UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL

UNESCO
EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE
PROJECT II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERI
ENGINEERING
NG TECHNOLOGY

TELECOMMUNICATION
ENGINEERIN (II)
ENGINEERING
COURSE CODE:
CODE EEC 238

YEAR II- SEMESTER III

THEORY
Version 1: December 2008

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Department Electrical Engineering Technology

Subject Telecommunication Engineering (I I)

Year 2

Semester 3

Course Code EEC 238

Credit Hours 3

Theoretical 1

Practical 2

Content Page

Week1…………………………………………………………………………….. 1

AM Transmitter

Week2……………………………………………………………………………. 5

FM Transmitter

Week3…………………………………………………………………………….. 9

TV Transmitter

Week4……………………………………………………………………………… 15

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2
Week5…………………………………………………………………………….. . 22

Electromagnetic radiation

Week6……………………………………………………………………………… 28

Radio frequency

Week7…………..……………………………………………………………………. 43

Microwave

Week8……………………………………………………………………………….. 47

Antenna characteristics

Week9…………………………………………………………………………………. 54

Very Low Frequency (VLF) / Low Frequency (LF) Antennas

Week10……………………………………………………………………………… 58

High Frequency (HF) Antennas

Week11………………………………………………………………………… 66

Very High Frequency (VHF) / Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Antennas

Week12………………………………………………………………………… 71

Introduction to Wave Propagation

Week13………………………………………………………………………… 76

Wave Propagation Characteristics

3
Week14………………………………………………………………………………………… 84
Atmospheric Effects on Wave Propagation

Week15…………………………………………………………………… 91

Modes of Wave Propagation

4
Week 1
1.1 AM Transmitter

Principles of radio transmission

Transfer of information (speech, music, image, computer data etc.) by radio can be
presented in its simplest form with block - diagram as on Pic.2.1. That is a
transmission realized by amplitude - modulated signal. Since, in our example, the
information being transferred is the sound, the first step of such transmission is
converting the sound into electrical signal, this being accomplished by a microphone.
The low - frequency (LF) voltage at microphone output (Pic.2.1-a), that represents the
electrical "image" of the sound being transferred, is being taken into the transmitter.
There, under the effect of LF signal, the procedure called amplitude modulation is
being carried out, and on its output high - frequency (HF) voltage is generated, its
amplitude changing according to the current LF signal value. HF voltage creates HF
current in the antenna, thus generating electromagnetic field around it. This field
spreads through the ambient space, being symbolically shown on Pic.2.1 with dashed
circles. Traveling at the speed of light (c=300 000 km/s), the electromagnetic field
gets to the reception place, inducing the voltage in the reception antenna, as shown on
Pic.2.1-c. This voltage has the same profile as the one on Pic.2.1-b, except it has much
smaller amplitude. In the receiver, the amplification and detection are carried out first,
resulting with the LF voltage on its output, that has the same profile as the one on
Pic.2.1-a. This voltage is then transformed into sound by loudspeaker, that sound
being exactly the same as the sound that acted upon the microphone. This, naturally, is
the way it would be in ideal case. Back to reality, due to device imperfection as well
as the influence of various disturbances, the sound being generated by the loudspeaker
differs from the one that acts upon the microphone membrane. The block - diagram on
Pic.2.1 (excluding the HF signal shape) is also applicable in case of radio transmission
being carried out by frequency modulation. In that case frequency modulation is being
carried out in the transmitter, under the effect of LF signal coming from the
microphone, therefore HF signals on Pics.2.1-b and 2.1-c having constant amplitude,
and their frequency being changed in accordance with the actual value of LF signal
from the microphone. In fact, all types of radio transmission can be presented with
Pic.2.1. First, the information being sent is always transformed into electrical signal
through the appropriate converter. In telegraphy this converter is the pushbutton, in
radiophony it's a microphone, in television engineering an image analysis cathode ray
tube (CRT) etc. Then, with this "electrical image" of information, the modulation is
being done. The modulated HF signal is being transferred into antenna and
transmitted. On the reception place, the modulated signal from the reception antenna
is being amplified and detected and then, again with the appropriate converter (pen

5
recorder, loudspeaker, TV CRT etc.), the information is transformed
transformed back into its
original form.

Amplitude Modulated Transmitter

In AM transmitters, the instantaneous amplitude of the rf output signal is varied in

proportion to the modulating signal. The modulating signal may consist of many
frequencies of various amplitudes and phases, such as the signals making up your own
speech pattern. Figure 2-33 gives you an idea of what the block diagram of a simple
AM transmitter looks like. The oscillator, buffer amplifier, and power amplifier serve
the same purpose as thosee in the cw transmitter. The microphone converts the audio
frequency (af) input (a person’s voice) into corresponding electrical energy. The
driver amplifies the audio, and the modulator further amplifies the audio signal to the
amplitude necessary to fullyy modulate the carrier. The output of the modulator is
applied to the power. amplifier. The pa combines the rf carrier and the modulating
signal in the power amplifier to produce the amplitude-modulated
amplitude modulated signal output for
transmission. In the absence of a modulating
m signal, a continuous rf carrier is radiated
by the antenna.

6
Figure 2-3.—AM radiotelephone transmitter block diagram.
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM EEEB453
Chapter 2MPLITUDE MODULATION
Transmitter Requirements
Generate a signal of correct frequency with the right type of modulation at the right
carrier frequency .Provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that signal level is
high enough to be carried over a long distance.

1- Amplitude Modulator
Signal source and carrier are “multiplied” resulting in the modulation envelope. The
AM signal varies according to information signal but maintains the frequency.

2 -Power output

There are a number of ways to measure transmitter power, depending upon the
modulation scheme employed Transmitters for full-carrier AM are rated in terms of
carrier power Suppressed-carrier AM transmitters are rated by peak-envelope power
(PEP) FM transmitters are rated by total power output

3- Efficiency

There are two important reasons for efficient transmitter operation:

7
 – Most obvious is energy conservation
– Power that enters the transmitter but does not exit via the transmitter
output is converted into heat
– Large amounts of heat require significant amounts of additional
hardware to remove the heat, adding to the cost of the equipment

4- Modulation Fedility

• An ideal communication system allows the original information signal to be

recovered exactly, except for a time delay
• Compression is often used to raise the overall modulation level of the signal
• Compression distorts the overall dynamic range of the original signal, but
results in an improved signal-to-noise ratio
• Other types of distortion such as intermediation and harmonic distortion must
also be kept at a minimum

8
Week 2
1.2 FM Transmitter

1.2.1 Introduction
A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an
electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications. In other
applications signals can also be transmitted using an analog 0/4-20 mA current loop signal.

1.2.2 Transmitter fundamental

In frequency modulation (fm) the modulating signal combines with the carrier to
cause the frequency of the resultant wave to vary with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal. Figure 2-4 shows you the block diagram of a frequency-
modulated transmitter. The modulating signal applied to a varicap causes the
reactance to vary. The varicap is connected across the tank circuit of the oscillator.
With no modulation, the oscillator generates a steady center frequency. With
modulation applied, the varicap causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary around
the center frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. The oscillator output is
then fed to a frequency multiplier to increase the frequency and then to a power
amplifier to increase the amplitude to the desired level for transmission.

Figure 2-4. - Fm transmitter block diagram.

9
1.2.3 Harmonics

True harmonics are always exact multiples of the basic or fundamental frequency
generated by an oscillator and are created in amplifiers and their associated circuits.
Even harmonics are 2, 4, 6, and so on, times the fundamental; odd harmonics are 3, 5,
7, and so on, times the fundamental. If an oscillator has a fundamental frequency of
2,500 kilohertz, the harmonically related frequencies are

5,000 second harmonic

7,500 third harmonic
10,000 fourth harmonic
12,500 fifth harmonic

You should note that the basic frequency and the first harmonic are one and the same.
The series ascends indefinitely until the intensity is too weak to be detected. In
general, the energy in frequencies above the third harmonic is too weak to be
significant. In some electronics books, and later in this chapter, you will find the term
SUBHARMONIC used. It refers to a sine wave quantity (for example, an oscillator
output) that has a frequency that is a submultiple of the frequency of some other sine
wave quantity it helped make. For example, a wave that is half the fundamental
frequency of another wave is called the second subharmonic of that wave; one with a
third of the fundamental frequency is called a third subharmonic; and so forth. The
final stage of a transmitter is the power amplifier (referred to as the pa). In the power
amplifier a large amount of rf current and voltage is made available for radiation by
the antenna. The power amplifier of a high-power transmitter may require far more
driving power than can be supplied by an oscillator and its buffer stage. One or more
low-power intermediate amplifiers are used between the buffer and the final amplifier
that feeds the antenna. The main difference between many low- and high-power
transmitters is in the number of intermediate power-amplifier stages used. Figure 2-2
is a block diagram of the input and output powers for each stage of a typical medium-
power transmitter. You should be able to see that the power output of a transmitter can
be increased by adding amplifier stages capable of delivering the power required. In
our example, the .5 watt output of the buffer is amplified in the first intermediate
amplifier by a factor of 10, (this is a times 10 [ X 10] amplifier) giving us an input of
5 watts to the second intermediate amplifier. You can see in this example the second
intermediate amplifier multiplies the 5 watt input to it by a factor of 5 ( X 5) and gives
us a 25 watt input to our power (final) amplifier. The final amplifier multiplies its
input by a factor of 20 (X 20) and gives us 500 watts of power out to the antenna.

10
 Figure 2-2. - Intermediate amplifiers increase transmitter power.

1.2.4 Transmitter types

Generally and in communication and information processing, a transmitter is any

object (source) which sends information to an observer (receiver). When used in this
more general sense, vocal cords may also be considered an example of a transmitter.
In radio electronics and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has a power supply, an
oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers for audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency
(RF). The modulator is the device which piggybacks (or modulates) the signal
information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast. Sometimes a device
(for example, a cell phone) contains both a transmitter and a radio receiver, with the
combined unit referred to as a transceiver. In amateur radio, a transmitter can be a
separate piece of electronic gear or a subset of a transceiver, and often referred to
using an abbreviated form; "XMTR". In consumer electronics, a common device is a
Personal FM transmitter, a very low power transmitter generally designed to take a
simple audio source like an iPod, CD player, etc. and transmit it a few feet to a
standard FM radio receiver. In industrial process control, a "transmitter" is any device
which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal to be received, usually sent
via wires, by some display or control device located a distance away. Typically in
process control applications the "transmitter" will output an analog 4-20 mA current
loop or digital protocol to represent a measured variable within a range. For example,
a pressure transmitter might use 4 mA as a representation for 50 psig of pressure and
20 mA as 1000 psig of pressure and any value in between proportionately ranged
between 50 and 1000 psig. (A 0-4 mA signal indicates a system error.) Older
technology transmitters used pneumatic pressure typically ranged between 3 to 15
psig (20 to 100 kPa) to represent a process variable.

1.2.5 Power output

In broadcasting, and telecommunication, the part which contains the oscillator,

modulator, and sometimes audio processor, is called the exciter. Confusingly, the
high-power amplifier which the exciter then feeds into is often called the "transmitter"
by broadcast engineers. The final output is given as transmitter power output (TPO),
although this is not what most stations are rated by. Effective radiated power (ERP) is

11
used when calculating station coverage, even for most non-broadcast stations. It is the
TPO, minus any attenuation or radiated loss in the line to the antenna, multiplied by
the gain (magnification) which the antenna provides toward the horizon. This is
important, because the electric utility bill for the transmitter would be enormous
otherwise, as would the cost of a transmitter. For most large stations in the VHF- and
UHF-range, the transmitter power is no more than 20% of the ERP. For VLF, LF, MF
and HF the ERP is typically not determined separately. In most cases the transmission
power found in lists of transmitters is the value for the output of the transmitter. This
is only correct for omnidirectional aerials with a length of a quarter wavelength or
shorter. For other aerial types there are gain factors, which can reach values until 50
for shortwave directional beams in the direction of maximum beam intensity. Since
some authors take account of gain factors of aerials of transmitters for frequencies
below 30 MHz and others not, there are often discrepancies of the values of
transmitted powers.

12
Week 3
1.3 TV Transmitter Principles
The aural or sound transmitter is an FM system similar to broadcast FM radio. The
video, or picture, signal is amplitude-modulated onto a carrier. Thus, the composite
transmitted signal is a combination of both AM and FM principles. The TV camera
converts a visual picture or scene into an electrical signal. The camera is thus a
transducer between light energy and electrical energy. At the receiver, the CRT
picture tube is the analogous transducer that converts the electrical energy back into
light energy. The microphone and speaker are the similarly related transducers for the
sound transmission. There are actually two more transducers, the sending and
receiving antennas. They convert between electrical energy and the electromagnetic
energy required for transmission through the atmosphere. The diplexer feeding the
transmitter antenna feeds both the visual and aural signals to the antenna while not
allowing either to be fed back into the other transmitter. Without the diplexer, the low-
output impedance of either transmitter's power amplifier would dissipate much of the
output power of the other transmitter. The most widely used image pickup device is
the charge couple device (CCD). CCD cameras are used in many applications such as
broadcasting and imaging. The CCD is a solid-state chip consisting of thousands or
millions of photosensitive cells arranged in a two-dimensional array. When light
(photons) strike the CCD surface, the light information is converted to an electronic
analog of the light. The electronic information is then shifted out of the device serially
in what is call a bucket brigade.

Diagram of a CCD

13
 Simplified TV system

1.3.1 TV Scanning

In this simplified system, the camera focuses the letter "T' onto the photosensitive
cells in the CCD imaging device. Instead of a million cells, this system has just 30,
arranged in 6 rows with 5 cells per row. Each separate area is called a pixel, which is
short for "picture element." The greater the number of pixels, the better the quality (or
resolution) of the transmitted picture. The letter "T" is focused on the light-sensitive
area so that all of rows 1 and 6 are illuminated. All of row 2 is dark and the centers of
rows 3,4, and 5 are dark. If we scan each row sequentially and if the retrace time is
essentially zero, then we have a sequential breakup of information. The retrace
interval is the time it takes to move from the end of one line back to the start of the
next lower line. The variable light on the photosensitive cells results in a similar
variable voltage being developed at the CCD's output. The visual scene has been
converted to a video (electrical) signal and can now be suitably amplified and used to
amplitude- modulate a carrier for broadcast. The picture for broadcast National
Television Systems Committee (NTSC) TV has been standardized at a 4:3 ratio of the
width to height. This is termed the aspect ratio and was selected as the most pleasing
picture orientation to the human eye.

14
1.3.2 Transmitter/Receiver Synchronization
When the video signal is detected at the receiver, some means of synchronizing the
transmitter and receiver is necessary:

• 1. When the TV camera starts scanning line 1, the receiver must also start
scanning line 1 on the CRT output display. You do not want the top of a scene
appearing at the center of the TV screen.

• 2. The speed that the transmitter scans each line must be exactly duplicated by
the receiver scanning process to avoid distortion in the receiver output.

• 3. The horizontal retrace, or time when the electron beam is returned back to
the left-hand side to start tracing a new line, must occur coincidentally at both
transmitter and receiver. You do not want the horizontal lines starting at the
center of the TV screen.

• 4. When a complete set of horizontal lines has been scanned, moving the
electron beam from the end of the bottom line to the start of the top line
(vertical flyback or retrace) must occur simultaneously at both transmitter and
receiver.

In the scanning process for a television, the electron beam starts at the upper left-
hand comer and sweeps horizontally to the right side. It then is rapidly returned to
the left side, and this interval is termed horizontal retrace. An appropriate analogy
to this process is the movement of your eye as you read this line and rapidly

15
 retrace to the left and drop slightly for the next line. When all the horizontal lines
have been traced, the electron beam must move from the lower right-hand corner
up to the upper left-hand corner for the next "picture." This vertical retrace
interval is analogous to the time it takes the eye to move from the bottom of one
page to the top of the next.

1.3.4 Horizontal Synchronization

The Transmitter send a synchronization (sync) pulse between every line of video
signal so that perfect transmitter-receiver synchronization is maintained. Three
horizontal sync pulses are shown along with the video signal for two lines. The actual
horizontal sync pulse rides on top of a so-called blanking pulse, as shown in the
figure. The blanking pulse is a strong enough signal so that the electron beam retrace
at the receiver is blacked out and thus invisible to the viewer. The interval before the
horizontal sync pulse appears on the blanking pulse is termed the front porch, while
the interval after the end of the sync pulse, but before the end of the blanking pulse, is
called the back porch. Notice that the back porch includes an eight-cycle sine-wave
burst at 3,579,545 Hz. It is appropriately called the color burst, because it is used to
calibrate the receiver color subcarrier generator. Naturally enough, a black-and-white
broadcast does not include the color burst. The two lines of video picture signal shown
in the figure can be described as follows:

• Line 2: It starts out nearly full black at the left-hand side and gradually lightens
to full white at the right-hand side.

• Line 4: It starts out medium gray and stays there until one-third of the way
over, when it gradually becomes black at the picture center. It suddenly shifts
to white and gradually turns darker gray at the right-hand side.

16
1.3.5 Vertical Synchronization

1.3.6 The Television Signal

The maximum modulating rate for the video signal is 4 MHz. Because it is
amplitude-modulated onto a carrier, a bandwidth of 8 MHz is implied. However, the
FCC allows only a 6-MHz bandwidth per TV station, and that must also include the
FM audio signal (only is a relative term here because 6 MHz is enough to contain 600
AM radio broadcast stations of 10 kHz each).

17
The lower visual sideband extends only 0.25 MHz below its carrier with the remainder
filtered out. The upper sideband is transmitted in full. The audio carrier is 4.5 MHz
above the picture carrier with FM sidebands as created by its ±25-kHz deviation.

18
Week 4
2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic

radiation frequencies. The "electromagnetic spectrum" (usually just spectrum)
spectrum of an
object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation from that
particular object. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the frequencies
used for modern radio (at the long-wavelength
long wavelength end) through gamma radiation (at the
short
hort wavelength end),covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a
fraction the size of an atom.. It is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the
vicinity of the Planck length,, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe
itself (see physical cosmology
cosmology), ), although in principle the spectrum is infinite and
continuous.

Electromagnetic spectrum

19
The spectrum covers EMA wave energy having wavelengths from thousands of
meters down to fractions of the size of an atom. Frequencies of 30 Hz and below can
be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae[5] and
frequencies as high as 2.9×1027 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources.
Electromagnetic energy at a particular wavelength λ (in vacuum) has an associated
frequency f and photon energy E. Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be
expressed equally well in terms of any of these three quantities.

c = frequency × wavelength or λ=c/f and E=hf orE=hc/λ

Where:

c = 299,792,458 m/s (speed of light) and

h = 6.62606896(33)×10−34 J·s (Planck's constant).

So, high-frequency electromagnetic waves have a short wavelength and high energy;
low-frequency waves have a long wavelength and low energy. Whenever light waves
(and other electromagnetic waves) exist in a medium (matter), their wavelength is
decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are
traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength , although
this is not always explicitly stated. Generally, EM radiation is classified by coiled
wavelength into radio wave, microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as
light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on
its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies
have longer wavelengths. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and
molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.
Electromagnetic radiation can be divided into octaves — as sound waves are.
Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible
range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect
wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical
properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. It
is widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave
photon which has a wavelength of 21.12 cm.

2.1.1Types of radiation
While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some
overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF
radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted
along wires as electric power. Also, some low-energy gamma rays actually have a
longer wavelength than some high-energy X-rays. This is possible because "gamma
ray" is the name given to the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear
20
and subnuclear processes, whereas X-rays on the other hand are generated by
electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner electrons. Therefore the
distinction between gamma ray and X-ray is related to the radiation source rather than
the radiation wavelength.[8] Generally, nuclear transitions are much more energetic
than electronic transitions, so usually, gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays.
However, there are a few low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g. the 14.4 keV nuclear
transition of Fe-57) that produce gamma rays that are less energetic than some of the
higher energy X-rays.

2.1.2 Radio frequency

Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size (according to the
principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about
one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television,
mobile phones, MRI, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves.
Radio waves can be made to carry information by varying a combination of the
amplitude, frequency and phase of the wave within a frequency band and the use of
the radio spectrum is regulated by many governments through frequency allocation.
When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels
along it, and induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting
the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in
antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to
heat up, thus causing thermal effects and sometimes burns; this is exploited in
microwave ovens.

2.1.2 Microwaves
The super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) of microwaves
come next up the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves which are typically short
enough to employ tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. Microwave
energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes
such as Gunn and IMPATT devices.

21
Plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation.

Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a dipole moment in liquids. In a

microwave oven, this effect is used to heat food. Low-intensity microwave radiation is
used in Wi-Fi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating.
Volumetric heating, as used by microwaves, transfer energy through the material
electro-magnetically, not as a thermal heat flux. The benefit of this is a more uniform
heating and reduced heating time; microwaves can heat material in less than 1% of the
time of conventional heating methods. When active, the average microwave oven is
powerful enough to cause interference at close range with poorly shielded
electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile medical devices and cheap
consumer electronics

2.1.3 Terahertz radiation

Terahertz radiation is a region of the spectrum between far infrared and microwaves.
Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave
energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimetre waves or so-called terahertz
waves), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing.
Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where
high frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their
electronic equipment.

2.1.4 Infrared radiation

The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300
GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:

Far-infrared, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 µm). The lower part of this range
may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called
rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by

22
phonons in solids. The water in the Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this
range that it renders the atmosphere effectively opaque. However, there are certain
wavelength ranges ("windows") within the opaque range which allow partial
transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from
approximately 200 µm up to a few mm is often referred to as "sub-millimetre" in
astronomy, reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 µm. Mid-infrared, from
30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 µm). Hot objects (black-body radiators) can radiate strongly
in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, where the different atoms in a
molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called
the fingerprint region since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is
very specific for that compound. Near-infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750
nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible
light.

2.1.5 Visible radiation (light)

The light spectrums of different grow lamps

Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. This is the range in which the sun
and stars similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that
the human eye is sensitive to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly. Visible
light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in
molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see
with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A
rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if
you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with
ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end. EM radiation with a wavelength
between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is detected by the human eye and
perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than
700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light,
especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. If radiation having a
frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off of an object, say, a
bowl of fruit, and then strikes our eyes, this results in our visual perception of the
scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into
different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood psychophysical
phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit. At most wavelengths, however,

23
the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human
senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and our technology
can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light which,
although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry data that can be translated into
sound or an image. The coding used in such data is similar to that used with radio
waves.

2.1.6 Ultraviolet light

The amount of penetration of UV relative to altitude in Earth's ozone

Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). This is radiation whose wavelength is

shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum. Being very energetic, UV can break
chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive or ionizing them, in general
changing their mutual behavior. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive
effects of UV radiation on skin cells, which can even cause skin cancer, if the
radiation damages the complex DNA molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven
mutagen). The Sun emits a large amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn
Earth into a barren desert; however, most of it is absorbed by the atmosphere's ozone
layer before reaching the surface.

2.1.7 X-rays
After UV come X-rays. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-
rays are used for seeing through some things and not others, as well as for high-energy
physics and astronomy. Neutron stars and accretion disks around black holes emit X-
rays, which enable us to study them. X-rays will pass through most substances, and
this makes them useful in medicine and industry. X-rays are given off by stars, and
strongly by some types of nebulae. An X-ray machine works by firing a beam of

24
electrons at a "target". If the electrons are fired with enough energy, X-rays will be
produced.

2.1.8 Gamma rays

After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Ulrich Villard in
1900. These are the most energetic photons having no defined lower limit to their
wavelength. They are useful to astronomers in the study of high energy objects or
regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their
production from radioisotopes. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with
high accuracy by means of Compton scattering. Note that there are no precisely
defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation of
some types have a mixture of the properties of those in two regions of the spectrum.
For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can resonate some
chemical bonds.

25
Week 5
2.2 Electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation (sometimes abbreviated EMR) takes the form of self-

propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter. EM radiation has an electric and
magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of energy propagation. Electromagnetic radiation is classified into types
according to the frequency of the wave, these types include (in order of increasing
frequency): radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible
light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. Of these, radio waves have the
longest wavelengths and Gamma rays have the shortest. A small window of
frequencies, called visible spectrum or light, is sensed by the eye of various
organisms, with variations of the limits of this narrow spectrum. EM radiation carries
energy and momentum, which may be imparted when it interacts with matter. Shows
three electromagnetic modes (blue, green and red) with a distance scale in microns
along the x-axis. Electromagnetic waves were first postulated by James Clerk
Maxwell and subsequently confirmed by Heinrich Hertz. Maxwell derived a wave
form of the electric and magnetic equations, revealing the wave-like nature of electric
and magnetic fields, and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted
by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded
that light itself is an EM wave. According to Maxwell's equations, a time-varying
electric field generates a magnetic field and vice versa. Therefore, as an oscillating
electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn
generates an oscillating electric field, and so on. These oscillating fields together form
an electromagnetic wave. A quantum theory of the interaction between
electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of
quantum electrodynamics. Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-
propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram
shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from right to left. The electric field
is in a vertical plane, the magnetic field in a horizontal plane. Electric and magnetic
fields obey the properties of superposition, so fields due to particular particles or time-
varying electric or magnetic fields contribute to the fields due to other causes. (As
these fields are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together
according to vector addition.) These properties cause various phenomena including
refraction and diffraction. For instance, a travelling EM wave incident on an atomic
structure induces oscillation in the atoms, thereby causing them to emit their own EM
waves. These emissions then alter the impinging wave through interference.

Since light is an oscillation, it is not affected by travelling through static electric or

magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. In nonlinear media such as

26
some crystals, however, interactions can occur between light and static electric and
magnetic fields - these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect. In
refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its
speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices
of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law.
Light disperses into a visible spectrum as light is shone through a prism because of the
wavelength dependant refractive index of the prism material (Dispersion). The physics
of electromagnetic radiation is electrodynamics, a subfield of electromagnetism. EM
radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (see
wave-particle duality). The wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation
is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances, and the particle
characteristics are more evident when measuring small distances and timescales. Both
characteristics have been confirmed in a large number of experiments. There are
experiments in which the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves appear
in the same experiment, such as the diffraction of a single photon. When a single
photon is sent through two slits, it passes through both of them interfering with itself,
as waves do, yet is detected by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only once.
Similar self-interference is observed when a single photon is sent into a Michelson
interferometer or other interferometers.

Wave model

Depicts white light being separated into different frequency waves.

An important aspect of the nature of light is frequency. The frequency of a wave is its
rate of oscillation and is measured in hertz, the SI unit of frequency, where one hertz
is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has a spectrum of frequencies
which sum together to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo
different angles of refraction. A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and
the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength. Waves of
the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of
buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely
proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:
27
 V=f . 

where v is the speed of the wave (c in a vacuum, or less in other media), f is the
frequency and λ is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different
media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant. Interference is the
superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have
components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite
directions cause destructive interference. The energy in electromagnetic waves is
sometimes called radiant energy.

Particle model

Because energy of an EM wave is quantized, in the particle model of EM radiation, a

wave consists of discrete packets of energy, or quanta, called photons. The frequency
of the wave is proportional to the magnitude of the particle's energy. Moreover,
because photons are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, they act as
transporters of energy. The energy per photon can be calculated by Planck's equation:

E=h.f

where E is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and f is frequency. This photon-energy

expression is a particular case of the energy levels of the more general
electromagnetic oscillator whose average energy, which is used to obtain Planck's
radiation law, can be shown to differ sharply from that predicted by the equipartition
principle at low temperature, thereby establishes a failure of equipartition due to
quantum effects at low temperature. As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites an
electron, elevating it to a higher energy level. If the energy is great enough, so that the
electron jumps to a high enough energy level, it may escape the positive pull of the
nucleus and be liberated from the atom in a process called photoionisation.
Conversely, an electron that descends to a lower energy level in an atom emits a
photon of light equal to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in
atoms are discrete, each element emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies.
Together, these effects explain the absorption spectra of light. The dark bands in the
spectrum are due to the atoms in the intervening medium absorbing different
frequencies of the light. The composition of the medium through which the light
travels determines the nature of the absorption spectrum. For instance, dark bands in
the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. These
bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. A similar phenomenon
occurs for emission. As the electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is
emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons. This is
manifested in the emission spectrum of nebulae. Today, scientists use this

28
phenomenon to observe what elements a certain star is composed of. It is also used in
the determination of the distance of a star, using the so-called red shift.

Speed of propagation

Any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic field, produces
electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic information about the charge travels at the
speed of light. Accurate treatment thus incorporates a concept known as retarded time
(as opposed to advanced time, which is unphysical in light of causality), which adds to
the expressions for the electrodynamic electric field and magnetic field. These extra
terms are responsible for electromagnetic radiation. When any wire (or other
conducting object such as an antenna) conducts alternating current, electromagnetic
radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. Depending on the
circumstances, it may behave as a wave or as particles. As a wave, it is characterized
by a velocity (the speed of light), wavelength, and frequency. When considered as
particles, they are known as photons, and each has an energy related to the frequency
of the wave given by Planck's relation E = hν, where E is the energy of the photon, h =
6.626 × 10-34 J·s is Planck's constant, and ν is the frequency of the wave. One rule is
always obeyed regardless of the circumstances: EM radiation in a vacuum always
travels at the speed of light, relative to the observer, regardless of the observer's
velocity. (This observation led to Albert Einstein's development of the theory of
special relativity.) In a medium (other than vacuum), velocity factor or refractive
index are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios
of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.

Electromagnetic specrum

Legend:
γ = Gamma rays
HX = Hard X-rays
SX = Soft X-Rays
EUV = Extreme ultraviolet
NUV = Near ultraviolet
Visible light
NIR = Near infrared
MIR = Moderate infrared
FIR = Far infrared

Radio waves:
EHF = Extremely high frequency (Microwaves)
SHF = Super high frequency (Microwaves)
UHF = Ultrahigh frequency (Microwaves)

29
VHF = Very high frequency
HF = High frequency
MF = Medium frequency
LF = Low frequency
VLF = Very low frequency
VF = Voice frequency
ELF = Extremely low frequency

Generally, EM radiation is classified by wavelength into electrical energy, radio,

microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and
gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. Higher
frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer
wavelengths. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its
behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries. Spectroscopy can
detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to
700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to
2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even
stars can be obtained from this type of device. It is widely used in astrophysics. For
example, hydrogen atoms emit radio waves of wavelength 21.12 cm.

Light

EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is

detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths,
especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm)
are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not
relevant. If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum
reflects off of an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes our eyes, this results in
our visual perception of the scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude
of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-
understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit. At
most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is
not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across
the spectrum, and our technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths.
Optical fiber transmits light which, although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry
data that can be translated into sound or an image. The coding used in such data is
similar to that used with radio waves.

Radio waves

Radio waves can be made to carry information by varying a combination of the

amplitude, frequency and phase of the wave within a frequency band. When EM

30
radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and
induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of
the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas. EM radiation
may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up; this is
exploited in microwave ovens.

31
Week 6
2.3 Radio frequency
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about
3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical
signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the
vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to
oscillations in electrical circuits

Special properties of RF electrical signals

Electrical currents that oscillate at RF have special properties not shared by direct
current signals. One such property is the ease with which they can ionize air to create
a conductive path through air. This property is exploited by 'high frequency' units used
in electric arc welding. Another special property is an electromagnetic force that
drives the RF current to the surface of conductors, known as the skin effect. Another
property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain insulating material,
like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor. The degree of effect of these properties
depends on the frequency of the signals.

Extremely low frequencies

Extremely low frequency (ELF) is the band of radio frequencies from 3 to 30 Hz. ELF
was used by the US Navy and Soviet/Russian Navy to communicate with submerged
submarines.

Super low frequency

Super Low Frequency (SLF) is the frequency range between 30 hertz and 300 hertz.
This frequency range includes the frequencies of AC power grids (50 hertz and 60
hertz).

The radio services Seafarer (USA) on 76 hertz and ZEVS (Russia) on 82 hertz operate
in this range, which is often incorrectly called Extremely Low Frequency (ELF). They
both provide communication services for submarines at a certain depth.

Ultra low frequency

The Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) is the frequency range between 300 hertz and 3
kilohertz. Many types of waves in the ULF frequency band can be observed in the
magnetosphere and on the ground. These waves represent important physical

32
processes in the near-Earth plasma environment. The speed of the ULF waves is often
associated with the Alfven velocity that depends on the ambient magnetic field and
plasma mass density.

This band is used for communications in mines, as it can penetrate the earth.

Very low frequency

Very low frequency or VLF refers to radio frequencies (RF) in the range of 3 kHz to
30 kHz. Since there is not much bandwidth in this band of the radio spectrum, only the
very simplest signals are used, such as for radio navigation. Also known as the
myriameter band or myriameter wave as the wavelengths range from ten to one
myriameters (an obsolete metric unit equal to 10 kilometers).

Applications
VLF waves can penetrate water to a depth of roughly 10 to 40 metres (30 to 130 feet),
depending on the frequency employed and the salinity of the water. VLF is used to
communicate with submarines near the surface (for example using the transmitter
DHO38), while ELF is used for deeply-submerged vessels. VLF is also used for radio
navigation beacons (alpha) and time signals (beta). VLF is also used in
electromagnetic geophysical surveys. Early in the history of radio engineering
attempts were made to use radiotelephone using amplitude modulation and single-
sideband modulation within the band starting from 20 kHz, but the result was
unsatisfactory because of the small available bandwidth. The frequency range below
9 kHz is not allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and may be
used in some nations license-free. Many natural radio emissions, such as whistlers,
can also be heard in this band. [1]

In the USA, the time signal station WWVL began transmitting a 500 W signal on
20 kHz in August 1963. It used Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) to send data, shifting
between 20 kHz and 26 kHz. The WWVL service was discontinued in July 1972. The
very long wave transmitter SAQ at Grimeton near Varberg in Sweden can be visited
by the public at certain times, such as on Alexanderson Day

Low frequency
Low Frequency or LF refers to Radio Frequencies (RF) in the range of 30 kHz–300
kHz. In Europe, and parts of Northern Africa and of Asia, part of the LF spectrum is
used for AM broadcast service. In the western hemisphere, its main use is for aircraft
beacon, navigation (LORAN), information, and weather systems. Time signal stations

33
MSF, DCF77, JJY and WWVB are found in this band. Also known as the kilometer
band or kilometer wave as the wavelengths range from ten to one kilometers.

Medium frequency
Medium frequency (MF) refers to radio frequencies (RF) in the range of 300 kHz to
3000 kHz. Part of this band is the medium wave (MW) AM broadcast band. The MF
band is also known as the hectometer band or hectometer wave as the wavelengths
range from ten to one hectometers (1,000 to 100 m). Frequencies immediately below
MF are denoted Low-frequency (LF), and the next higher frequencies are known as
High-frequency (HF).

Uses and applications

Non-directional navigational radio beacons (NDBs) for maritime and aircraft occupy a
band from 190 kHz to 435 kHz, which overlaps from the LF into the bottom part of
the MF band. 500 kHz was for many years the Maritime distress and emergency
frequency, and there are more NDBs between 510 and 530 kHz. Navtex, which is part
of the current Global Maritime Distress Safety System occupies 518 kHz and 490 kHz
for important digital text broadcasts. In recent years, some limited amateur radio
operation has also been allowed in the region of 500 kHz in the USA, UK, Germany
and Sweden. Medium waveband radio transmissions are allocated an AM broadcast
band from 530 kHz to 1610 kHz with an extension to 1710 kHz in the US. Many
home-portable or cordless telephones, especially those that were designed in the
1980s, transmit low power FM audio signals between the table-top base unit and the
handset on frequencies in the range 1600 to 1800 kHz. There is an amateur radio band
known as 160 meters or 'top-band' between 1810 and 2000 kHz. Amateur operators
transmit CW morse code, digital signals and SSB voice signals on this band.

High frequency
High frequency (HF) radio frequencies are between 3 and 30 MHz. Also known as the
decameter band or decameter wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten
decameters (ten to one hundred metres). Frequencies immediately below HF are
denoted Medium-frequency (MF), and the next higher frequencies are known as Very
high frequency (VHF). Shortwave (2.310 - 25.820 MHz) overlaps and is slightly
lower than HF.

34
 Uses
The high frequency band is very popular with amateur radio operators, who can take
advantage of direct, long-distance (often inter-continental) communications and the
"thrill factor" resulting from making contacts in variable conditions. International
shortwave broadcasting utilizes this set of frequencies, as well as a seemingly
declining number of "utility" users (marine, aviation, military, and diplomatic
interests), who have, in recent years, been swayed over to less volatile means of
communication (for example, via satellites), but may maintain HF stations after
switch-over for back-up purposes. However, the development of Automatic Link
Establishment technology based on MIL-STD-188-141A and MIL-STD-188-141B for
automated connectivity and frequency selection, along with the high costs of satellite
usage, have led to a renaissance in HF usage among these communities. The
development of higher speed modems such as those conforming to MIL-STD-188-
110B which support data rates up to 9600 bit/s has also increased the usability of HF
for data communications.

Very high frequency

VHF (Very high frequency) is the radio frequency range from 30 MHz to 300 MHz.
Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted High frequency (HF), and the next
higher frequencies are known as Ultra high frequency (UHF).

The frequency allocation is done by ITU. Common uses for VHF are FM radio
broadcast, television broadcast, land mobile stations (emergency, business, and
military), Amateur Radio, marine communications, air traffic control communications
and air navigation systems (e.g. VOR, DME & ILS).

Ultra high frequency

Ultra high frequency (UHF) designates a range (band) of electromagnetic waves with
frequencies between 300 MHz and 3 GHz (3,000 MHz). Also known as the decimeter
band or decimeter wave as the wavelengths range from ten to one decimeters. Radio
waves with frequencies above the UHF band fall into the SHF (Super high frequency)
and EHF (Extremely high frequency) bands, all of which fall into the Microwave
frequency range. Lower frequency signals fall into the VHF (Very high frequency) or
lower bands. See electromagnetic spectrum for a full listing of frequency bands.

35
Uses
UHF and VHF are the most commonly used frequency bands for transmission of
television signals. Modern mobile phones also transmit and receive within the UHF
spectrum. UHF is widely used by public service agencies for two-way radio
communication, usually using narrowband frequency modulation, but digital services
are on the rise. There has traditionally been very little radio broadcasting in this band
until recently; see digital audio broadcasting for details. The Global Positioning
System also uses UHF. One uncommon use of UHF waves is for the detection of
partial discharges. Partial discharges occur because of the sharp geometries created in
high voltage insulated equipment. The advantage of UHF detection is that this method
can be used to localize the source of the discharge. A drawback to UHF detection is
the extreme sensitivity to external noise. UHF detection methods are used in the field,
especially for large distribution transformers. 2.45 GHz, now mainly used for WiFi,
Bluetooth and US cordless phones has been proposed for Wireless energy transfer.
Some pilot experiments have been performed, but it is not used on a large scale.
Amateur radio operators also operate in several UHF bands. Some radio frequency
identification (RFID) tags utilize UHF. These tags are commonly known as UHFID's
or Ultra-HighFID's (Ultra-High Frequency Identification).

Super high frequency

Super high frequency (or SHF) refers to radio frequencies (RF) in the range of 3 GHz
and 30 GHz. Also known as the centimeter band or centimeter wave as the
wavelengths range from ten to one centimeters.

Uses
Some uses are IEEE 802.11a wireless LANs, satellite uplinks/downlinks and
terrestrial high-speed data links which are sometimes referred to as "backhauls".

Extremely high frequency

Extremely high frequency is the highest radio frequency band. EHF runs the range of
frequencies from 30 to 300 gigahertz, above which electromagnetic radiation is
considered to be low (or far) infrared light, also referred to as terahertz radiation. This
band has a wavelength of ten to one millimetre, giving it the name millimeter band or
millimetre wave, sometimes abbreviated MMW or mmW. Compared to lower bands,
terrestrial radio signals in this band are extremely prone to atmospheric attenuation,
making them of very little use over long distances. In particular, signals in the 57–
64 GHz region are subject to a resonance of the oxygen molecule and are severely

36
attenuated. Even over relatively short distances, rain fade is a serious problem, caused
when absorption by rain reduces signal strength. In climates other than deserts
absorption due to humidity also has an impact on propagation. While this absorption
limits potential communications range, it also allows for smaller frequency reuse
distances than lower frequencies. The small wavelength allows modest size antennas
to have a small beam width, further increasing frequency reuse potential.

Applications

Scientific research
This band is commonly used in radio astronomy and remote sensing. Ground-based
radio astronomy is limited to high altitude sites such as Kitt Peak and Atacama Large
Millimeter Array (ALMA) due to atmospheric absorption issues. Satellite-based
remote sensing near 60 GHz can determine temperature distributions in the upper
atmosphere by measuring radiation emitted from oxygen molecules that is a function
of temperature and pressure. The ITU non-exclusive passive frequency allocation at
57-59.3 is used for atmospheric monitoring in meteorological and climate sensing
applications, and is important for these purposes due to the properties of oxygen
absorption and emission in Earth’s atmosphere. Currently operational U.S. satellite
sensors such as the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) on one NASA
satellite (Aqua) and four NOAA (15-18) satellites and the Special Sensor Microwave
Imager Sounder (SSMI/S) on Department of Defense satellite F-16 make use of this
frequency range. [1]

Telecommunications
In the United States, the band 38.6 - 40.0 GHz is used for licensed high-speed
microwave data links, and the 60 GHz band can be used for unlicensed short range
(1.7 km) data links with data throughputs up to 2.5 Gbit/s. It is used commonly in flat
terrain. Uses of the millimeter wave bands include point-to-point communications,
intersatellite links, and point-to-multipoint communications. Because of shorter
wavelengths, the band permits the use of smaller antennas than would be required for
similar circumstances in the lower bands, to achieve the same high directivity and
high gain. The immediate consequence of this high directivity, coupled with the high
free space loss at these frequencies, is the possibility of a more efficient use of the
spectrum for point-to-multipoint applications. Since a greater number of high directive
antennas can be placed than less directive antennas in a given area, the net result is
higher reuse of the spectrum, and higher density of users, as compared to lower
frequencies. Furthermore, because one can place more voice channels or broadband

37
information using a higher frequency to transmit the information, this spectrum could
potentially be used as a replacement for or supplement to fiber optics.[citation needed]

Weapons systems
The U.S. Air Force is reported to have developed a nonlethal weapon system called
Active Denial System (ADS) which emits a beam of radiation with a wavelength of
3mm [5]. The weapon is reportedly not painful, but rather makes the target feel as if
his or her clothes are going to catch fire [6].

Security screening
A recent development has been imagers for security applications as clothing and other
organic materials are translucent in some mm-wave atmospheric windows. [7] Privacy
advocates are concerned about the use of this technology because it allows screens to
see airport passengers without clothing.

38
Week 7
2.4 Microwave

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from 1 mm to 1 m,

or frequencies between 0.3 GHz and 300 GHz. Apparatus and techniques may be
described qualitatively as "microwave" when the wavelengths of signals are roughly
the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped-element circuit theory is
inaccurate. As a consequence, practical microwave technique tends to move away
from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower frequency radio
waves. Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are more
useful methods for design, analysis. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines give
way to waveguides, and lumped-element tuned circuits are replaced by cavity
resonators or resonant lines. Effects of reflection, polarization, scattering, diffraction,
and atmospheric absorption usually associated with visible light are of practical
significance in the study of microwave propagation. The same equations of
electromagnetic theory apply at all frequencies. While the name may suggest a
micrometer wavelength, it is better understood as indicating wavelengths very much
smaller than those used in radio broadcasting. The boundaries between far infrared
light, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are
fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. The term
microwave generally refers to "alternating current signals with frequencies between 3
GHz (3×109 Hz) and 300 GHz (3×1011 Hz)."[1] Both IEC standard 60050 and IEEE
standard 100 define "microwave" frequencies starting at 1 GHz (30 cm wavelength).
Electromagnetic waves longer (lower frequency) than microwaves are called "radio
waves". Electromagnetic radiation with shorter wavelengths may be called "millimeter
waves", terahertz radiation or even T-rays. Definitions differ for millimeter wave
band, which the IEEE defines as 110 GHz to 300 GHz.

Discovery
The existence of electromagnetic waves, of which microwaves are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 from his
equations. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of
electromagnetic waves by building an apparatus that produced and detected
microwaves in the UHF region. The design necessarily used horse-and-buggy
materials, including a horse trough, a wrought iron point spark, Leyden jars, and a
length of zinc gutter whose parabolic cross-section worked as a reflection antenna. In
1894 J. C. Bose publicly demonstrated radio control of a bell using millimeter
wavelengths, and conducted research into the propagation of microwaves.

39
Plot of the zenith atmospheric transmission on the summit of Mauna Kea throughout
the entire gigahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum at a precipitable water
vapor level of 0.001 mm. (simulated)

Frequency range
The microwave range includes ultra-high frequency (UHF) (0.3–3 GHz), super high
frequency (SHF) (3–30 GHz), and extremely high frequency (EHF) (30–300 GHz)
signals.

Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is

so great that it is effectively opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again
in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.

Microwave sources
Vacuum tube based devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum
under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the
magnetron, klystron, traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work
in the density modulated mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means
that they work on the basis of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them,
rather than using a continuous stream. A maser is a device similar to a laser, except
that it works at microwave frequencies. Solid-state sources include the field-effect
transistor, at least at lower frequencies, tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes.

40
A microwave telecommunications tower on Wrights Hill in Wellington, New Zealand

Uses

Communication

Before the advent of fiber optic transmission, most long distance telephone calls were
carried via microwave point-to-point links through sites like the AT&T Long Lines.
Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to 5,400
telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio
channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.

Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications, also
use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII
frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless
Internet Access services can be found in many countries (but not the USA) in the 3.5–
4.0 GHz range. Metropolitan Area Networks: MAN protocols, such as WiMAX
(Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) based in the IEEE 802.16
specification. The IEEE 802.16 specification was designed to operate between 2 to
11 GHz. The commercial implementations are in the 2.3GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and
5.8 GHz ranges. Wide Area Mobile Broadband Wireless Access: MBWA protocols
based on standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (e.g.
iBurst) are designed to operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-

41
building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater
spectral efficiency. Cable TV and Internet access on coaxial cable as well as broadcast
television use some of the lower microwave frequencies. Some mobile phone
networks, like GSM, also use the lower microwave frequencies. Microwave radio is
used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short
wavelength, highly directive antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than
they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more
bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the
usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used
above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a
signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van.

Remote sensing
Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of
remote objects. Development of radar was accelerated during World War II due to its
great military utility. Now radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic
control, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement. A Gunn diode oscillator
and waveguide are used as a motion detector for automatic door openers (although
these are being replaced by ultrasonic devices). Most radio astronomy uses
microwaves.

Microwave imaging; see Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine

Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the
American Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast
navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.

Power
A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave radiation (at a frequency near
2.45 GHz) through food, causing dielectric heating by absorption of energy in the
water, fats and sugar contained in the food. Microwave ovens became common
kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following development of
inexpensive cavity magnetrons. Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for
drying and curing products. Many semiconductor processing techniques use
microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-
enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). Microwaves can be used to transmit

42
power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine
possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of
using Solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam
power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves. Less-than-lethal weaponry exists
that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable
temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the
95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 °F (54 °C) at a depth of
1/64th of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and Marines are currently
using this type of Active Denial System.[2]

Microwave frequency bands

The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 1000 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown
in the table below:

Microwave frequency bands

Letter Designation Frequency range

L band 1 to 2 GHz

S band 2 to 4 GHz

C band 4 to 8 GHz

X band 8 to 12 GHz

Ku band 12 to 18 GHz

K band 18 to 26.5 GHz

Ka band 26.5 to 40 GHz

43
Q band 30 to 50 GHz

U band 40 to 60 GHz

V band 50 to 75 GHz

E band 60 to 90 GHz

W band 75 to 110 GHz

F band 90 to 140 GHz

D band 110 to 170 GHz (Hot)

Health effects
Microwaves contain insufficient energy to directly chemically change substances by
ionization, and so are an example of nonionizing radiation. The word "radiation"
refers to the fact that energy can radiate, and not to the different nature and effects of
different kinds of energy. Specifically, the term in this context is not to be confused
with radioactivity. Due to this fact, it has not yet conclusively been shown that
microwaves (or other non ionizing electromagnetic radiation) have any biological
effects. This is separate from the risks associated with very high intensity exposure,
which can cause thermal burns, in the same way that infrared emissions from a hot
heating element can do so, and not due to any unique property of microwaves
specifically. During World War II, it was observed that individuals in the radiation
path of radar installations observed clicks and buzzing sounds in response to the
microwaves radiation. It was through this observation that it became known that
microwaves could cause the perception of sounds in the human brain by inducing an
electric current in the hearing centers of the brain.

44
Week 8
3.1 Antenna characteristics

An antenna may be defined as a conductor or group of conductors used either for

radiating electromagnetic energy into space or for collecting it from space. Electrical
energy from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by the
antenna and radiated into space. On the receiving end, electromagnetic energy is
converted into electrical energy by the antenna and fed into the receiver. The
electromagnetic radiation from an antenna is made up of two components, the E
field and the Hfield. The total energy in the radiated wave remains constant in space
except for some absorption of energy by the earth. However, as the wave advances,
the energy spreads out over a greater area. This causes the amount of energy in a
given area to decrease as distance from the source increases. The design of the
antenna system is very important in a transmitting station. The antenna must be able
to radiate efficiently so the power supplied by the transmitter is not wasted. An
efficient transmitting antenna must have exact dimensions, determined by the
frequency being transmitted. The dimensions of the receiving antenna are not
critical for relatively low frequencies, but their importance increases drastically as
the transmitted frequency increases. Most practical transmitting antennas are
divided into two basic classifications, HERTZ ANTENNAS(half-wave) and MARCONI
(quarter-wave) ANTENNAS. Hertz antennas are generally installed some distance
above the ground and are positioned to radiate either vertically or horizontally.
Marconi antennas operate with one end grounded and are mounted perpendicular
to the earth or a surface acting as a ground. The Hertz antenna, also referred to as a
dipole, is the basis for some of the more complex antenna systems used today. Hertz
antennas are generally used for operating frequencies of 2 MHz and above, while
Marconi antennas are used for operating frequencies below 2 MHz. All antennas,
regardless of their shape or size, have four basic characteristics: reciprocity,
directivity, gain, and polarization.

Reciprocity

Reciprocity is the ability to use the same antenna for both transmitting and
receiving. The electrical characteristics of an antenna apply equally, regardless of
whether you use the antenna for transmitting or receiving. The more efficient an
antenna is for transmitting a certain frequency, the more efficient it will be as a
receiving antenna for the same frequency. This is illustrated by figure 2-1, view A.
45
 When the antenna is used for transmitting, maximum radiation occurs at
right angles to its axis. When the same antenna is used for receiving (view B), its best
reception is along the same path; that is, at right angles to the axis of the antenna.

Figure 2-1—Reciprocity of antennas. Figure 2-2—Horizontal and vertical polarization

Directivity

The Directivity of an antenna or array is a measure of the antenna's ability to focus

the energy in one or more specific directions. You can determine an antenna's
directivity by looking at its radiation pattern. In an array propagating a given amount
of energy, more radiation takes place in certain directions than in others. The
elements in the array can be arranged so they change the pattern and distribute the
energy more evenly in all directions. The opposite is also possible. The elements can
be arranged so the radiated energy is focused in one direction. The elements can be
considered as a group of antennas fed from a common source.

Gain

As we mentioned earlier, some antennas are highly directional. That is, they
propagate more energy in certain directions than in others. The ratio between the
amount of energy propagated in these directions and the energy that would be

46
propagated if the antenna were not directional is known as antenna Gain. The gain of
an antenna is constant, whether the antenna is used for transmitting or receiving.

Polarization

Energy from an antenna is radiated in the form of an expanding sphere. A small

section of this sphere is called a wave front, positioned perpendicular to the
direction of the radiation field (fig. 2-2). Within this wave front, all energy is in phase.
Usually, all points on the wave front are an equal distance from the antenna. The
farther from the antenna the wave is, the less curved it appears. At a considerable
distance, the wave front can be considered as a plane surface at right angles to the
direction of propagation. The radiation field is made up of magnetic and electric lines
of force that are always at right angles to each other. Most electromagnetic fields in
space are said to be linearly polarized. The direction of polarization is the direction of
the electric vector. That is, if the electric lines of force (E lines) are horizontal, the
wave is said to be horizontally polarized (fig. 2-2), and if the E lines are vertical, the
wave is said to be vertically polarized. Since the electric field is parallel to the axis of
the dipole, the antenna is in the plane of polarization. A horizontally placed antenna
produces a horizontally polarized wave, and a vertically placed antenna produces a
vertically polarized wave. In general, the polarization of a wave does not change over
short distances. Therefore, transmitting and receiving antennas are oriented alike,
especially if they are separated by short distances. Over long distances, polarization
changes. The change is usually small at low frequencies, but quite drastic at high
frequencies. (For radar transmissions, a received signal is actually a wave reflected
from an object. Since signal polarization varies with the type of object, no set
position of the receiving antenna is correct for all returning signals). Where separate
antennas are used for transmitting and receiving, the receiving antenna is generally
polarized in the same direction as the transmitting antenna. When the transmitting
antenna is close to the ground, it should be polarized vertically, because vertically
polarized waves produce a greater signal strength along the earth's surface. On the
other hand, when the transmitting antenna is high above the ground, it should be
horizontally polarized to get the greatest signal strength possible to the earth's
surface.

Radiation of electromagnetic energy

Various factors in the antenna circuit affect the radiation of electromagnetic energy.
In figure 2-3, for example, if an alternating current is applied to the A end of wire
antenna AB, the wave will travel along the wire until it reaches the B end. Since the B
end is free, an open circuit exists and the wave cannot travel further. This is a point
47
of high impedance. The wave bounces back (reflects) from this point of high
impedance and travels toward the starting point, where it is again reflected.
Theoretically, the energy of the wave should be gradually dissipated by the
resistance of the wire during this back-and-forth motion (oscillation). However, each
time the wave reaches the starting point, it is reinforced by an impulse of energy
sufficient to replace the energy lost during its travel along the wire. This results in
continuous oscillations of energy along the wire and a high voltage at the A end of
the wire. These oscillations move along the antenna at a rate equal to the frequency
of the rf voltage and are sustained by properly timed impulses at point A. The rate at
which the wave travels along the wire is constant at approximately 300,000,000
meters per second. The length of the antenna must be such that a wave will travel
from one end to the other and back again during the period of 1 cycle of the rf
voltage. The distance the wave travels during the period of 1 cycle is known as the
wavelength. It is found by dividing the rate of travel by the frequency. Look at the
current and voltage distribution on the antenna in figure 2-4. A maximum movement
of electrons is in the center of the antenna at all times; therefore, the center of the
antenna is at a low impedance. This condition is called a STANDING WAVE of current.
The points of high current and high voltage are known as current and voltage LOOPS.
The points of minimum current and minimum voltage are known as current and
voltage NODES. View A shows a current loop and two current nodes. View B shows
two voltage loops and a voltage node. View C shows 2-4 the resultant voltage and
current loops and nodes. The presence of standing waves describes the condition of
resonance in an antenna. At resonance, the waves travel back and forth in the
antenna, reinforcing each other, and are transmitted into space at maximum
radiation. When the antenna is not at resonance, the waves tend to cancel each
other and energy is lost in the form of heat.

RADIATION TYPES AND PATTERNS

A logical assumption is that energy leaving an antenna radiates equally over 360
degrees. This is not the case for every antenna. The energy radiated from an antenna
forms a field

having a definite RADIATION PATTERN. The radiation pattern for any given antenna is
determined by measuring the radiated energy at various angles at constant distances
from the antenna and then plotting the energy values on a graph. The shape of this
pattern depends on the type of antenna being used. Some antennas radiate energy
equally in all

48
directions. Radiation of this type is known as ISOTROPIC RADIATION. The sun is a
good example of an isotropic radiator. If you were to measure the amount of
radiated energy around the sun's circumference, the readings would all be fairly
equal (fig. 2-5). Most radiators emit (radiate) energy more strongly in one direction than
in another. These radiators are

referred to as ANISOTROPIC radiators. A flashlight

is a good example of an anisotropic radiator (fig.

2-6).

The beam of the flashlight lights only a portion of

the

space surrounding it. The area behind the

flashlight

remains unlit, while the area in front and to either

side

is illuminated.

MAJOR AND MINOR LOBES

The pattern shown in figure 2-7, view B,

Most radiators emit (radiate) energy more strongly in one direction than in another.
These radiators are referred to as AN ISOTROPIC radiators. A flashlight is a
good example of an anisotropic radiator (fig. 2-6). The beam of the flashlight
lights only a portion of the space surrounding it. The area behind the flashlight
remains unlit, while the area in front and to either side is illuminated.

Figure 2-4.—Standing waves of current and

49
 voltage on an antenna

Figure 2-3.—Antenna and rf source.

Most radiators emit (radiate) energy more strongly

in one direction than in another. These radiators
are referred to as AN ISOTROPIC radiators. A
flashlight is a good example of an anisotropic
radiator (fig. 2-6). The beam of the flashlight lights
only a portion of the space surrounding it. The area
behind the flashlight remains unlit, while the area
in front and to either side is illuminated.

MAJOR AND MINOR LOBES

The pattern shown in figure 2-7, view B, has radiation concentrated in two lobes. The
radiation intensity in one lobe is considerably stronger than in the other. The lobe
toward point X is called a MAJOR LOBE; the other is a MINOR LOBE. Since the
complex radiation patterns associated with antennas frequently contain several
lobes of varying intensity, you should learn to use the appropriate terminology. In
general, major lobes are those in which the greatest amount of radiation occurs.
Minor lobes are those in which the least amount of radiation occurs.

50
ANTENNA LOADING

There will be times when you may want to use one

antenna system to transmit on several different
frequencies. Since the antenna must always be in
resonance with the applied frequency, you must
either lengthen it or shorten it to produce the
required resonance.

F
figure 2-5.—Isotropic radiation

graphs.

Changing the antenna dimension physically is impractical, but changing them

electrically is relatively simple. To change the electrical length of an antenna, you can
insert either an inductor or a capacitor in series with the antenna. This is shown in
figure 2-8, views A and B. Changing the electrical length by this method is known as
LUMPED-IMPEDANCE TUNING or LOADING. If the antenna is too short for the
wavelength being used, it will be resonant at a higher frequency. Therefore, it offers
a capacitive reactance at the excitation frequency. This capacitive reactance can be
compensated for by introducing a lumped inductive reactance, as shown in view A.
Similarly, if the antenna is too long for the transmitting frequency, it will be resonant
at a lower frequency and offers an inductive reactance. Inductive reactance can be
compensated for

Figure 2-7.—Major and minor lobes.

by introducing a lumped capacitive reactance, as shown in view B. An antenna

with normal loading is represented in view C.

51
Week 9

3.2 Very Low Frequency (VLF) / Low Frequency (LF) Antennas

Some antennas can be used in both shore-based and ship-based applications. Others,
however, are designed to be used primarily in one application or the other. The
following paragraphs discuss, by frequency range, antennas used for shore-based
communications.

VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF)

The main difficulty in vlf and lf antenna design is the physical disparity between the
maximum practical size of the antenna and the wavelength of the frequency it must
propagate. These antennas must be large to compensate for wavelength and power

handling requirements (0.25 to 2 MW). Transmitting antennas for vlf have multiple
towers 600 to 1500 feet high, an extensive flat top for capacitive loading, and a
copper ground system for reducing ground losses. Capacitive top-loading increases
the bandwidth characteristics, while the ground plane improves radiation efficiency.
Representative antenna configurations are shown in figures 2-10 through 2-12.
Variations of these basic antennas are used at the majority of the Navy vlf sites.

LOW FREQUENCY (LF)

Antennas for lf are not quite as large as antennas for vlf, but they still occupy a large
surface area. Two examples of lf antenna design are shown in figures2-13 and 2-14.
The Pan polar antenna (fig. 2-13) is an umbrella, top-loaded monopole. It has three
loading loops spaced 120 degrees apart, interconnected between the tower guy
cables. Two of the loops terminate at ground, while the other is used as a feed. The
NORD antenna (fig. 2-14), based on the the folded-unipole principle, is a vertical
tower radiator grounded at the base and fed by one or more wires connected to the
top of the tower. The three top loading wires extend from the top of the antenna at
120-degree intervals to three terminating towers. Each loading wire has a length
approximately equal to the height of the main tower plus 100 feet. The top loading
wires are insulated from ground and their tower supports are one-third the height of
the transmitting antenna.

52
Figure 2-11.—Goliath-type antenna.

Figure 2-12.—Trideco-type antenna.

53
Figure 2-10.—Triatic-type antenna.

54
Figure 2-13.—Pan polar antenna.

Figure 2-14.—NORD antenna.

55
Week 10
3.3 High Frequency (HF) Antennas

High-frequency (hf) radio antenna systems are used to support many different types
of circuits, including ship-to-shore, point-to-point, and ground-to-air broadcast.
These diverse applications require the use of various numbers and types of antennas
that we will review on the following pages.

Yagi

The Yagi antenna is an end-fired parasitic array. It is constructed of parallel and

coplaner dipole elements arranged along a line perpendicular to the axis of the
dipoles, as illustrated in figure 2-15. The most limiting characteristic of the Yagi
antenna is its extremely narrow bandwidth. Three percent of the center frequency is
considered to be an acceptable bandwidth ratio for a Yagi antenna. The width of the
array is determined by the lengths of the elements. The length of each element is
approximately one-half wave length, depending on its intended use (driver,
reflector, or director). The required
length of the array depends on the
desired gain and directivity. Typically, the length will vary from 0.3 wavelength for
three-element arrays, to 3 wavelengths for arrays with numerous elements. For
hf applications, the maximum practical array length is 2 wavelengths. The
array's height above ground will determine its vertical radiation angle. Normally,
array heights vary from 0.25 to 2.5 wavelengths. The dipole elements are usually
constructed from tubing, which provides for better gain and bandwidth
characteristics and provides sufficient mechanical rigidity for self-support. Yagi
arrays of four elements or less are not structurally complicated. Longer arrays and
arrays for lower frequencies, where the width of the array exceeds 40 feet, require
elaborate booms and supporting structures. Yagi arrays may be either fixed-position
or rotatable.

56
LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNAS (LPAs)

An antenna arranged so the electrical length and spacing between successive

elements causes the input impedance and pattern characteristics to be repeated
periodically with the logarithm of the driving frequency is called a LOG-PERIODIC
ANTENNA (LPA). The LPA, in general, is a medium-power, high-gain, moderately-
directive antenna of extremely broad bandwidth. Bandwidths of up to 15:1 are
possible, with up to 15 dB power gain. LPAs are rather complex antenna systems and
are relatively expensive.

57
Figure 2-16.—Log-periodic vertical monopole antenna

Figure 2-15.—Yagi antenna.

The installation of LPAs is normally more difficult than for other hf antennas because
of the tower heights involved and the complexity of suspending the radiating
elements and feed lines from the towers.

Vertical Monopole LPA

The log-periodic vertical monopole antenna (fig.2-16) has the plane containing the
radiating elements in a vertical field. The longest element is approximately one-
quarter wavelength at the lower cutoff frequency. The ground system for the
monopole arrangement provides the image equivalent of the other quarter
wavelength for the half-dipole radiating elements. A typical vertical monopole
designed to cover a frequency range of 2 to 30 MHz requires one tower
approximately 140 feet high and an antenna length of around 500 feet, with a
ground system that covers approximately 3 acres of land in the immediate vicinity of
the antenna.

58
Figure 2-18.—Rotatable log-periodic antenna.

Sector Log-Periodic Array

This version of a vertically polarized fixed-azimuth LPA consists of four separate

curtains supported by a common central tower, as shown in figure 2-17. Each of the
four curtains operates independently, providing antennas for a minimum of four
transmit or receive systems, and a choice of sector coverage. The four curtains are
also capable of radiating a rosette pattern of overlapping sectors for full coverage, as
shown by the radiation pattern in figure 2-17. The central supporting tower is
constructed of steel and may range to approximately 250 feet in height, with the
length of each curtain reaching 250 feet, depending on its designed operating
frequencies. A sector antenna that uses a ground plane designed to cover the entire
hf spectrum takes up 4 to 6 acres of land area.

Rotatable LPA (RLPA)

RLPAs (fig. 2-18) are commonly used in ship-to-shore-to-ship and in point-to-point

communications. Their distinct advantage is their ability to rotate 360 degrees. RLPAs
are usually constructed with either tubular or wire antenna elements. The RLPA in
figure 2-18 has wire elements strung on three aluminum booms of equal length,
spaced equally and arranged radially about a central rotator on top of a steel tower
approximately 100 feet high. The frequency range of this antenna is 6 to 32 MHz. The
gain is 12 dB with respect to isotropic antennas. Power handling capability is 20 kw
average, and vswr is 2:1 over the frequency range.

59
Figure 2-17.—Sector LPA and its horizontal radiation pattern.

INVERTED CONE ANTENNA

Inverted cone antennas are vertically polarized, omnidirectional, and have an

extremely broad bandwidth. They are widely used for ship-to-shore and ground-to-
air communications. Inverted cone antennas are installed over a radial ground plane
system and are supported by poles, as shown in figure 2-19. The equally-spaced
vertical radiator wires terminate in a feed ring assembly located at the bottom
center, where a 50-ohm coaxial transmission line feeds the antenna. Inverted cones
usually have gains of 1 to 5 dB above isotropic antennas, with a vswr not greater
than 2:1. They are considered medium- to high-power radiators, with power
handling capabilities of 40 kW average power.

60
 Figure 2-19.—Inverted cone antenna.

CONICAL MONOPOLE ANTENNA

Conical monopoles are used extensively in hf communications. A conical monopole is

an efficient broadband, vertically polarized, omnidirectional antenna in a compact
size. Conical monopoles are shaped like two truncated cones connected base-to-
base. The basic conical monopole configuration, shown in figure 2-20, is composed of
equally-spaced wire radiating elements arranged in a circle around an aluminum
center tower. Usually, the radiating elements are connected to the top and bottom
discs, but on some versions, there is a center waist disc where the top and bottom
radiators are connected. The conical monopole can handle up to 40kW of average
power. Typical gain is -2 to +2 dB, with a vswr of up to 2.5:1.

RHOMBIC ANTENNA

Rhombic antennas can be characterized as high-power, low-angle, high-gain,

horizontally polarized, highly-directive, broadband antennas of simple, inexpensive
construction. The rhombic antenna (fig. 2-21) is a system of long-wire radiators that
depends on radiated wave interaction for its gain and directivity. A properly designed
rhombic antenna presents to the transmission line input impedance insensitive to
frequency variations up to 5:1. It maintains a power gain above 9 dB anywhere
within a 2:1 frequency variation. At the design-center frequency, a gain of 17 dB is
typical. The radiation pattern produced by the four radiating legs of a rhombic
antenna is modified by reflections from the earth under, and immediately in front of,
the antenna. Because of the importance of these ground reflections in the proper
formation of the main lobe, the rhombic should be installed over reasonably smooth
and level ground. The main disadvantage of the rhombic antenna is the requirement
for a large land area, usually 5 to 15 acres.

61
 Figure 2-20.—Conical monopole antenna.

QUADRANT ANTENNA

The hf quadrant antenna (fig. 2-22) is a special-purpose receiving antenna used in

ground-to-air-to-ground communications. It is unique among horizontally-polarized

antennas because its element arrangement makes possible a radiation pattern
resembling that of a vertically-polarized, omnidirectional antenna. Construction and
installation of this antenna is complex because of the physical relationships between
the individual

62
 Figure 2-21.—Three-wire rhombic antenna.

elements and the requirement for a separate transmission line for each dipole.
Approximately 2.2 acres of land are required to accommodate the quadrant antenna.

63
Figure 2-22.—Quadrant antenna.

64
Week 11

3.4 Very High Frequency (VHF) / Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Antennas

At vhf and uhf frequencies, the shorter wavelength makes the physical size of the
antenna relatively small. A board ship these antennas are installed as high as possible
and away from any obstructions. The reason for the high installation is that vertical
conductors, such as masts, rigging, and cables in the vicinity, cause unwanted
directivity in the radiation pattern. For best results in the vhf and uhf ranges, both
transmitting and receiving antennas must have the same polarization. Vertically
polarized antennas (primarily dipoles) are used for all ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore, and
air-to-ground vhf and uhf communications. The following paragraphs describe the
most common uhf/vhf dipole antennas. All the examples are vertically-polarized,
omnidirectional, broadband antennas.

Biconical Dipole

The biconical dipole antenna (fig. 2-26) is designed for use at a normal rf power
rating of around 250 watts, with a vswr not greater than 2:1. All major components
of the radiating and support structures are aluminum. The central feed section is
protected and waterproofed by a laminated fiber glass cover.

Center-Fed Dipole

The center-fed dipole (fig. 2-27) is designed for use at an average power rating of 100
watts. All major components of the radiating and support structures are aluminum.
The central feed section and radiating elements are protected by a laminated
fiberglass cover. Center-fed dipole antennas range from 29 to 47 inches in height and
have a radiator diameter of up to 3 inches.

Coaxial Dipole

Figure 2-28 shows two types of coaxial dipoles. The coaxial dipole antenna is
designed for use in the uhf range, with an rf power rating of 200 watts. TheAT-
150/SRC (fig. 2-28, view A) has vertical radiating elements and a balun arrangement
that electrically balances the antenna to ground. Figure 2-28, view B, shows an AS-
390/SRC antenna assembly. This antenna is an unbalanced broadband coaxial stub
antenna. It consists of a radiator and a ground plane. The ground plane (or
counterpoise) consists of eight elements bent

65
 Figure 2-26.—AS-2811/SRC Biconical dipole antenna.

downward 37 degrees from horizontal. The lower ends of the elements form points
of a circle 23 inches in diameter. The lower section of the radiator assembly contains
a stub for adjusting the input impedance of the antenna. The antenna is vertically
polarized, with an rf power rating of 200 watts, and a vswr not greater than 2:1.

Array Dipole

The array dipole antenna is designed for use in the 225-400MHz UHF range. It has a
power rating of 2000 watts peak envelope power, with a VSWR not greater than
1.8:1. See figure 2-29. The array consists of four broadband radiating dipole elements
mounted an equal distance from each other and the mounting structure. It is fed
from a single coaxial input and divided by an integral coaxial line matching
transformer and feed line sections. All major supporting and radiating components
are aluminum. It is designed to be mounted around masts of four to ten inches in
diameter. SATELLITE SYSTEMS The Navy Satellite Communication System (SATCOM)
provides communications links, via satellites, between designated mobile units and
shore sites. These links supply worldwide communications coverage. The following

66
paragraphs describe some of the more common SATCOM antenna
systems to which you will be exposed.

Figure 2-27.—AS-2809/RC center-fed dipole antenna

67
AS-2815/SRR-1
The AS-2815/SSR-1 fleet broadcast receiving antenna has a fixed 360-degree
horizontal pattern with a maximum gain of 4 dB at 90 degrees from the antenna's
horizontal plane. The maximum loss in the antenna's vertical pattern sector is 2 dB.

The vswr is less than 1.5:1, referenced to 50 ohms. This antenna should be
positioned to protect it from interference and possible front end burnout from radar

and uhf transmitters.

Figure 2-29.—Array dipole antenna

ANTENNA GROUPS OE-82B/WSC-1(V)

AND OE-82C/WSC-1(V)

Designed primarily for shipboard installations, these antenna groups interface with
the AN/WSC-3 transceiver. The complete installation consists of an antenna,
bandpass amplifier-filter, switching unit, and antenna control . Depending on
requirements, one or two antennas may be installed to provide a view of the satellite
at all times. The antenna assembly is attached to a pedestal that permits it to rotate
360 degrees and to elevate from near horizontal to approximately 20 degrees
beyond zenith (elevation angles from +2 to +110 degrees). The antenna tracks

68
automatically in azimuth and manually in elevation. Frequency bands are 248-272
MHz for receive and 292-312 MHz for transmit. Polarization is right-hand circular for
both transmit and receive. Antenna gain

characteristics are nominally 12 dB in transmit and 11 dB in receive.

AN/WSC-5(V) SHORE STATION

ANTENNA
The AN/WSC-5(V) shore station antenna consists of four OE-82A/WSC-1(V)
backplane assemblies installed on a pedestal. This antenna is intended for use with
the AN/WSC-5(V) transceiver at major shore stations. The antenna is oriented
manually and can be locked in position to receive maximum signal strength upon
capture of the satellite signal. Hemispherical coverage is 0 to 110 degrees above the
horizon. Polarization is right-hand circular in both transmit and receive. The
antenna's operating frequency range is 240 to 318 MHz. With its mount,

69
Week 12
4.1 Introduction to Wave Propagation
While radio waves traveling in free space have little outside influence to affect them,
radio waves traveling in the earth’s atmosphere have many influences that affect them.
We have all experienced problems with radio waves, caused by certain atmospheric
conditions complicating what at first seemed to be a relatively simple electronic
problem. These problem-causing conditions result from a lack of uniformity in the
earth’s atmosphere. Many factors can affect atmospheric conditions, either positively
or negatively. Three of these are variations in geographic height, differences in
geographic location, and changes in time (day, night, season, year). To understand
wave propagation, you must have at least a basic understanding of the earth’s
atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is divided into three separate regions, or layers.
They are the troposphere, the stratosphere, and the ionosphere. These layers are
illustrated in figure 1-1.

Figure 1.1—Atmospheric layers.

TROPOSPHERE
Almost all weather phenomena take place in the troposphere. The temperature in this
region decreases rapidly with altitude. Clouds form, and there may be a lot of
turbulence because of variations in the temperature, pressure, and density. These
conditions have a profound effect on the propagation of radio waves, as we will
explain later in this chapter.

70
STRATOSPHERE
The stratosphere is located between the troposphere and the ionosphere. The
temperature throughout this region is almost constant and there is little water vapor
present. Because it is a relatively calm region with little or no temperature change, the
stratosphere has almost no effect on radio waves.

IONOSPHERE
This is the most important region of the earth’s atmosphere for long distance, point-to-
point communications. Because the existence of the ionosphere is directly related to
radiation emitted from the sun, the movement of the earth about the sun or changes in
the sun’s activity will result in variations in the ionosphere. These variations are of
two general types: (1) those that more or less occur in cycles and, therefore, can be
predicted with reasonable accuracy; and (2) those that are irregular as a result of
abnormal behavior of the sun and, therefore, cannot be predicted. Both regular and
irregular variations have important effects on radio-wave propagation. Since irregular
variations cannot be predicted, we will concentrate on regular variations.

Regular Variations
The regular variations can be divided into four main classes: daily, 27-day, seasonal,
and 11-year. We will concentrate our discussion on daily variations, since they have
the greatest effect on your job. Daily of the ultraviolet energy that initially set them
free variations in the ionosphere produce four cloud-like layers of electrically-charged
gas atoms called ions, which enable radio waves to be propagated great distances
around the earth. Ions are formed by a process called ionization.

Ionization
In ionization, high-energy ultraviolet light waves from the sun periodically enter the
ionosphere, strike neutral gas atoms, and knock one or more electrons free from each
atom. When the electrons are knocked free, the atoms become positively charged
(positive ions) and remain in space, along with the negatively charged free electrons.
The free electrons absorb some and form an ionized layer. Since the atmosphere is
bombarded by ultraviolet waves of differing frequencies, several ionized layers are
formed at different altitudes. Ultraviolet waves of higher frequencies penetrate the
most, so they produce ionized layers in the lower portion of the ionosphere.
Conversely, ultraviolet waves of lower frequencies penetrate the least, so they form
layers in the upper regions of the ionosphere. An important factor in determining the
density of these ionized layers is the elevation angle of the sun. Since this angle
changes frequently, the height and thickness of the ionized layers vary, depending on
the time of day and the season of the year. Another important factor in determining layer density is known as
recombination.

71
Recombination
Recombination is the reverse process of ionization. It occurs when free electrons and
positive ions collide, combine, and return the positive ions to their original neutral
state. Like ionization, the recombination process depends on the time of day. Between
early morning and late afternoon, the rate of ionization exceeds the rate of
recombination. During this period the ionized layers reach their greatest density and
exert maximum influence on radio waves. However, during the late afternoon and
early evening, the rate of recombination exceeds the rate of ionization, causing the
densities of the ionized layers to decrease. Throughout the night, density continues to
decrease, reaching its lowest point just before sunrise. It is important to understand
that this ionization and recombination process varies, depending on the ionospheric
layer and the time of day. The following paragraphs provide an explanation of the four
ionospheric layers.

Ionospheric Layers
The ionosphere is composed of three distinct layers, designated from lowest level to
highest level
(D, E, and F) as shown in figure 1-2. In addition, the F layer is divided into two
layers, designated F1 (the
lower level) and F2 (the higher level). The presence or absence of these layers in the
ionosphere and their height above the earth vary with the position of the sun. At high
noon, radiation in the ionosphere above a given point is greatest, while at night it is
minimum. When the radiation is removed, many of the particles that were ionized
recombine. During the time between these two conditions, the position and number of
ionized layers within the ionosphere change. Since the position of the sun varies daily,
monthly, and yearly with respect to a specific point on earth, the exact number of
layers present is extremely difficult to determine. However, the
following general statements about these layers can be made.

D LAYER.— The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles above the earth.
Ionization in the D layer is low because less ultraviolet light penetrates to this level.
At very low frequencies, the D layer and the ground act as a huge waveguide, making
communication possible only with large antennas and high power transmitters. At low
and medium frequencies, the D layer becomes highly absorptive, which limits the
effective daytime communication range to about 200 miles. At frequencies above
about 3 MHz, the D
layer begins to lose its absorptive qualities. Long-distance communication is possible
at frequencies as high as 30 MHz. Waves at frequencies above this range pass through
the D layer but are attenuated. After sunset. the D layer disappears because of the
rapid recombination of ions. Low frequency and medium-frequency long-distance

72
communication becomes possible. This is why AM behaves so differently at night.
Signals passing through the D layer normally are not absorbed but are propagated by
the E and F layers.

Figure 1-2.—Layers of the ionosphere.

E LAYER.— The E layer ranges from approximately 55 to 90 miles above the earth.
The rate of ionospheric recombination in this layer is rather rapid after sunset, causing
it to nearly disappear by midnight. The E layer permits medium-range
communications on the low-frequency through very high- frequency bands. At
frequencies above about 150 MHz, radio waves pass through the E layer. Sometimes a
solar flare will cause this layer to ionize at night over specific areas. Propagation in
this layer during this time is called SPORADIC-E. The range of communication in
sporadic-E often exceeds 1000 miles, but the range is not as great as with F layer
propagation.

F LAYER.— The F layer exists from about 90 to 240 miles above the earth. During
daylight hours, the F layer separates into two layers, F1 and F2. During the night, the
F1 layer usually disappears, The F layer produces maximum ionization during the
afternoon hours, but the effects of the daily cycle are not as pronounced as in the D
and E layers. Atoms in the F layer stay ionized for a longer time after sunset, and
during maximum sunspot activity, they can stay ionized all night long. Since the F
layer is the highest of the ionospheric layers, it also has the longest propagation
capability. For horizontal waves, the single-hop F2 distance can reach 3000 miles. For
signals to propagate over greater distances, multiple hops are required. The F layer is
73
responsible for most high frequency, long-distance communications. The maximum
frequency that the F layer will return depends on the degree of sunspot activity.
During maximum sunspot activity, the F layer can return signals at frequencies as
high as 100 MHz. During minimum sunspot activity, the maximum usable frequency
can drop to as low as 10 MHz.

ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
Within the atmosphere, radio waves can be refracted, reflected, and diffracted. In the
following paragraphs, we will discuss these propagation characteristics.

REFRACTION
A radio wave transmitted into ionized layers is always refracted, or bent. This bending
of radio waves is called refraction. Notice the radio wave shown in figure 1-3,
traveling through the earth’s atmosphere at a constant speed. As the wave enters the
denser layer of charged ions, its upper portion moves faster than its lower portion. The
abrupt speed increase of the upper part of the wave causes it to bend back toward the
earth. This bending is always toward the propagation medium where the radio wave’s
velocity is the least. The amount of refraction a radio wave undergoes depends on
three main factors.

1. The ionization density of the layer

2. The frequency of the radio wave
3. The angle at which the radio wave enters the
Layer

1-4

74
Week 13

4.2 Wave Propagation Characteristis

Within the atmosphere, radio waves can be refracted, reflected, and diffracted. In the
following paragraphs, we will discuss these propagation characteristics.

REFRACTION
A radio wave transmitted into ionized layers is always refracted, or bent. This bending
of radio waves is called refraction. Notice the radio wave shown in figure 1-3,
traveling through the earth’s atmosphere at a constant speed. As the wave enters the
denser layer of charged ions, its upper portion moves faster than its lower portion. The
abrupt speed increase of the upper part of the wave causes it to bend back toward the
earth. This bending is always toward the propagation medium where the radio wave’s
velocity is the least. The amount of refraction a radio wave undergoes depends on
three main factors.

1. The ionization density of the layer

2. The frequency of the radio wave
3. The angle at which the radio wave enters the
Layer

Figure 1-3.—Radio-wave refraction.

Layer Density
Figure 1-4 shows the relationship between radio waves and ionization density. Each
ionized layer has a middle region of relatively dense ionization with less intensity
above and below. As a radio wave enters a region of increasing ionization, a velocity
increase causes it to bend back toward the earth. In the highly dense middle region,

75
refraction occurs more slowly because the ionization density is uniform. As
the wave enters the upper less dense region, the velocity of the upper part of the wave
decreases and the wave is bent away from the earth.

Figure 1-4.—Effects of ionospheric density on radio waves.

Frequency
The lower the frequency of a radio wave, the more rapidly the wave is refracted by a
given degree of ionization. Figure 1-5 shows three separate waves of differing
frequencies entering the ionosphere at the same angle. You can see that the 5-MHz
wave is refracted quite sharply, while the 20-MHz wave is refracted less sharply and
returns to earth at a greater distance than the 5-MHz wave. Notice that the 100-MHz
wave is lost into space. For any given ionized layer, there is a frequency, called the
escape point, at which energy transmitted directly upward will escape into space. The
maximum frequency just below the escape point is called the critical frequency. In
this example, the 100-MHz wave’s frequency is greater than the critical frequency for
that ionized layer. The critical frequency of a layer depends upon the layer’s density.
If a wave passes through a particular layer, it may still be refracted by a higher layer if
its frequency is lower than the higher layer’s critical frequency.

Angle of Incidence and Critical Angle

When a radio wave encounters a layer of the ionosphere, that wave is returned to earth
at the same angle (roughly) as its angle of incidence. Figure 1-6 shows three radio
waves of the same frequency entering a layer at different incidence angles. The angle
at which wave A strikes the layer is too nearly vertical for the wave to be refracted to
earth, However, wave B is refracted back to earth. The angle between wave B and the
earth is called the critical angle.

76
 Figure 1-5.—Frequency versus refraction and distance.

Figure 1-6.—Incidence angles of radio waves.

Any wave, at a given frequency, that leaves the antenna at an incidence angle greater
than the critical angle will be lost into space. This is why wave A was not refracted.
Wave C leaves the antenna at the smallest angle that will allow it to be refracted and
still return to earth. The critical angle for radio waves depends on the layer density and
then wavelength of the signal. As the frequency of a radio wave is increased, the
critical angle must be reduced for refraction to occur. Notice in figure 1-7 that the 2-
MHz wave strikes the ionosphere at the critical angle for that frequency and is
refracted. Although the 5-MHz line (broken line) strikes the ionosphere at a less
critical angle, it still penetrates the layer and is lost As the angle is lowered, a critical
angle is finally reached for the 5-MHz wave and it is refracted back to earth.

77
 Figure 1-7.—Effect of frequency on the critical angle.

SKIP DISTANCE AND ZONE

Recall from your previous study that a transmitted radio wave separates into two parts,
the sky wave and the ground wave. With those two components in mind, we will now
briefly discuss skip distance and skip zone.

Skip Distance
Look at the relationship between the sky wave skip distance, skip zone, and ground
wave
coverage shown in figure 1-8. The skip distance is the distance from the transmitter to
the point where the sky wave first returns to the earth. The skip distance depends on
the wave’s frequency and angle of incidence, and the degree of ionization.

Skip Zone
The skip zone is a zone of silence between the point where the ground wave is too
weak for reception and the point where the sky wave is first returned to earth. The
outer limit of the skip zone varies considerably, depending on the operating frequency,
the time of day, the season of the year, sunspot activity, and the direction of
transmission.
At very-low, low, and medium frequencies, a skip zone is never present. However, in
the high frequency spectrum, a skip zone is often present. As the operating frequency
is increased, the skip zone widens to a point where the outer limit of the skip zone
might be several thousand miles away. At frequencies above a certain maximum, the
outer limit of the skip zone disappears completely, and no F-layer propagation is
possible. Occasionally, the first sky wave will return to earth within the range of the
ground wave. In this case, severe fading can result from the phase difference between
the two waves (the sky wave has a longer path to follow).

78
Figure 1-8.—Relationship between skip
zone, skip distance, and ground wave.

REFLECTION
Reflection occurs when radio waves are “bounced” from a flat surface. There are
basically two types of reflection that occur in the atmosphere: earth reflection and
ionospheric reflection. Figure 1-9 shows two waves reflected from the earth’s surface.
Waves A and B bounce off the earth’s surface like light off of a mirror. Notice that the
positive and negative alternations of radio waves A and B are in phase before
they strike the earth’s surface. However, after reflection the radio waves are

approximately 180 degrees out of phase. A phase shift has occurred. The amount of
phase shift that occurs is not constant. It varies, depending on the wave polarization
and the angle at which the wave strikes the surface. Because reflection is not constant,
fading occurs. Normally, radio waves reflected in phase produce stronger signals,
while those reflected out of phase produce a weak or fading signal.

79
 Figure 1-9.—Phase shift of reflected radio waves.

Ionospheric reflection occurs when certain radio waves strike a thin, highly ionized
layer in the ionosphere. Although the radio waves are actually refracted, some may be
bent back so rapidly that they appear to be reflected. For ionospheric reflection to
occur, the highly ionized layer can be approximately no thicker than one wavelength
of the wave. Since the ionized layers are often several miles thick, ionospheric
reflection mostly occurs at long wavelengths (low frequencies).

80
 Figure 1-10.—Diffraction around an object.

DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is the ability of radio waves to turn sharp corners and bend around
obstacles. Shown in figure 1-10, diffraction results in a change of direction of part of
the radio-wave energy around the edges of an obstacle. Radio waves with long
wavelengths compared to the diameter of an obstruction are easily propagated around
the obstruction. However, as the wavelength decreases, the obstruction causes more
and more attenuation, until at very-high frequencies a definite shadow zone develops.
The shadow zone is basically a blank area on the opposite side of an obstruction in
line-of-sight from the transmitter to the receiver. Diffraction can extend the radio
range beyond the horizon. By using high power and low-frequencies, radio waves can
be made to encircle the earth by diffraction.

81
Week 14

4.3 Atmospheric Effects on Wave Propagation

As we stated earlier, changes in the ionosphere produce dramatic changes in the
ability to communicate. In some cases, communications distances are greatly
extended. In other cases, communications distances are greatly reduced or eliminated.
The paragraphs below explain the major problem of reduced communications because
of the phenomena of fading and selective fading.

Fading
The most troublesome and frustrating problem in receiving radio signals is variations
in signal strength, most commonly known as FADING. Several conditions can
produce fading. When a radio wave is refracted by the ionosphere or reflected from
the earth’s surface, random changes in the polarization of the wave may occur.
Vertically and horizontally mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive
vertically and horizontally polarized waves, respectively. Therefore, changes in
polarization cause changes in the received signal level because of the inability of the
antenna to receive polarization changes.

Fading also results from absorption of the rf energy in the ionosphere. Most
ionospheric absorption occurs in the lower regions of the ionosphere where ionization
density is the greatest. As a radio wave passes into the ionosphere, it loses some of its
energy to the free electrons and ions present there. Since the amount of absorption of
the radio-wave energy varies with the density of the ionospheric layers, there is no
fixed relationship between distance and signal strength for ionospheric propagation.
Absorption fading occurs for a longer period than other types of fading, since
absorption takes place slowly. Under certain conditions, the absorption of energy is so
great that communication over any distance beyond the line of sight becomes difficult.
Although fading because of absorption is the most serious type of fading, fading on
the ionospheric circuits is mainly a result of multipath propagation.

Multipath Fading
MULTIPATH is simply a term used to describe the multiple paths a radio wave may
follow between transmitter and receiver. Such propagation paths include the ground
wave, ionospheric refraction, reradiation by the ionospheric layers, reflection from
the earth’s surface or from more than one ionospheric layer, and so on. Figure 1-11
shows a few of the paths that a signal can travel between two sites in a typical circuit.
One path, XYZ, is the basic ground wave. Another path, XFZ, refracts the wave at the
F layer and passes it on to the receiver at point Z. At point Z, the received signal is a
combination of the ground wave and the sky wave. These two signals, having traveled
82
different paths, arrive at point Z at different times. Thus, the arriving waves may or
may not be in phase with each other. A similar situation may result at point A.

Figure 1-11.—Multipath transmission.

Another path, XFZFA, results from a greater angle of incidence and two refractions
from the F layer. A wave traveling that path and one traveling the XEA path may or
may not arrive at point A in phase. Radio waves that are received in phase reinforce
each other and produce a stronger signal at the receiving site, while those that are
received out of phase produce a weak or fading signal. Small alterations in the
transmission path may change the phase relationship of the two signals, causing
periodic fading. Multipath fading may be minimized by practices called SPACE
DIVERSITY and FREQUENCY DIVERSITY In space diversity, two or more
receiving antennas are spaced some distance apart. Fading does not occur
simultaneously at both antennas. Therefore, enough output is almost always available
from one of the antennas to provide a useful signal. In frequency diversity, two
transmitters and two receivers are used, each pair tuned to a different
frequency, with the same information being
transmitted simultaneously over both frequencies. One of the two receivers will
almost always produce a useful signal.

Selective Fading
Fading resulting from multipath propagation varies with frequency since each
frequency arrives at the receiving point via a different radio path. When a wide band

83
of frequencies is transmitted simultaneously, each frequency will vary in the amount
of fading.
This variation is called SELECTIVE FADING. When selective fading occurs, all
frequencies of the transmitted signal do not retain their original phases and relative
amplitudes. This fading causes severe distortion of the signal and limits the total
signal transmitted.

OTHER PHENOMENA THAT AFFECT COMMUNICATIONS

Although daily changes in the ionosphere have the greatest effect on communications,
other phenomena also affect communications, both positively and negatively. Those
phenomena are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE

IONOSPHERE
Seasonal variations are the result of the earth’s revolving around the sun, because the
relative position of the sun moves from one hemisphere to the other with the changes
in seasons. Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers are directly related to the
highest angle of the sun, meaning the ionization density of these layers is greatest
during the summer. The F2 layer is just the opposite. Its ionization is greatest during
the winter, Therefore, operating frequencies Although daily changes in the ionosphere
have for F2 layer propagation are higher in the winter than in the summer.

SUNSPOTS
One of the most notable occurrences on the surface of the sun is the appearance and
disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas known as SUNSPOTS.
Sunspots are believed to be caused by violent eruptions on the sun and are
characterized by strong magnetic fields. These sunspots cause variations in the
ionization level of the ionosphere. Sunspots tend to appear in two cycles, every 27
days and every 11 years.

Twenty-Seven Day Cycle

The number of sunspots present at any one time is constantly changing as some
disappear and new ones emerge. As the sun rotates on its own axis, these sunspots are
visible at 27-day intervals, which is the approximate period for the sun to make one
complete revolution. During this time period, the fluctuations in ionization are greatest
in the F2 layer. For this reason, calculating critical frequencies for long-distance
communications for the F2 layer is not possible and allowances for fluctuations must
be made.

84
Eleven-Year Cycle
Sunspots can occur unexpectedly, and the life span of individual sunspots is variable.
The ELEVEN-YEAR SUN SPOT CYCLE is a regular cycle of sunspot activity that
has a minimum and maximum level of activity that occurs every 11 years. During
periods of maximum activity, the ionization density of all the layers increases.
Because of this, the absorption in the D layer increases and the critical frequencies for
the E, F1, and F2 layers are higher. During these times, higher operating frequencies
must be used for long-range communications.

IRREGULAR VARIATIONS
Irregular variations are just that, unpredictable changes in the ionosphere that can
drastically affect our ability to communicate. The more common variations are
sporadic E, ionospheric disturbances, and ionospheric storms.

Sporadic E
Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization, called the sporadic E, often
format heights near the normal E layer. Their exact cause is not known and their
occurrence cannot be predicted. However, sporadic E is known to vary significantly
with latitude. In the northern latitudes, it appears to be closely related to the aurora
borealis or northern lights. The sporadic E layer can be so thin that radio waves
penetrate it easily and are returned to earth by the upper layers, or it can be heavily
ionized and extend up to several hundred miles into the ionosphere. This condition
may be either harmful or helpful to radio-wave propagation. On the harmful side,
sporadic E may blank out the use of higher more favorable layers or cause additional
absorption of radio waves at some frequencies. It can also cause additional multipath
problems and delay the arrival times of the rays of RF energy. On the helpful side, the
critical frequency of the sporadic E can be greater than double the critical frequency of
the normal ionospheric layers. This may permit long-distance communications with
unusually high frequencies. It may also permit short-distance communications to
locations that would normally be in the skip zone. Sporadic E can appear and
disappear in a short time during the day or night and usually does not occur at same
time for all transmitting or receiving stations.

Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances

Commonly known as SID, these disturbances may occur without warning and may
last for a few minutes to several hours. When SID occurs, long-range hf
communications are almost totally blanked out. The radio operator listening during
this time will believe his or her receiver has gone dead. The occurrence of SID is
caused by a bright solar eruption producing an unusually intense burst of ultraviolet
light that is not absorbed by the F1, F2, or E layers. Instead, it causes the D-layer

85
ionization density to greatly increase. As a result, frequencies above 1 or 2 megahertz
are unable to penetrate the D layer and are completely absorbed.

Ionospheric Storms
Ionospheric storms are caused by disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field. They are
associated with both solar eruptions and the 27-day cycle, meaning they are related to
the rotation of the sun. The effects of ionospheric storms are a turbulent ionosphere
and very erratic sky-wave propagation. The storms affect mostly the F2 layer,
reducing its ion density and causing the critical frequencies to be lower than normal.
What this means for communication purposes is that the range of frequencies on a
given circuit is smaller than normal and that communications are possible only at
lower working frequencies.

Weather
Wind, air temperature, and water content of the atmosphere can combine either to
extend radio communications or to greatly attenuate wave propagation. making
normal communications extremely difficult. Precipitation in the atmosphere has its
greatest effect on the higher frequency ranges. Frequencies in the hf range and below
show little effect from this condition.

RAIN
Attenuation because of raindrops is greater than attenuation for any other form of
precipitation. Raindrop attenuation may be caused either by absorption, where the
raindrop acts as a poor dielectric, absorbs power from the radio wave and dissipates
the power by heat loss; or by scattering (fig. 1-13). Raindrops cause greater
attenuation by scattering than by absorption at frequencies above 100 megahertz. At
frequencies above 6 gigahertz, attenuation by raindrop scatter is even greater.

86
 Figure 1-13.–Rf energy losses from
scattering.

FOG
Since fog remains suspended in the atmosphere, the attenuation is determined by the
quantity of water per unit volume (density of the fog) and by the size of the droplets.
Attenuation because of fog has little effect on frequencies lower than 2 gigahertz, but
can cause serious attenuation by absorption at frequencies above 2 gigahertz.

SNOW
Since snow has about 1/8 the density of rain, and because of the irregular shape of the
Snowflake, the scattering and absorption losses are difficult to compute, but will be
less than those caused by raindrops.

HAIL
Attenuation by hail is determined by the size of the stones and their density.
Attenuation of radio waves by scattering because of hailstones is considerably less
than by rain.

TEMPERATURE INVERSION
When layers of warm air form above layers of cold air, the condition known as
temperature inversion develops. This phenomenon causes ducts or channels to be
formed, by sandwiching cool air either between the surface of the earth and a layer of
warm air, or between two layers of warm air. If a transmitting antenna extends into
such a duct, or if the radio wave enters the duct at a very low angle of incidence, vhf
and uhf transmissions may be propagated far beyond normal line-of-sight distances.
These long distances are possible because of the different densities and refractive
qualities of warm and cool air. The sudden change in densities when a radio wave

87
enters the warm air above the duct causes the wave to be refracted back toward earth.
When the wave strikes the earth or a warm layer below the duct, it is again reflected or
refracted upward and proceeds on through the duct with a multiple-hop type of action.
An example of radio-wave propagation by ducting is shown in figure 1-14.

Figure 1-14.—Duct effect caused by temperature

88
Week 15
4.4 Modes of Wave Propagation
Radio propagation is a term used to explain how radio waves behave when they are
transmitted, or are propagated from one point on the Earth to another.[1] Like light
waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection, refraction,
diffraction, absorption and scattering[2]. Radio propagation in the Earth's atmosphere
is affected by the daily changes of ionization in upper atmosphere layers due to the
Sun. Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many
practical applications, from choosing frequencies for international shortwave
broadcasters, to designing reliable mobile telephone systems, to operation of radar
systems. Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors determined by its
path from point to point. This path can be a direct line of sight path or an over-the-
horizon path aided by refraction in the ionosphere. Factors influencing ionospheric
radio signal propagation can include sporadic-E, spread-F, solar flares, geomagnetic
storms, ionospheric layer tilts, and solar proton events.

Ground Waves
Ground waves refer to the propagation of radio waves close to or at the surface of the
Earth. These surface waves are also known as Norton surface waves, Zenneck waves,
Sommerfeld waves, or gliding waves.

Uses and Applications

Lower frequencies, especially AM broadcasts in the mediumwave (sometimes called
"medium frequency") and long wave bands (and other types of radio frequencies
below that), travel efficiently as a surface wave. This is because they are more
efficiently diffracted by the figure of the Earth due to their low frequencies.
Ionospheric reflection is taken into consideration as well. The ionosphere reflects
frequencies in a certain band, which often changes due to solar conditions. The Earth
has one refractive index and the atmosphere has another, thus constituting an interface
that supports the surface wave transmission. A longitudinal mode of a resonant cavity
is a particular standing wave pattern formed by waves confined in the cavity. The
longitudinal waves corresponding to the wavelengths permitted by the cavity are
reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity's
reflecting surfaces. Conductivity of the surface affects the propagation of ground
waves, with more conductive surfaces such as water providing better propagation. [1]
Increasing the conductivity in a surface results in less dissipation. [2] The refractive
indices are subject to spatial and temporal changes. Since the ground is not a perfect

89
electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated as they follow the earth’s surface.
Most long-distance LF "longwave" radio communication (between 30 kHz and
300 kHz) is a result of groundwave propagation. Mediumwave radio transmissions
(frequencies between 300 kHz and 3000 kHz) have the property of following the
curvature of the earth (the groundwave) in the majority of occurrences. At low
frequencies, ground losses are low and become lower at lower frequencies. The VLF
and LF frequencies are mostly used for military communications, especially with ships
and submarines. Surface waves have been used in over-the-horizon radar. In the
development of radio, surface waves were used extensively. Early commercial and
professional radio services relied exclusively on long wave, low frequencies and
ground-wave propagation. To prevent interference with these services, amateur and
experimental transmitters were restricted to the higher (HF) frequencies, felt to be
useless since their ground-wave range was limited. Upon discovery of the other
propagation modes possible at medium wave and short wave frequencies, the
advantages of HF for commercial and military purposes became apparent. Amateur
experimentation was then confined only to authorized frequencies in the range.
Mediumwave, and shortwave reflect off the ionosphere at night, which is known as
skywave. Because the solar wind "blows" the ionosphere toward the Earth on the day
side, and away from it on the night side, this natural radio "mirror" is much closer to
the surface during the day. This prevents the high frequency's propagation from being
very effective in daylight hours. At night, mediumwave and shortwave transmissions
travel better by skywave. Ground waves do not include ionospheric and tropospheric
waves.

Skywave
Skywave is the propagation of electromagnetic waves bent (refracted) back to the
Earth's surface by the ionosphere. As a result of skywave propagation, a broadcast
signal from a distant AM broadcasting station at night, or from a shortwave radio
station (or during sporadic e season, a low band TV station) can sometimes be heard
as clearly as local stations. Most long-distance HF radio communication (between 3
and 30 MHz) is a result of skywave propagation. Since the early 1920s amateur radio
operators, limited to lower transmitter power than commercial radio, have taken
advantage of skywave for long distance or DX communication.

Role of the ionosphere

The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, where neutral air is ionized by
solar photons and cosmic rays. When radio waves reach the ionosphere at a shallow

90
angle, they are partly reflected by the surface. The ionosphere can also be similar to a
prism refracting light; different frequencies are "bent" by different amounts.

Much as the surface of the ocean interacts with the wind, the condition of the
ionosphere is constantly changing due to interaction with incoming radiation. When
signals have "bounced" off this irregular surface, they may fade in and out and have
the "phasing", "flanging" or "fluttery" character familiar to listeners of shortwave
music broadcasts.

Depending on the transmitting antenna, signals below approximately 10 MHz during

the day and 5 MHz at night may reach the ionosphere at a steep angle (vertical
incidence) and be reflected almost straight back down to Earth. Alternately, if the
antenna "aims" the signal close to the horizon; the signal reaches the ionosphere at a
shallow angle and returns to Earth at a medium to long distance.

The Earth's surface (ground or water) reflects the incoming wave back toward the
ionosphere again. As a result, like a rock "skipping" across water, the wave may
actually "bounce" or "skip" between the earth and ionosphere two or more times. This
phenomenon is known as multihop propagation. Signals of only a few watts can
sometimes be received many thousands of miles away as a result.

Other considerations
VHF signals with frequencies above about 30 MHz usually penetrate the ionosphere
and are not returned to the Earth's surface. E-skip is a notable exception, where VHF
signals including FM broadcast and VHF TV signals are frequently reflected to the
Earth during late Spring and early Summer. E-skip rarely affects UHF frequencies,
except for very rare occurrences below 500 MHz.

Frequencies below approximately 10 MHz (wavelengths longer than 30 meters),

including broadcasts in the mediumwave and shortwave bands (and to some extent
longwave), propagate most efficiently by skywave at night. Frequencies above 10
MHz (wavelengths shorter than 30 meters) typically propagate most efficiently during
the day. Frequencies lower than 3 kHz have a wavelength longer than the distance
between the Earth and the ionosphere. The maximum usable frequency for skywave
propagation is strongly influenced by sunspot number.

Skywave propagation is usually degraded -- sometimes seriously -- during

geomagnetic storms. Skywave propagation on the sunlit side of the Earth can be
entirely disrupted during sudden ionospheric disturbances. Because the lower-altitude
layers (the E-layer in particular) of the ionosphere largely disappear at night, the
91
refractive layer of the ionosphere is much higher above the surface of the Earth at
night. This leads to an increase in the "skip" or "hop" distance of the skywave at night.

Table1 Radio frequencies and their primary mode of propagation

Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation via

Very Low Guided between the earth and the

VLF 3–30 kHz 100–10 km
Frequency ionosphere.

Guided between the earth and the

Low 30–300 D layer of the ionosphere.
LF 10–1 km
Frequency kHz
Surface waves.

Surface waves.
Medium 300–3000 1000– E, F layer ionospheric refraction
MF
Frequency kHz 100 m at night, when D layer absorption
weakens.

High E layer ionospheric refraction.

Frequency
HF 3–30 MHz 100–10 m F1, F2 layer ionospheric
(Short
Wave) refraction.

Infrequent E ionospheric
refraction. Extremely rare F1,F2
Very High 30–300 layer ionospheric refraction
VHF 10–1 m
Frequency MHz during high sunspot activity up to
80 MHz. Generally direct wave.
Sometimes tropospheric ducting.

Ultra High 300–3000 Direct wave. Sometimes

UHF 100–10 cm
Frequency MHz tropospheric ducting.

Super High
SHF 3–30 GHz 10–1 cm Direct wave.
Frequency

92
 Extremely
30–300 Direct wave limited by
EHF High 10–1 mm
GHz absorption.
Frequency

Direct modes (line-of-sight)

Line-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves between antennas that are visible
to each other. This is probably the most common of the radio propagation modes at
VHF and higher frequencies. Because radio signals can travel through many non-
metallic objects, radio can be picked up through walls. This is still line-of-sight
propagation. Examples would include propagation between a satellite and a ground
antenna or reception of television signals from a local TV transmitter. Ground plane
reflection effects are an important factor in VHF line of sight propagation. The
interference between the direct beam line-of-sight and the ground reflected beam often
leads to an effective inverse-fourth-power law for ground-plane limited radiation.
[Need reference to inverse-fourth-power law + ground plane. Drawings may clarify]

Meteor scattering
Meteor scattering relies on reflecting radio waves off the intensely ionized columns of
air generated by meteors. While this mode is very short duration, often only from a
fraction of second to couple of seconds per event, digital Meteor burst
communications allows remote stations to communicate to a station that may be
hundreds of miles up to over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away, without the expense
required for a satellite link. This mode is most generally useful on VHF frequencies
between 30 and 250 MHz.

Auroral reflection
Intense columns of Auroral ionization at 100 km altitudes within the auroral oval
reflect radio waves, perhaps most notably on HF and VHF. The reflection is angle-
sensitive - incident ray vs. magnetic field line of the column must be very close to
right-angle. Random motions of electrons spiraling around the field lines create a
Doppler-spread that broadens the spectra of the emission to more or less noise-like—
depending on how high radio frequency is used. The radio-aurora is observed mostly
at high latitudes and rarely extend down to middle latitudes. The occurrences of radio-
auroras depends on solar activity (flares, coronal holes, CMEs) and annually the events
are more numerous during solar cycle maximas. Radio aurora includes the so-called
afternoon radio aurora which produces stronger but more distorted signals and after
the Harang-minima, the late-night radio aurora (sub-storming phase) returns with

93
variable signal strength and lesser doppler spread. The propagation range for this
predominantly back-scatter mode extends up to about 2000 km in east-west plane, but
strongest signals are observed most frequently from north at nearby sites on same
latitudes. Rarely, a strong radio-aurora is followed by Auroral-E, which resembles
both propagation types in some ways.

Sporadic-E propagation
Sporadic E (Es) propagation can be observed on HF and VHF bands. It must not be
confused with ordinary HF E-layer propagation. Sporadic-E at mid-latitudes occurs
mostly during summer season, from May to August in the northern hemisphere and
from November to February in the southern hemisphere. There is no single cause for
this mysterious propagation mode. The reflection takes place in a thin sheet of
ionisation around 90 km height. The ionisation patches drift westwards at speeds of
few hundred km per hour. There is a weak periodicity noted during the season and
typically Es is observed on 1 to 3 successive days and remains absent for a few days
to reoccur again. Es do not occur during small hours, the events usually begin at dawn,
there is a peak in the afternoon and a second peak in the evening. Es propagation is
usually gone by local midnight. Maximum observed frequency (MOF) for Es is found
to be lurking around 30 MHz on most days during the summer season, but sometimes
MOF may shoot up to 100 MHz or even more in ten minutes to decline slowly during
the next few hours. The peak-phase includes oscillation of MOF with periodicity of
approximately 5...10 minutes. The propagation range for Es single-hop is typically
1000 to 2000 km, but with multi-hop, double range is observed. The signals are very
strong but also with slow deep fading. Thomas F. Giella, a noted retired
Meteorologist, Space Plasma Physicist and Amateur Radio Operator, KN4LF cites the
following from his professional research. Just as the E layer is the main refraction
medium for medium frequency (300–3000 kHz) signal propagation within
approximately 5000 km (3000 mi), so is a Sporadic-E (Es) cloud. Sporadic-E (Es)
clouds occur at approximately 100 km (60 mi) in altitude and generally move from
ESE to WNW. Like Stratosphere level warming and Troposphere level temperature
and moisture discontinuities, Sporadic-E (Es) clouds can depending on the
circumstances absorb, block or refract medium, high and very high frequency RF
signals in an unpredictable manner. The main source for "high latitude" Sporadic E
(Es) clouds is geomagnetic storming induced radio aurora activity. The main source
for "mid latitude" Sporadic-E (Es) clouds is wind shear produced by internal
buoyancy/gravity waves (IBGW's), that create traveling ionosphere disturbances
(TID's), most of which are produced by severe thunderstorm cell complexes with
overshooting tops that penetrate into the Stratosphere. Another tie in between
Sporadic-E (Es) and a severe thunderstorm is the Elve. The main sources for "low

94
latitude" Sporadic-E (Es) clouds is wind shear produced by internal buoyancy/gravity
waves (IBGW's), that create traveling ionosphere disturbances, most of which are
produced by severe thunderstorm cell complexes tied to tropical cyclones. High
electron content in the Equatorial Ring Current also plays a role. The forecasting of
Sporadic-E (Es) clouds has long been considered to be impossible. However it is
possible to identify certain troposphere level meteorological conditions that can lead
to the formation of Sporadic E (Es) clouds. One is as mentioned above the severe
thunderstorm cell complex. Sporadic-E (Es) clouds have been observed to initially
occur within approximately 150 km (90 mi) to the right of a severe thunderstorm cell
complex in the northern hemisphere, with the opposite being observed in the southern
hemisphere. To complicate matters is the fact that Sporadic-E (Es) clouds that initially
form to the right of a severe thunderstorm complex in the northern hemisphere, then
move from ESE-WNW and end up to the left of the severe thunderstorm complex in
the northern hemisphere. So one has to look for Sporadic-E (Es) clouds on either side
of a severe thunderstorm cell complex. Things get even more complicated when two
severe thunderstorm cell complexes exist approximately 1000–2000 miles apart. Not
all thunderstorm cell complexes reach severe levels and not all severe thunderstorm
cell complexes produce Sporadic-E (Es). This is where knowledge in tropospheric
physics and weather analyses/forecasting is necessary. Some of the key elements in
identifying which severe thunderstorm cell complexes have the potential to produce
Sporadic-E (Es) via wind shear, from internal buoyancy/gravity waves, that produce
traveling ionosphere disturbances include:

1.) Negative tilted mid and upper level long wave troughs.

2.) Approximate 150 knot (170 mph, 280 km/h) jet stream jet maxes that produce
divergence and therefore create a sucking vacuum effect above thunderstorm cells,
that assist thunderstorm cells in reaching and penetrating the into the stratosphere.

3.) 500 mb (50 kPa) temperatures of −20 °C or colder, which produce numerous
positive and negative lightning bolts and inter-related Sprites and Elves.

4.) Approximate 150–175 knot (170–200 mph) updrafts within thunderstorm cells
complexes that create overshooting tops that penetrate the Troposphere into the
Stratosphere (See definition #20 on Stratospheric Warming), launching upwardly
propagating internal buoyancy/gravity waves, which create traveling ionosphere
disturbances and then wind shear.

Tropospheric scattering

At VHF and higher frequencies, small variation (turbulence) in the density of the
atmosphere at a height of around 6 miles (10 km) can scatter some of the normally

95
line-of-sight beam of radio frequency energy back toward the ground, allowing over-
the-horizon communication between stations as far as 500 miles (800 km) apart. The
military developed the White Alice communications system covering all of Alaska, on
these principles. Tropospheric ducting and enhancement or refraction via inversion
layer Sudden changes in the atmosphere's vertical moisture content and temperature
profiles can on random occasions make microwave and UHF & VHF signals propagate
hundreds of kilometers up to about 2,000 kilometers (1,300 mi)—and for ducting
mode even farther—beyond the normal radio-horizon. The inversion layer is mostly
observed over high pressure regions, but there are several tropospheric weather
conditions which create these randomly occurring propagation modes. Inversion
layer's altitude for non-ducting is typically found between 100 meters (300 ft) to about
1 kilometer (3,000 ft) and for ducting about 500 meters to 3 kilometers (1,600 to
10,000 ft), and the duration of the events are typically from several hours up to several
days. Higher frequencies experience the most dramatic increase of signal strengths,
while on low-VHF and HF the effect is negligible. Propagation path attenuation may
be below free-space loss. Some of the lesser inversion types related to warm ground
and cooler air moisture content occur regularly at certain times of the year and time of
day.

Rain scattering
Rain scattering is purely a microwave propagation mode and is best observed around
10 GHz, but extends down to a few gigahertz—the limit being the size of the
scattering particle size vs. wavelength. This mode scatters signals mostly forwards
and backwards when using horizontal polarization and side-scattering with vertical
polarization. Forward-scattering typically yields propagation ranges of 800 km.
Scattering from snowflakes and ice pellets also occurs, but scattering from ice without
watery surface is less effective. The most common application for this phenomenon is
microwave rain radar, but rain scatter propagation can be a nuisance causing
unwanted signals to intermittently propagate where they are not anticipated or desired.
Similar reflections may also occur from insects though at lower altitudes and shorter
range. Rain also causes attenuation of point-to-point and satellite microwave links.
Attenuation values up to 30 dB have been observed on 30 GHz during heavy tropical
rain.

Aeroplane scattering
Aeroplane scattering (or most often reflection) is observed on VHF through
microwaves and besides back-scattering, yields momentary propagation up to 500 km
even in a mountain-type terrain. The most common back-scatter application is air-

96
traffic radar and bistatic forward-scatter guided-missile and aeroplane detecting trip-
wire radar and the US space radar.

Lightning scattering
Lightning scattering has sometimes been observed on VHF and UHF over distance of
about 500 km. The hot lightning channel scatters radiowaves for a fraction of a
second. The RF noise burst from the lightning makes the initial part of the open
channel unusable and the ionisation disappears soon because of combination at low
altitude high atmospheric pressure. This mode has no practical use.

97