MODULE 1: AN APPROACH TO AW

Considerations in AW
Audience  Purpose  Organization  Style  Flow  Presentation

Audience
 Understand your audience’s expectations and prior knowledge

Purpose and strategy

 Audience, purpose and strategy are typically interconnected.
 If the audience knows less than the writer – the writer’s purpose is instructional.
 If the audience knows more than the writer – the writer’s purpose is usually to display familiarity, expertise and
intelligence.

Organization
 Information is presented to readers in a structured format.
 Use appropriate patterns of organization.
 One common strategy is to organize information in terms of problem-solution. It has four parts:
1. Description of a situation
2. Identification of a problem
3. Description of a solution
4. Evaluation of the solution

Example:

1. Description of For over 20 years now biologists have been alarmed that certain
a situation populations of amphibians have been declining. These declines have
occurred both in areas seemingly undisturbed by people. However,
offering clear proof of the declining numbers of amphibians has been
2. Identification difficult because in most cases there is no reliable data on past population
of a problem sizes with which to compare recent numbers. Moreover, it is not entirely
clear whether the declines are actually part of a natural fluctuation in
populations arising from droughts or a scarcity of food. To address this
3. Description of problem biologists are changing the way they observe amphibian
a solution populations. One good documentation method involves counting species
over the course of several years and under a variety of climatic conditions.
This method should yield reliable data that will help researchers
4. Evaluation of understand the extent to which amphibian populations are in danger and
begin to determine what can be done to stem the decline in populations.
a solution

Some other ways of organizing information

Comparison-contrast

Cause-effect
 Focusing on one cause and multiple effects as in an earthquake or describing multiple causes and one effect as in
global warming

Classification
 Categorizing as suggested by the ff. example:
“Earthquake effects on underground structures can be grouped into two categories: (1) ground
shaking and (2) ground failure such as liquefaction, fault displacement, and slope instability.

Style
 make sure communications are written in the appropriate style.
 observe consistency
 determine whether voice should be active or passive
 use acceptable style in terms of area of study
 choose the more formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun, or other part of speech
e.g. Scientists are looking into innovative ways to combat AIDS.
Scientists are determining innovative ways to combat AIDS. /
Recommendations for maintaining a formal academic style

1. Generally avoid contractions (but keep in mind that in some fields it may be okay to use them)
Export figures won’t improve until the economy is stronger.
Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger.

2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms.

not…any  no
The analysis didn’t yield any new results.
The analysis yielded no new results.

not…much  little
The government didn’t allocate much funding.
The government allocated little funding.

not…many  few
This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions.
This problem has few viable solutions.

3. Limit the use of run-on expressions such as and so forth and etc.
These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc.
These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices.

4. Avoid addressing the reader as you. (except when you are writing a textbook or instructional material)

You can see the results in Table 1.

The results can be seen in Table 1.

You can classify individuals as Morning Types (MTs), Evening Types (ETs), or Neither Types (NTs).
Individuals can be classified as Morning Types (MTs), Evening Types (ETs), or Neither Types (NTs).

5. Be careful about using direct questions. In some fields they are common, while in other they are not.

e.g. What can be done to lower costs?

It is necessary to consider how costs may be lowered.
or
We now need to consider how costs may be lowered.

6. Place adverbs within the verb.

In academic writing adverbs are often placed midposition rather than in initial or final positions. In informal English,
adverbs often occur at the beginning or end of sentences.

e.g. Actually, very little is known about the general nature and prevalence of scientific dishonesty.
Very little is actually known about the general nature and prevalence of scientific dishonesty.

This model was developed by Krugman originally.

This model was originally developed by Krugman.

7. Consider whether you should split infinitives.

Although the prescriptive view of grammar condemns the use of split infinitives (placing an adverbial modifier between to
and the infinitive as in to sharply rise), they are sometimes used to avoid awkwardness or ambiguity.

e.g. We need to adequately meet the needs of those enrolled in the program.
Neural networks have the ability to correctly classify new patterns.

8. Aim for an efficient use of words.

Use as many words you need to express your points; try to use no more than you really need.

e.g. It may be difficult to make a decision about the method that we should use.
Choosing the proper method may be difficult.

There are some inorganic materials that can be used by bioengineers in the process of tissue engineering that have been
shown to be very promising.
Some inorganic materials used in tissue engineering have shown great promise.

Flow
  moving from one statement in a text to the next
 establishing a clear connection of ideas

A. Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. Lasers play an important role in the treatment of eye disease and
the prevention of blindness. The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery. Most of the eye tissue is transparent. The frequency
and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the absorption of the tissue. The beam “cuts” inside the eye with
minimal damage to the surrounding tissue—even the tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are effective in
treating some causes of blindness. Other treatments are not. The interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully
understood.

B. Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. For example, they play an important role in the treatment of eye
disease and the prevention of blindness. The eye is ideally suited to laser surgery because most of the eye tissue is
transparent. Because of this transparency, the frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the
absorption of the tissue so that the beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue—even the
tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are also more effective than other methods in treating some causes of
blindness. However, the interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.

Flow
 Linking words and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and establish clear relationships between ideas
 Subordinators – although, even though, because, since, while, whereas
 Sentence connectors – furthermore, in addition, moreover, therefore, as a result, consequently, hence, thus, in
other words, that is, in contrast, however, on the other hand, conversely, for example, for instance, on the
contrary, as a matter of fact, in fact
 Phrase linkers – in addition to, despite, in spite of, because of, due to, as a result of, unlike

 Semicolons join two completely independent sentences and work much like a full stop.
Ex. Air traffic delays due to high traffic volume have increased considerably over the last decade; these delays have
become a major public policy issue.

 Semicolons can be used with sentence connectors. Note the use of comma after the connector.
Ex. Increasing the size of airports is one solution to traffic congestion; however, this is a long-term solution whose
benefits may not be seen for many years into the future.

 Because semicolons are a “stronger” type of punctuation (they mark a stronger break in the flow of ideas) than
commas, they can be used to chunk longer sentences into parts.
Ex. In recent years, GNP growth rates have varied considerably for the countries in this study (China, 6%; U.S., 3%;
Japan, 1%).

 In addition, semicolons can be used to separate rather long items in a list.

Ex. Some of the solutions to the air traffic delay problem include increasing the size of airports that routinely
experience major flight delays; overhauling the air traffic control so that more flights can be safely handled; and
increasing landing fees during peak periods.

 Sometimes a dash is used to introduce a list as well.

The beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue—even the tissue between the laser
and the incision.

Dashes are often used to intrude into a sentence with some additional information.

 Another way to maintain flow is to use this/these + a noun to join ideas together.

ESL lecturers know that students need to understand the differences between formal and informal language.
However, this understanding cannot usually be acquired quickly.

In recent years, the number of students applying to Ph.D. programs has increased steadily, while the number of
places available has remained constant. This situation has resulted in intense competition for admission.

The phrases in italics contain a summary noun or word that refers back to the idea in previous sentence.

Presentation
1. Consider the overall format of your written work.
Does your paper look as if it has been carefully prepared?
Are there clear paragraphs?
Is the line spacing appropriate?
Have you used standard fonts and sizes?

2. Proofread for careless grammar mistakes.

 Do subjects and verbs agree?
Have the appropriate verb tenses been used?
Have the articles a, an, and the been used when necessary?
Is the used too much?

3. Check for misspelled words, even if you have spell-checked your work.
Has correct homophone been used?
Did the spell-checker miss anything?

Practice exercise
Identify the usage and spelling errors in the following:

WRONG: Their is considerable doubt weather this solution will be affective. The initial reaction too the report has not been
complementary. In fact many observers belief that collapse of the system is eminent.

CORRECT: There is considerable doubt whether this solution will be effective. The initial reaction to the report has not been
complimentary. In fact, many observers believe that collapse of the system is imminent.

MODULE 2: PRINCIPLES OF CLEAR AND EFFECTIVE WRITING

Principle No. 1: Be careful in your use of words.

In the course of our reading and writing, we encounter a lot of words that we think we know the meanings of and know
how to use in the proper context. However, many of these words are words that we only recognize but don’t actually use in
our everyday writing. All the more, we have to be extra cautious in scientific and technical writing.

Words are the building blocks of language. They are not simply written or printed characters on the page or spoken
characters over the radio or television.

 
Principle No. 2: Get straight to the point.

Wordiness is one malady most writers are afflicted with. The most common ways by which writers become guilty of
wordiness are through roundabout phrasing, verbal deadwood, and redundancy.

Roundabout Phrasing

The PHIVOLCS seismological network is in the possession of 14 seismic stations all over the country.

The PHIVOLCS seismological network has 14 seismic stations all over the country. 

Verbal Deadwood

The experiment was extended for a period of two months in order to verify the results.

The experiment was extended for two months to verify the results.

Redundancy

Funding agencies should cooperate together to promote hydrophonics in the arid desert.

Funding agencies should cooperate to promote hydrophonics in the desert.

 
Principle No. 3: Be careful in your use of adjectives.

It is a known fact that adjectives spice up writing. Descriptions help form better images in the audience’s minds and make
activities more alive.

However, too many adjectives can also ruin your writing. Just imagine looking at and sampling an array of yummy-looking
meat dishes – lechon, embotido, kaldereta, stuffed chicken – and sumptuous desserts – refrigerator cake, chocolate
mousse, fruit salad. You’ll not only be nursing a tummy ache but also a gargantuan headache afterwards because all these
together will be hard to digest.

It’s the same when you stuff your sentences with adjectives like the sentence below:
 The murky, silted, and lahar-ravaged river serves as water impoundment for irrigation during the long,
hot, dry season.

The lahar-ravaged river serves as water impoundment for irrigation during the dry season.

 
Principle No. 4: Do away with euphemisms and genteelisms.

Former President Fidel V. Ramos’ statement about taxes appeared in one issue of the Philippine Daily Inquirer. Upward
adjustments in taxes simply meant increase in taxes but the reporter probably wanted to play it safe so he substituted an
agreeable or inoffensive expression for the original statement which suggested something unpleasant.

The statement in the second box, on the other hand, contains examples of genteelism. Buy could have been used instead of
purchase and start instead of commencement.

However, purchase and commencement seem to be more polite, more elegant, or graceful. These words are more likely to
be part of the language of the gentry, hence “less soiled” by the lips of the common people.

 
Principle No. 5: Do not make nouns out of good strong verbs.

The phenomenon called nominalization has been fashionable lately. Writers suddenly seem to be enamored with changing
the verbs into nouns and making these nouns the subject of the sentence.

Original Version:

Inoculation of the strain should be done very carefully.

Improved Version:

The strain should be inoculated carefully.

Changing the verb inoculate into the noun inoculation and making the latter the subject of the sentence took much energy
out of the sentence.

The verb is the power plant of the sentence: it supplies energy, vitality, and motion to the sentence. Take the noun out of a
group of word and you still have sentence. For example, the verb “Go!” is a complete sentence although there is no
apparent subject. The implied subject “(You) Go!” make the though complete. But take out the verb “Go!” and the subject
becomes meaningless.

Principle No. 6: Always take note of the nuances of the use of voice in the sentence.

Voice of the verb refers to the distinction of form or a system of inflections of a verb to indicate the relation of the subject
of the verb to the action which the verb expresses.

Voice could be active or passive.

Active Voice - I weighed the sample.  (4 words)

Passive Voice - The sample was weighed by me.  (6 words)

In the active voice, the real subject I is the doer of the action and the direct object sample is the receiver of the action. In
the passive voice, the object of the action now takes the subject position. The agent of the action “I” is now noted as the
object of the preposition or it may be omitted altogether.

It is true that passive voice conveys less action and it is more wordy, that is why many experts recommend the use of the
active voice whenever possible. 

 
Principle No. 7: Observe the rules of grammar.

This is a very timely reminder for writers who are not native English speakers, meaning, English is only our second language.
We cannot be expected to be flawless in our grammar and syntax but always helps to be mindful of these when we write.
There is no excuse for bad writing because our product here is down on paper, or any other form, which is permanent in
nature.
1. Intervening words and expressions - A word or group of words introduced by such connectives as with, besides,
along with, together with, as well as, in company with, accompanied by, including, in addition to, no less than, and
separating the subject from the verb, does not affect the number of subject.
2. Compound subject joined by or or nor – The verb agrees with the nearer of the two subjects. 
3. With percentage figures or fractions, the verb agrees in number with the noun in the modifying prepositional
phrase.
4. Nouns such as economics, gallows, mathematics, measles, civics, mumps, physics, news, though plural in form, are
singular in meaning, and require a singular verb.
5. Either a singular or a plural verb is correct in mathematical expressions. However, an equation is always singular.
6. Most indefinite nouns, pronouns and adjectives, such as each, every, another, any, one, either, neither, anyone,
each one, everyone, no one, anybody, everybody, somebody, a person, something are singular.
7. All, none, and some may take either a singular or a plural verb according to their meaning.
8. Use singular verb when they denote the same person or represent a single unit or idea.
9. When collective nouns such as audience, army, class, committee, company, family, flock, group, herd, jury, nation,
school, team, denotes a collection regarded as a unit, it requires a singular verb. When it refers to the persons or things
included in the collection, it requires a plural verb.
10. Nouns generally used in the singular - food, fish, fruit, grass, hair, lace, land, pottery, sand, smoke.
11. Nouns always used in the singular – baggage, blood, bread, chalk, dirt, dust, furniture, gravel, information, jewelry,
machinery, music, poetry, prose scenery, equipment.
12. Nouns used in plural only – clothes, proceeds, scissors, tactics, thanks, tongs, trousers, refreshments
13. Nouns sometimes singular and sometimes plural – advice, alms, athletics, means, goods, instruction, pains, paper,
politics, physics, property, wood, work 

 PREPOSITIONS OF LOCATION: IN, AT, ON

IN
 Use IN with spaces.
in a room/in a building
in a garden/in a park
 Use IN with bodies of water.
in the water
in the sea
in a river
 Use IN with lines.
in a row/in a line
in a queue

AT
 Use AT with places.
at the bus stop
at the door
at the cinema
at the end of the street
 Use AT with places on a page.
at the top of the page
at the bottom of the page
 Use AT with groups of people.
at the back of the class
at the front of the class
ON
 Use ON with surfaces.
on the ceiling/on the wall/on the floor
on the table
 Use ON with small islands.
I stayed on Maui.
 Use ON with directions.
on the left
on the right
straight on

IMPORTANT NOTE:
 In/at/on the corner
We say ‘in the corner of a room but ‘at the corner (or on the corner) of a street.’
 In/at /on the front
We say ‘in the front/in the back’ of a car.
We say ‘at the front/at the back’ of buildings/groups of people.
We say ‘on the front/on the back’ of a piece of paper.
 PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND DATE: IN, AT, ON
IN
 Use IN months and years and periods of time.
in January
in 1978
in the twenties
 Use IN a period of time in the future.
in a few days
in a couple of days
AT
 Use AT with precise time.
at six o’clock
at 10:30
at two p.m.
 ON
 Use ON with days of the week.
on Monday
on Fridays
 Use ON with specific calendar days.
on Christmas Day
on October 22nd
 IMPORTANT NOTE:
 in the morning/afternoon/evening – at night

We say ‘in the morning, afternoon or evening’ BUT we say ‘at night.’
 PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT: IN, AT, TO, NOTHING
IN
 Use IN with static (non-movement) verbs and cities, countries, states, etc.
stay in the USA
work in New York
AT
 Use AT with static verbs and places.
at the cinema
at work
at home
TO
 Use TO with verbs of movement such as go, come, drive, etc.
go to work
drive to California
FILIPINISMS
Incorrect Usage Correct Usage
Anything? Is there anything else I can help you with?
Can I help you?
At around 2 p.m. At about 2 p.m.
Can I speak with... May I speak with...
Come again? I’m sorry. I didn’t quite get that.
Excuse me? I’m sorry, would you please say that again?
CR (comfort room) Washroom, ladies’/men’s room
Drink your medicine. Take your medicine.
For a while In a minute, just a moment
Hey time first! Hey, time out!
It’s for free! It’s free.
No parking on both sides No parking on either side.
Pictorial Photo shoot
Polo Shirt
Hold on Let me put you on hold.
Tuck out Untuck
We take lunch. We eat lunch. We have lunch.
Where are you studying? Where do you go to school?
Take your seat. Be seated. Have a seat.
MODULE 3: GENERAL TO SPECIFIC TEXTS

WHAT IS A GENERAL-SPECIFIC TEXT?

 GS texts move from broad statements to narrower ones. However, they often widen out to broader statements
again in the final sentence. The shape is similar to that of a glass or cup.
 You produce GS text for:
 An answer to an examination question
 An opening paragraph of an assignment
 A background (or scene-setting) paragraph to an analysis or discussion 

How to begin GS texts

 A short or extended definition
 A contrastive or comparative definition
 A generalization or purpose statement 
 A statement of fact 

GENERAL STATEMENTS
General statements can include general statements of fact as well as broad statements made about a topic that are usually,
but not necessarily always true. Here are a few examples:

Individuals in organizations exhibit a wide range of behaviors, from the minimalist who does the least
possible to maintain membership to those who go beyond expectations, engaging in extra-role behavior to
promote the effective operation of the organization or to benefit others.

In the last decade, tremendous strides have been made in the science and technology of organic light-
emitting diodes (OLEDS).

Over the years, interest in economic benefits of meetings tourism has been growing.

After making a general statement, some support or explanation for the statement should be offered, which in turn helps
move the passage from general to specific. Support can take the form of specific detail or perhaps a reference to earlier
work, as in the second example above. Whether you begin a GS text with a general statement or a definition is a matter of
personal preference. However, sometimes one may be a strategically better choice than the other.

DEFINITIONS
 are a common way of getting started
 “hooks” from which GS paragraphs can be hung
e.g.  The majority of corporate profits, or earnings after all the operating expenses  have been deducted, are subject
to tax by the government.

Writing a definition
 A definition sets the boundaries for a word’s meaning. 
 Words and phrases may have different meanings depending on the field of study.
e.g. menu, tone, memory

Some Common Ways to Define in Academic Writing

 Short definitions or glosses – give information about a term or phrase and are placed within either parentheses or
commas in a sentence; phrasal definitions signaled by such devices as e.g. or i.e. or phrases such as known as, defined as,
and called. 
 Sentence definitions – brief and somewhat similar to a dictionary definition.
 Extended definitions – longer and more detailed than definitions found in dictionaries

LANGUAGE FOCUS: The Language of Defining and Naming

 The verb name itself is rare and seems restricted to a focus on the name itself.
This new species was named Ascochyta mycoparasitica.
 The verb denote is quite common but seems largely restricted to matters of notation 
Any rotational velocity is usually denoted by f. 
 The verb call is quite common, but using it in full sentences can be tricky. One danger in written papers is that it
can give the impression of stating the obvious, as in 
A book containing lists of word definitions is called a dictionary.
 While this kind of definitional explanation may be fine for a tutor or instructor, it does not work so well when writing for
experts. Only use call for introducing new information. Notice the general-to-specific order of information in the following
examples:

This new method is called activity-based costing, or simply ABC.

Fig. 15 shows two simple mirrors, bending around the light. The configuration may be called a two-dimensional corner
reflector.

 The phrase known as is not very common in definitional sentences.

Another principle of heat is the natural increase in temperature as the depth increases. This is known as the geothermal
gradient.

 The phrase define as is widely used and often represents a safe option, especially in more elaborate explanations
and for terms or concepts that can be defined in more than one way.

Shadow work may be defined as those subsistence activities engaged in by the homeless which are outside of the regular
employment system, but not necessarily outside of the market system altogether (Ilich, 1981).

 Finally, the verb refer is widely used in academic writing but tends, as far as definitions are concerned, to be used
for terminological explanations. 
The natural gas contained in coal formations is generally referred to as coal bed methane.
FORMAL SENTENCE DEFINITIONS
 may be signaled by a single verb phrase or may be expressed using a class term and restrictive clause
 some verb phrases include refer to as, is/are known as, is/are defined as

e.g. Dental erosion is defined as a progressive loss of hard dental tissues by a chemical 

process without bacterial action.
This variant of the efficiency wage hypothesis is known as the shirking model.

Elements of formal sentence definitions

Term  + Class  + Distinguishing Detail

e.g.  A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight into electric energy.

LANGUAGE FOCUS: The Grammar of Definitions

Notice the use of indefinite articles a and an in the first part of the preceding definitions.

A sole proprietorship is a business…

Annealing is a metalworking process…
A star is a celestial body…
Road pricing is a transportation control measure…

In most definitions, the indefinite article (or no article in the case of uncountable nouns) is used before both the term and
the class. The indefinite article before the class indicates that you are classifying a term. The indefinite article before the
term conveys the meaning that any representative of this term will fit the assigned class.
A disinfectant is an agent capable of destroying disease-causing microorganisms.

Deletions
 You may reduce the restrictive relative if

1. The relative clause consists only of the relative pronoun, the verb to be, and one or more prepositional phrases.
e.g.  A wharf is a structure that is along a waterfront providing a place for ships to load and 
unload passengers and cargo.
A wharf is a structure along a waterfront providing a place for ships to load and unload  passengers and cargo.

1. The relative clause consists of a passive verb plus some additional information.
e.g.  A theater is a building that has been specifically designed for dramatic performances.
A theater is a building specifically designed for dramatic performances. 

Change in word or word form

1. The relative clause contains the verb have. The relative pronoun and have can both be dropped and replaced by
with.
e.g.  A parliament is national governing body which has the highest level of legislative power 
within a state.
A parliament is national governing body with the highest level of legislative power  within a state.

1. The relative clause contains an active state verb (a verb that expresses a state or unchanging condition). The
relative pronoun is dropped and the verb is changed to the -ing form (except the verb to be and have). 
e.g.  Pollution is a form of contamination that often results from human activity.
Pollution is a form of contamination often resulting from human activity.

Core in Constructing Definitions

 Avoid the following:
Using something
e.g.  A solar cell is something that changes sunlight into electricity.
A solar cell is a device that changes sunlight into electricity.
Using when and where 
e.g.  Pollution is when the environment becomes contaminated as a result of human activity.
Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting from human activity.

EXTENDED DEFINITIONS
 It usually begins with a general, one-sentence definition and then becomes more specific as additional details are
provided. 
 There may be a need to focus on components, types, applications, history or examples.
 It may also include information regarding operating principles (process analysis) or causes and effects.

COMPETING DEFINITIONS
 Sometimes a definition of a term or concept is not fixed. There may be a lack of agreement as to a precise
definition or competing perspectives.
 A good strategy is to acknowledge some of the different definitions but make clear to your reader the definitions
you will adopt. 

Skeletal phrases you could use

While debate exists regarding a precise definition of …, the stance adopted in this paper is that…
For the purpose of this paper, …. refers to/is defined as/is considered to be… 

CONTRASTIVE DEFINITIONS
 Defining two or more related terms
e.g. a CD and DVD
good news and bad news letter
British and American English
 Focusing on differences

COMPARATIVE DEFINITIONS
Two approaches
 Present a historical account of how a concept has changed over time
 Present an overview of how various experts today view a concept differently