (site_name);

3. Drop Index Statement

It is used to delete an index in a table.

Syntax
DROP INDEX index_name;

Example
DROP INDEX websites_idx;

SQL Clauses
The following are the various SQL clauses:

1. GROUP BY
o SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange identical data into groups. The
GROUP BY statement is used with the SQL SELECT statement.
o The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and
precedes the ORDER BY clause.
o The GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation function.

Syntax

SELECT column FROM table_name WHERE conditions GROUP BY column ORDER BY

column

Sample table:

29
PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example:

SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2

2. HAVING
o HAVING clause is used to specify a search condition for a group or an aggregate.
o Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not using GROUP BY clause then
you can use HAVING function like a WHERE clause.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE conditions GROUP BY column1, c

olumn2 HAVING conditions ORDER BY column1, column2;

30
Example:

SELECT COMPANY,COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY HAVING

COUNT(*)>2;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3

3. ORDER BY
o The ORDER BY clause sorts the result-set in ascending or descending order.
o It sorts the records in ascending order by default. DESC keyword is used to sort
the records in descending order.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition

ORDER BY column1, column2... ASC|DESC;

Where

ASC: It is used to sort the result set in ascending order by expression.

DESC: It sorts the result set in descending order by expression.

Example: Sorting Results in Ascending Order

Table:

CUSTOMER

CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS

12 Kathrin US

23 David Bangkok

34 Alina Dubai

31
 45 John UK

56 Harry US

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER ORDER BY NAME;

Output:

CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS

34 Alina Dubai

23 David Bangkok

56 Harry US

45 John UK

12 Kathrin US

Example: Sorting Results in Descending Order

Using the above CUSTOMER table
SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER ORDER BY NAME DESC;

Output:

CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS

12 Kathrin US

32
 45 John UK

56 Harry US

23 David Bangkok

34 Alina Dubai

SQL Aggregate Functions

o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of
a single column of a table. It returns a single value.
o It is also used to summarize the data.

Types of SQL Aggregation Function

1. COUNT FUNCTION
o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can
work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a
specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.

Syntax
COUNT(*)
or
33
COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Sample table:

PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example: COUNT()
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:
10

Example: COUNT with WHERE

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; WHERE RATE>=20;

Output:
7

Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

34
Output:
3

Example: COUNT() with GROUP BY

SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2

Example: COUNT() with HAVING

SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY HAVING

COUNT(*)>2;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3

2. SUM Function
Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on numeric
fields only.

Syntax
SUM()
or
SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

670

Example: SUM() with WHERE

SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3;

Output:

320

Example: SUM() with GROUP BY

35
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3 GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 150
Com2 170

Example: SUM() with HAVING

SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY

HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;

Output:

Com1 335
Com3 170

3. AVG function
The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type. AVG
function returns the average of all non-Null values.

Syntax
AVG()
or
AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:
SELECT AVG(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:
67.00

4. MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This function
determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax
MAX()
or
MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

30

36
5. MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function
determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax
MIN()
or
MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

SELECT MIN(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10

SQL JOIN
As the name shows, JOIN means to combine something. In case of SQL, JOIN means
"to combine two or more tables".

In SQL, JOIN clause is used to combine the records from two or more tables in a
database.

SQL Join is used to fetch data from two or more tables, which is joined to appear as
single set of data. SQL Join is used for combining column from two or more tables by
using values common to both tables. Join Keyword is used in SQL queries for joining
two or more tables. Minimum required condition for joining table, is (n-1) where n, is
number of tables. A table can also join to itself known as, Self Join.

Types of SQL JOIN

1. INNER JOIN
2. LEFT JOIN
3. RIGHT JOIN
4. FULL JOIN

1.INNER Join or EQUI Join

This is a simple JOIN in which the result is based on matched data as per the equality
condition specified in the query.
Inner Join Syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list from table-name1 INNER JOIN table-name2 WHERE table-

name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Example of Inner JOIN

37
The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

Inner JOIN query will be,

SELECT * from class inner join class_info on class.id = class_info.id;
The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

38
Cross JOIN or Cartesian product
This type of JOIN returns the Cartesian product of rows from the tables in Join. It will
return a table which consists of records which combines each row from the first table
with each row of the second table.
Cross JOIN Syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list from table-name1 CROSS JOIN table-name2;

Example of Cross JOIN

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

Cross JOIN query will be,

SELECT * from class cross JOIN class_info;

The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI

39
2 adam 1 DELHI

4 alex 1 DELHI

1 abhi 2 MUMBAI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

4 alex 2 MUMBAI

1 abhi 3 CHENNAI

2 adam 3 CHENNAI

4 alex 3 CHENNAI

Natural JOIN
Natural Join is a type of Inner join which is based on column having same name and
same datatype present in both the tables to be joined.
Natural Join Syntax is,

SELECT *from table-name1 NATURAL JOIN table-name2;

Example of Natural JOIN

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

40
4 anu

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

Natural join query will be,

SELECT * from class NATURAL JOIN class_info;
The result table will look like,

ID NAME Address

1 abhi DELHI

2 adam MUMBAI

3 alex CHENNAI

In the above example, both the tables being joined have ID column(same name and
same datatype), hence the records for which value of ID matches in both the tables will
be the result of Natural Join of these two tables.
Outer JOIN
Outer Join is based on both matched and unmatched data. Outer Joins subdivide further
into,

• Left Outer Join

• Right Outer Join
• Full Outer Join

Left Outer Join

41
The left outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then
remaining rows of the left table and null for the right table's column.
Left Outer Join syntax is,
SELECT column-name-list from table-name1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table-name2 on table-
name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Left outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,

select column-name-list from table-name1, table-name2 on table-name1.column-name

= table-name2.column-name(+);

Example of Left Outer Join

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

7 NOIDA

42
8 PANIPAT

Left Outer Join query will be,

SELECT * FROM class LEFT OUTER JOIN class_info ON (class.id=class_info.id);
The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

4 anu null null

5 ashish null null

Right Outer Join

The right outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then
remaining rows of the right table and null for the left table's columns.
Right Outer Join Syntax is,
select column-name-list from table-name1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table-name2 on table-
name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Right outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,

select column-name-list from table-name1,table-name2 on table-name1.column-

name(+) = table-name2.column-name;

Example of Right Outer Join

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

43
2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

7 NOIDA

8 PANIPAT

Right Outer Join query will be,

SELECT * FROM class RIGHT OUTER JOIN class_info on (class.id=class_info.id);
The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

44
null null 7 NOIDA

null null 8 PANIPAT

Full Outer Join

The full outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two table then
remaining rows of both left table and then the right table.

Full Outer Join Syntax is,

select column-name-list from table-name1 FULL OUTER JOIN table-name2 on table-

name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Example of Full outer join is,

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

45
2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

7 NOIDA

8 PANIPAT

Full Outer Join query will be like,

SELECT * FROM class FULL OUTER JOIN class_info on (class.id=class_info.id);
The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

4 anu null null

5 ashish null null

null null 7 NOIDA

null null 8 PANIPAT

Database Schema
A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the
entire database. It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among
them are associated. It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the
data.

46
A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. It
contains a descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of
schema diagrams. It’s the database designers who design the schema to help
programmers understand the database and make it useful.

A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −

• Physical Database Schema − This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and
its form of storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a
secondary storage.

• Logical Database Schema − This schema defines all the logical constraints that need
to be applied on the data stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.

Definition of schema: Design of a database is called the schema. Schema is of three

types: Physical schema, logical schema and view schema.

The design of a database at physical level is called physical schema, how the data stored
in blocks of storage is described at this level.

Design of database at logical level is called logical schema, programmers and database
administrators work at this level, at this level data can be described as certain types of data
records gets stored in data structures, however the internal details such as implementation
of data structure is hidden at this level (available at physical level).

Design of database at view level is called view schema. This generally describes end user
interaction with database systems.

Definition of instance: The data stored in database at a particular moment of time is called
instance of database. Database schema defines the variable declarations in tables that
belong to a particular database; the value of these variables at a moment of time is called
the instance of that database.

SQL Datatype
47
 o SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a column can contain.
o Every column is required to have a name and data type in the database table.

Datatype of SQL:

1. Binary Datatypes
There are Three types of binary Datatypes which are given below:

Data Type Description

binary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains fixed-length

binary data.

varbinary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains variable-length

binary data.

image It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. It contains

variable-length binary data.

2. Approximate Numeric Datatype :

The subtypes are given below:

Data type From To Description

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308 It is used to specify a

floating-point value e.g. 6.2,

48
 2.9 etc.

real -3.40e + 38 3.40E + 38 It specifies a single precision

floating point number

3. Exact Numeric Datatype

The subtypes are given below:

Data type Description

int It is used to specify an integer value.

smallint It is used to specify small integer value.

bit It has the number of bits to store.

decimal It specifies a numeric value that can have a decimal number.

numeric It is used to specify a numeric value.

4. Character String Datatype

The subtypes are given below:

Data type Description

char It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains Fixed-length

non-unicode characters.

varchar It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains variable-

length non-unicode characters.

text It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 characters. It contains

variable-length non-unicode characters.

5. Date and time Datatypes

Datatype Description

date It is used to store the year, month, and days value.

time It is used to store the hour, minute, and second values.

49
 timestamp It stores the year, month, day, hour, minute, and the second
value.

SQL Table
o SQL Table is a collection of data which is organized in terms of rows and
columns. In DBMS, the table is known as relation and row as a tuple.
o Table is a simple form of data storage. A table is also considered as a convenient
representation of relations. Let's see an example of the EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO

1 Kristen Washington 7289201223

2 Anna Franklin 9378282882

3 Jackson Bristol 9264783838

4 Kellan California 7254728346

5 Ashley Hawaii 9638482678

In the above table, "EMPLOYEE" is the table name, "EMP_ID", "EMP_NAME", "CITY",
"PHONE_NO" are the column names. The combination of data of multiple columns
forms a row, e.g., 1, "Kristen", "Washington" and 7289201223 are the data of one row.

Operation on Table
1. Create table
2. Drop table
3. Delete table
4. Rename table

SQL Create Table

SQL create table is used to create a table in the database. To define the table, you
should define the name of the table and also define its columns and column's data type.

Syntax

create table "table_name" ("column1" "data type","column2" "data type", "column3"

"data type", ... "columnN" "data type");

50
 create table customers(id int,name varchar(100),age int,address varchar(100),salary
int);

Example
Table created.

If you create the table successfully, you can verify the table by looking at the
message by the SQL server. Else you can use DESC command as follows:

SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)

Now you have an EMPLOYEE table in the database, and you can use the stored
information related to the employees.

Drop table
A SQL drop table is used to delete a table definition and all the data from a table. When
this command is executed, all the information available in the table is lost forever, so
you have to very careful while using this command.

Syntax
DROP TABLE "table_name";

Firstly, you need to verify the EMPLOYEE table using the following command:
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

51
 o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)

This table shows that EMPLOYEE table is available in the database, so we can drop it as
follows:

SQL>DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

Now, we can check whether the table exists or not using the following command:
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

As this shows that the table is dropped, so it doesn't display it.

SQL DELETE table

In SQL, DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. We can use WHERE
condition to delete a specific row from a table. If you want to delete all the records from
the table, then you don't need to use the WHERE clause.

Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example

Suppose, the EMPLOYEE table having the following records:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Denzel Boston 7353662627 100000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

The following query will DELETE an employee whose ID is 2.

SQL> DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE EMP_ID = 3;

Now, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

52
 1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the table.

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.

SQL SELECT Statement

In SQL, the SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the
database. The returns data is stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-
set.

Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name;

Here, the expression is the field name of the table that you want to select data from.

Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in the table:
SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

53
To fetch the EMP_ID of all the employees, use the following query:
SELECT EMP_ID FROM EMPLOYEE;

Output

EMP_ID

To fetch the EMP_NAME and SALARY, use the following query:

SELECT EMP_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE;

EMP_NAME SALARY

Kristen 150000

Russell 200000

Angelina 600000

Robert 350000

Christian 260000

To fetch all the fields from the EMPLOYEE table, use the following query:

SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

54
 4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

SQL INSERT Statement

The SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a single or multiple data in a table. In SQL,
You can insert the data in two ways:

1. Without specifying column name

2. By specifying column name

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

1. Without specifying column name

If you want to specify all column values, you can specify or ignore the column values.

Syntax
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);

Query
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES (6, 'Marry', 'Canada', 600000, 48);

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

55
 2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

2. By specifying column name

To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.

Syntax
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME[(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)] VALUES (value1, value2, value
3, .... Value N);

Query
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, AGE) VALUES (7, 'Jack', 40);

Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

7 Jack null null 40

SQL Update Statement

The SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already in the database.
The condition in the WHERE clause decides that which row is to be updated.

56
Syntax

UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ... WHERE condition;

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating single record

Update the column EMP_NAME and set the value to 'Emma' in the row where SALARY is
500000.

Syntax
UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value WHERE condition;

Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET EMP_NAME = 'Emma' WHERE SALARY = 500000;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

57
 4 Emma Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating multiple records

If you want to update multiple columns, you should separate each field assigned with a
comma. In the EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME to 'Kevin' and CITY to
'Boston' where EMP_ID is 5.

Syntax
UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value2 WHERE
condition;

Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET EMP_NAME = 'Kevin', City = 'Boston' WHERE EMP_ID = 5;

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Kevin Boston 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Without use of WHERE clause

If you want to update all row from a table, then you don't need to use the WHERE
clause. In the EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME as 'Harry'.

Syntax
58
UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value1;

Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET EMP_NAME = 'Harry';

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Harry Chicago 200000 30

2 Harry Austin 300000 26

3 Harry Denver 100000 42

4 Harry Washington 500000 29

5 Harry Los angels 200000 36

6 Harry Canada 600000 48

SQL DELETE Statement

The SQL DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. Generally, DELETE
statement removes one or more records form a table.

Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

59
 4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Single Record

Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME = 'Kristen'. This will delete
only the fourth row.

Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Kristen';

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Multiple Record

Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is 30. This will delete two
rows(first and third row).
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE= 30;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

60
 5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Delete all of the records

Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no records left to display. The
EMPLOYEE table will become empty.
Syntax
DELETE * FROM table_name; or DELETE FROM table_name;
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

https://www.javatpoint.com/dbms-sql-set-operation

61