GUIDE ST 1.

10 / 14 July 2011

design of rooms for radiation

sources
1 General 3
2 Dose constraints and planning limits 3
2.1 Dose constraints 3
2.2 Planning limits 3

3 Design and construction of radiation shielding 4

3.1 Orientation factors and occupancy factors 4
3.2 Planning distances 4
3.3 Radiation appliance and its use 4
3.4 Other aspects 5

4 Radiation safety arrangements 6

4.1 Warning signs and warning lights 6
4.2 Other radiation safety arrangements 6

5 Approval of radiation shielding and rooms 7

Appendix A Design of radiation shielding in the most common cases
Appendix B Calculation formulae
Appendix C Parameter values for calculation formulae
Appendix D Definitions and concepts

This Guide is valid as of 1 October 2011 until further notice.

It replaces Guide ST 2.2, Radiation safety of radiotherapy equipment and treatment
rooms, issued on 2 February 2001 and Guide ST 3.6, Radiation safety in x-ray facili-
ties, issued 24 September 2001.
Helsinki 2012 ISBN 978-952-478-682-9 (pdf)
ISSN 0789-4368 ISBN 978-952-478-683-6 (html)

STUK • SÄTEILYTURVAKESKUS Osoite/Address • Laippatie 4, 00880 Helsinki

STRÅLSÄKERHETSCENTRALEN Postiosoite / Postal address • PL / P.O.Box 14, FIN-00881 Helsinki, FINLAND
RADIATION AND NUCLEAR SAFETY AUTHORITY Puh./Tel. (09) 759 881, +358 9 759 881 • Fax (09) 759 88 500, +358 9 759 88 500 • www.stuk.fi
Authorization
The Radiation Act stipulates that the party running a radiation practice is
responsible for the safety of the operations. The responsible party is obliged
to ensure that the level of safety specified in the ST Guides is attained and
maintained.
Under section 70, paragraph 2, of the Radiation Act (592/1991), STUK –
Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (Finland) issues general instructions,
known as Radiation Safety Guides (ST Guides), concerning the use of radiation
and operations involving radiation.

Translation. In the event of any differences in interpretation of this guide, the

Finnish and Swedish versions shall take precedence over this translation.
GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

1 General and constructed so that the radiation exposure

due to the sources remains as low as is reasonably
This guide specifies the design requirements achievable and the effective dose in no case
for radiation shields and radiation safety exceeds the following dose constraints:
arrangements for rooms in which radiation • 6 mSv per year in a supervised area
sources are used as well as the rooms adjacent • 0.3 mSv per year in an unclassified area.
to them. The design of these rooms shall also pay
special attention to safety arrangements. Dose constraints are source-specific. However, if
This Guide applies primarily to facilities several radiation sources are in use in one room,
which have radiation appliances emitting photon they shall be considered as one source in the view
radiation (gamma rays and X-rays) and in which of the radiation shielding of this room. If there
radioactive substances as sealed sources are used. are several adjacent rooms in which sources are
Appendixes A, B and C in this Guide provide used, the combined effect of all the radiation
instructions, calculation formulae and parameter sources in them shall be considered so that the
tables for the design of radiation shielding for dose limits stipulated in the Radiation Decree
the rooms of the most common photon radiation are not exceeded.
sources in industry and health care.
This Guide also applies to rooms where The classification of controlled and supervised areas
appliances and substances are used to produce is prescribed in section 32 of the Radiation Act.
neutron radiation, particle accelerator facilities The classification of areas is dealt with in more
in research or in radio nuclide production, and detail in Guide ST 1.6. The provisions concerning
to irradiation facilities. However, no separate STUK’s authorization to set dose constraints are
instructions or formulae are given for the issued in paragraph 2, section 7 of the Radiation
design of radiation shielding for such rooms and Decree (1512/1991). Dose limits are prescribed in
facilities. the Radiation Decree, chapter 2. The definitions for
This Guide applies to rooms in which unsealed effective dose and other dose quantities in this Guide
sources are handled only as regards the radiation are given in Guides ST 1.9 and ST 7.2.
shielding of such rooms.
ST Guides relating to different applications of 2.2 Planning limits
radiation use give in detail application-specific The dose constraints in item 2.1 refer to the
instructions and requirements concerning the effective dose. Instead of the effective dose,
required warning and safety arrangements. radiation shielding design uses quantities
measurable at a specified place. Radiation
STUK’s authority to confirm the requirements for the shielding design in this Guide is based on the
design of structures and rooms affecting the safe use ambient dose equivalent, the value of which
of radiation appliances and radioactive substances is is a sufficiently accurate approximation of the
laid down in the Radiation Act (592/1991), sections 24 effective dose due to external radiation at a point
and 26. of measurement.
In continuous and regular use, weekly service
values are often applied to radiation appliances.
2 Dose constraints Weekly values can also be applied to the ambient

and planning limits dose equivalent. Where this is the case, all shields
shall be designed so that the weekly values for
2.1 Dose constraints the ambient dose equivalent remain as low as is
In radiation work, workplaces shall be classified reasonably achievable and in no case exceed the
into controlled areas and supervised areas, following approximations:
where appropriate, and areas outside of them are • 120 μSv per week in a supervised area
considered unclassified. • 6 μSv per week in an unclassified area.
Radiation shields for rooms for radiation
sources and the adjacent rooms shall be designed

3
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

3 Design and construction • behind or above the shield, 0.3 m

• beneath the shield, 1.5 m measured from the
of radiation shielding floor of the room below the shield.
The justification for these values is that no
3.1 Orientation factors and occupancy factors person will occupy space closer than 0.3 m to the
Radiation shielding design can use orientation wall, and no person’s body will be, on the average,
and occupancy factors in order to take into more than 1.5 m above the floor. Greater values
account the use of the radiation source and the may be used if it can be shown that the distances
uses of the rooms adjacent to the source room. for occupancy are systematically greater than
The value of the orientation factor U in the the given values. However, it shall be noted that
specified direction shall always be greater to the combined effects of several radiation sources
or equal to that proportion of the appliance’s or scattered radiation may cause the dose rate to
operating time which the appliance’s primary be the highest in places other than those at the
radiation is oriented in this direction during its given distances from the shields (see Verification
expected use. If a radioactive substance is used of the adequacy of shielding in item 3.4).
unshielded, the orientation factor shall be given
the value U = 1 in all directions. 3.3 Radiation appliance and its use
The effective dose per year to a person in a The acceleration voltage of a radiation appliance
particular room can be estimated by multiplying (or the X-ray tube voltage), the field size of
the ambient dose equivalent per year determinend primary radiation, and the dose rate of radiation
for this room by the occupancy factor T estimated may vary during use. When designing radiation
for the room. The occupancy factor shall be given shields for appliance rooms, the voltage, field
the following values: size and dose rate values can be those that
• Work areas in continuous use, T = 1. accord with the expected use of the appliance.
• Patient rooms and waiting rooms in health However, the values must not be underestimated.
care, T = 1. If people do not occupy the waiting Neither is it acceptable to underestimate the
room continuously during the use of radiation, appliance’s orientation factors or workloads, nor
a smaller occupancy factor value may be the occupancy factors of the adjacent rooms. If the
applied to this room. However, the value shall way the appliance is used or the intended use of
not be any less than T = 0.1. the adjacent rooms changes, or if a new appliance
• Living quarters and lounges not under the is introduced into the room, the adequacy of all
control of the responsible party, T = 1. radiation shields shall be reassessed according to
• Indoor and outdoor premises where no the changed circumstances.
individuals remain on a continual basis The attenuating effects of the object exposed
(such as toilets, corridors, dressing rooms, to radiation (the patient, an object in imaging
storerooms and parking places), T shall have or irradiation) and its support (such as the
a value greater than or equal to the proportion treatment table or the examination stand) are
of time which the individual who occupies the usually not noted. However, when designing
place the longest may stay there. However, radiation shielding for primary radiation for an
the value shall not be any less than T = 0.1, appliance room, it may be reasonable to note
unless there are specific, justified grounds for a shield integrated into the structure of the
such a value. appliance and covering the whole primary beam.
If radiation is used in several shifts, all
3.2 Planning distances radiation shields must be designed with a view
When assessing the attenuating effects of to the shift which causes the highest exposures
radiation shields, the following values shall be to radiation. The combined use of radiation in
applied to the distances from the shields of all shifts shall be considered when the shielding
persons who work in supervised or unclassified concerns
areas or when they occupy these areas: • living quarters

4
GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

• indoor rooms not under the control of the rooms. The shielding capacity of shields must be
responsible party uniformly adequate. If frequent measurements
• patient rooms. requiring electrical and instrument cabling are
conducted in a shielded room, then holes or ducts
3.4 Other aspects for the cables shall be planned with a view to
radiation safety and appropriately integrated
Placement of rooms and sources into the shields of the room.
The shield thicknesses required for rooms where In all X-ray activities in health care, the lead
radiation sources are used may be decreased by equivalents of all shields must be clearly marked
locating the rooms in areas with no other activity on any doors equipped with radiation shields. In
nearby. For example, the shielding requirements addition, all lead glass windows must have their
for gamma radiation from positron emitters and lead equivalents clearly marked.
isotope 131I in nuclear medicine are decreased if
the patients’ waiting rooms and isolation rooms Verification of the adequacy of shielding
are located apart from other rooms in constant The responsible party shall verify that all shields
use. Current rooms that are already shielded can are constructed as planned in every detail and
also be made use of. that they are adequate.
Shield thicknesses can also be reduced by the Appropriate supervision during the
proper placing of radiation sources (for example, construction phase is essential for ensuring the
by directing the primary radiation from the adequacy of shielding. After the shields are in
source appropriately). place, their adequacy can be ascertained through
radiation measurements.
Construction and coverage of shields Radiation measurements shall be conducted
The radiation shield in the direction of primary at least at those distances from the shields
radiation shall cover no less than the area which were used as working and occupancy
possibly exposed to primary radiation. distances when designing the shields (see item
Attention shall be paid to the homogeneity of 3.2). On occasion, it may be expedient to conduct
radiation shielding and to the appropriateness measurements elsewhere as well; this is the case
of the shielding material. Intermediate floor when, for example, the shielded place is exposed
structures in buildings are often constructed to radiation scattered from facility structures
of profiled concrete slabs or cavity slabs. In and passing by the shields, or when the place is
such cases, the thickness of the concrete in all exposed to radiation from many sources. If the
places is not as great as the nominal thickness shielding capacity of the ceiling or roof structure
of the shield. The radiation shielding in such is slight, it is necessary to consider scatter
constructions must be improved to make it radiation from the air space above the structure
adequate at each point. The same procedure shall (skyshine). Measurements shall be conducted
apply to, for example, walls of hollow brick. in sufficiently many locations to ensure the
Lead sheets used in shielding constructions coverage and uniformity of all shields. Special
shall be tightly connected with butt or lap joints. attention should be paid to any joints connecting
When butt joints are used, additional lead strips shields of different materials, and to door and
should be placed over the joints to take account window frames, because their shielding capacity
of possible gaps between the sheets. has exhibited the most deficiencies due to faulty
Holes and thin parts in any shields, such construction techniques.
as pipes inside the wall construction, electrical If any area is found adjacent to the room of
sockets and switches etc., must all be taken into radiotherapy equipment in which the radiation
account. In addition, attention must be paid to dose rate exceeds 20 μSv/h, care shall be taken
the appropriate shielding capacity of the doors, that no person is required to work there or
door frames, windows and window frames of the occupy such an area for longer times.

5
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

4 Radiation safety (or an acoustic signal) shall indicate radiation

output from the radiotherapy equipment. For an
arrangements afterloading unit, this light shall be connected
to a continuous-action dose rate monitor. This
4.1 Warning signs and warning lights allows the signal light to function self-sufficiently
and to be independent of the control system of
General requirements the therapy equipment.
Doors near radiation sources or leading to rooms If the afterloading unit incorporates,
in which sources are used shall carry signs in addition to the source container, other
calling attention to a radiation hazard when it is continuously radiating components with a surface
necessary to warn of a hazard caused by ionizing dose rate exceeding 20 μSv/h, a sign warning of
radiation. radiation must be attached to these components,
A sign forbidding permanent occupancy shall too.
be used to indicate any room for which the During radionuclide therapy and some
shields have been calculated using an occupancy brachytherapies, the patients are often isolated
factor T < 1 and which nobody is expected for a few days, usually in their own rooms. The
to occupy continuously (e.g. storage rooms and door to such a room is not required to bear any
cleaning closets). warning signs or signal lights in addition to the
If warning lights are used in the immediate above mentioned sign warning of a radiation
vicinity of doors leading to a room in which hazard and a sign indicating that the room is
radiation sources are used, the recommended used for radiotherapy.
operation for the lights is the following:
• A yellow or white light indicating that the Special requirements for industry
radiation appliance is ready for operation. It The special requirements concerning shielded
is recommended that this light bears the text enclosures used for industrial radiography are
“APPLIANCE OPERATIONAL”. given in Guide 5.6. The special requirements
• A red light indicating that the radiation concerning sealed sources and the use of control
appliance is producing radiation, or that the and analytical X-ray apparatuses are given in
radioactive substance is unshielded. It is Guides ST 5.1 and ST 5.2.
recommended that this light bears the text
“NO ENTRY”. Special requirement for unsealed sources
The lights should be placed at a natural height The special requirements for the use of unsealed
for viewing, or they must be easily noticeable sources are given in Guides ST 6.1, ST 6.2 and
otherwise. ST 6.3.

The source container of any radioactive substance 4.2 Other radiation safety arrangements
shall be equipped with a sign warning of a
radiation hazard and a sign indicating both the General requirements
activity of the source(s) at any given time and the Unauthorized access to rooms in which radiation
radionuclide involved. sources are used and which are classified as
controlled areas shall be prevented by structures,
Warning signs for radiation sources are discussed safety interlocks or access control.
in Guide ST 1.3, and signs in rooms of use in Guide At least one of the doors to the room in which
ST 1.6. radiation sources are used must be capable of
being opened from within the room at all times.
Special requirements for radiotherapy Entrance to and exit from the room must also
Any door leading to the treatment room shall be possible when the door’s automatic opening
bear a sign indicating that the room is used for system is out of order.
radiotherapy. In medical uses of radiation, the patient must
Inside the treatment room, a red signal light be seen and heard from the control room, and

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GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

it must also be possible to talk to the patient The source container in afterloading equipment
in the treatment room or examination room. shall be constructed in such a way that it is not
In addition, the control room must have an possible to remove radioactive substances from
unobstructed view to the doors to the relevant the container without special tools. If, in the
treatment and examination rooms, unless these case of a breakdown, any radioactive substances
doors are locked. should get outside the source container, the staff
must have the means at hand for temporarily
Sizes of rooms in which shielding the substances.
radiation sources are used For the isolation of a patient receiving
The floor surface area and geometry of any room brachytherapy or radionuclide therapy (see item
in which radiation sources are used are designed 4.1, Special requirements for radiotherapy), no
according to the type of activity. There shall be special equipment or arrangements to ensure
enough working space around any sources so that the radiation safety are required in addition to
radiation safety is ensured, and when necessary, the radiation shielding, if any, of the isolation
it must be possible to use mobile shields and room. The personnel shall, however, be given
ceiling-mounted shields. instructions concerning the use of the isolation
room (such as instructions regarding visitors and
Special requirements for radiotherapy workers in the room).
At the entrance to the treatment room, there
must be two safety devices which, independently Special requirements for industry
of each other, prevent the operation of the therapy The special requirements concerning shielded
equipment if someone tries to enter the treatment enclosures used for industrial radiography are
room. One of these safety devices shall be a given in Guide 5.6.
switch preventing the operation of the therapy
equipment if the door is not closed. The switch Special requirements for unsealed sources
must be of a type that prevents the operation of The special requirements for the use of unsealed
the equipment even in the case of damage to the sources are given in Guides ST 6.1, ST 6.2 and
switch. It is recommended that the other safety ST 6.3.
device be a door-mounted photocell device that
interrupts the operation of the equipment when
someone passes the cell. Both devices shall be 5 Approval of radiation
connected in such a way that the operation of
the equipment can only be continued from the
shielding and rooms
control console. When processing the safety licence application
The monitoring device in an accelerator and also in connection with the relevant site
treatment room is recommended to be e.g.a inspections, STUK inspects the radiation
camera with which it can be ensured that no shielding and radiation safety arrangements for
individuals other than the patient remain in the all rooms in which radiation is used as well as
room during treatment. for all rooms adjacent to them. STUK approves
The treatment room and the control room the shielding for the rooms of the most common
shall be equipped with clearly visible emergency radiation sources provided that they comply with
stop buttons which, if pressed, interrupt the the requirements of this Guide, and also the
operation of the equipment, stop its motion, relevant safety arrangements, provided that they
and disconnect the acceleration voltage or cause comply with the requirements of this Guide as
the radioactive substances to return to their well as the application-specific requirements in
container. The continuation of the treatment other ST Guides. The shielding and arrangements
shall be possible only from the control console. for any other uses of radiation are approved
Afterloading equipment shall, in addition, have on the basis of the requirements in this Guide
a device which allows returning the radioactive together with case-specific safety assessments.
substances manually to their container. When radiation shielding is being planned,

7
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

STUK will, upon request, provide an advance radiation shielding). DIN Deutsches Institut
statement concerning the adequacy of the shields. für Normung e.V.
An advance statement should be requested when 6. International Atomic Energy Agency. Radia­
the following facilities are being designed: tion Protection in the Design of Radiotherapy
• A-type laboratories*) Facilities. Safety Reports Series No. 47.
• radiotherapy rooms Vienna: IAEA; 2006.
• accelerator facilities*) 7. International Commission on Radiological
• irradiation facilities or any rooms for Protection. Protection against Ionizing Radia­
irradiation appliances tion from External Sources Used in Medicine.
• shielded enclosures for industrial imaging ICRP Publication 33. Oxford: Pergamon Press;
in which the intention is to use particle 1982.
accelerators or high-activity sealed sources. 8. Madsen MT, Anderson JA, Halama JR, Kleck J,
Simpkin DJ, Votaw JR, Wendt RE III, Williams
The advance statement should be requested early LE, Yester MV. AAPM Task Group 108: PET
in the planning stage, preferably prior to the and PET/CT Shielding Requirements. Med.
approval of the construction plan. Phys. 2006; 33: 4–15.
9. National Council on Radiation Protection
and Measurements. Radiation Protection for
Bibliography Particle Accelerator Facilities. NCRP Report
1. Archer BR, Fewell TR, Conway BJ, Quinn No. 144. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2003.
PW. Attenuation properties of diagnostic 10. National Council on Radiation Protection and
x-ray shielding materials. Med. Phys. 1994; Measurements. Structural Shielding Design
21: 1499–1507. for Medical X-Ray Imaging Facilities. NCRP
2. Delacroix D, Guerre JP, Leblanc P, Hickman C. Report No. 147. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2004.
Radionuclide and Radiation Protection Data 11. National Council on Radiation Protection and
Handbook 2002. Rad. Prot. Dos. 2002; 98 (1). Measurements. Structural Shielding Design
3. DIN 6812. Medizinische Röntgenanlagen and Evaluation for Megavoltage X- and
bis 300 kV – Regeln für die Auslegung des Gamma-Ray Radiotherapy Facilities. NCRP
baulichen Strahlenschutzes (Medical X-ray Report No. 151. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2005.
equipment up to 300 kV – Rules for the 12. Pukkila O (toim.). Säteilyn käyttö. Säteily- ja
design of structural radiation shielding). DIN ydinturvallisuuskirjasarja, osa 3 (Pukkila O
Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (ed.). Use of radiation. Radiation and nuclear
4. DIN 6844-3 und DIN 6844-3 Berichtigung  1. safety book series, Part 3). Helsinki: STUK;
Nuklearmedizinische Betriebe – Teil 3: 2004.
Strahlenschutzberechnungen (DIN 6844-3 13. Tapiovaara M. Röntgenhuoneen säteilysuo­
and DIN 6844-3 Amendment 1. Installations jaustarpeen arviointiin käytettävä tietokone­
for nuclear medicine – Part 3: Radiation ohjelma: RtgSuojaus (A computer program
protection calculations). DIN Deutsches for assessing the radiation shielding needs
Institut für Normung e.V. of X-ray rooms). STUK-STO-TR 2. Helsinki:
5. DIN 6847-2. Medizinische Elektronen­ STUK; 2005.
beschleuniger-Anlagen – Teil 2: Regeln für die
Auslegung des baulichen Strahlenschutzes
(Medical electron accelerator facilities –
Part 2: Rules for the design of structural

*) When A-type laboratories are designed, in addition to

an advance statement concerning the shielding, plans
concerning the discharges of the laboratories shall be
delivered to STUK for statement as described in Guide
ST 6.1. A statement is also required for the design of an
accelerator facility meant for radionuclide production.

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GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

Appendix A

Design of radiation shielding in the most common cases

Radiation shielding design for rooms in The tenth value layers for accelerators’
which radiation sources are used can utilize primary radiation for several shielding materials
specific software, Monte Carlo algorithms, or and acceleration voltages are given in Table C1
measurement-based data. The Monte Carlo in Appendix C.
method may be particularly useful in situations
in which the effects of multiple scattering require Leakage radiation
attention. Transmission factor Bv for radiation shields
If calculation software or other methods are required for leakage radiation for rooms in which
not available, shields can be designed using the radiotherapy accelerators are used is calculated
methods, calculation formulae and parameters using Formula (B5) in Appendix B so that H& v
presented in this Appendix together with those is given a value which is 0.5% of the
in Appendixes B and C. It should be noted isocentre dose rate. A smaller value is acceptable
that the formulae and the respective parameter if it can be shown that the dose rate of leakage
values will yield results that will not in any radiation is less than this. The value of leakage
case lead to an underestimation of the shielding radiation is expressed at a distance of one metre
required. Due to uncertainty of calculation, the from the target of the accelerator, therefore in
final assurance of the adequacy of shielding will Formula (B5) d0 = 1 m.
only be obtained by measurements. The TVLe values given in Table C1 in Appendix
C can be used for tenth value layers for leakage
A.1 Radiotherapy accelerators radiation from accelerators for given shielding
The workloads of accelerators in radiotherapy materials.
are expressed in terms of absorbed dose to water.
Its unit is the gray (Gy). Most often, shielding Scattered photon radiation
calculations on photon radiation can, with Transmission factor Bs for radiation shields
sufficient accuracy, consider the value of the required for photon radiation scattered from the
absorbed dose expressed in units of Gy as the patient or the walls, floor or ceiling of the room,
value of the ambient dose equivalent expressed for rooms in which radiotherapy accelerators
in units of Sv. are used, is calculated using Formula (B6) in
Appendix B so that the weekly workload W is
Primary radiation substituted for the product H& 0 ⋅ t . In addition,
Transmission factor B for radiation shields A in the formula is given the value of the area
required for primary radiation for rooms in which on the surface of the scattering object exposed
radiotherapy accelerators are used is calculated to primary radiation. In Formula (B6), d0 is then
using Formula (B4) in Appendix B so that the the distance of the appliance’s target from the
weekly workload W of the equipment (absorbed isocentre.
dose to water in the isocentre in a week) is If the ceiling or roof structure in the accelerator
substituted for the product H& 0 ⋅ t . In Formula room is thin, and the accelerator is directed
(B4), d0 is then the distance of the appliance’s upward, it is necessary to consider separately the
target from the isocentre. radiation scattered from the air space above the
The value for the weekly workload W of the structure (skyshine) to the adjacent rooms.
equipment shall be at least 800 Gy/week (800 Sv/ The values for primary radiation scattering
week). A smaller value is acceptable if it can be factors for several scattering angles and
shown that the workload is less than this on a acceleration voltages are given in Table C2 in
permanent basis. Appendix C. The tenth value layers for scattered

9
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

photon radiation for lead and concrete for several for the staff as they carry out their duties during,
acceleration voltages and scattering angles are for example, pregnancy.
given in Tables C3-1 and C3-2 in Appendix C.
Compared to photon leakage radiation, the Conventional X-ray appliances
proportion of scattered photon radiation is, most In conventional uses of X-ray appliances in
often, insignificant at acceleration voltages of health care, radiation shields do not need to be
over 10 MV. calculated theoretically for most X-ray rooms*).
Most often, a shield of 3 mm of lead or 300 mm
Neutron radiation of concrete suffices in the direction of primary
If a radiotherapy accelerator operates at an radiation. In directions affected only by leakage
acceleration voltage of over 10 MV, the appliance radiation and scattered radiation, shields of
will inevitably produce neutron radiation. 2 mm of lead or 200 mm of concrete are enough.
The best shielding for neutrons is provided by Such a shield generally extends to a height of
substances containing hydrogen. Radiotherapy no less than 2 m. Higher than this, 1 mm of lead
accelerator shields are most often constructed of or 100 mm of concrete usually suffices, provided
concrete which contains hydrogen as it contains that a greater thickness is not required for the
also water. If concrete shields are designed protection of any upper floor facilities.
adequate for photon radiation, they are, in
general, adequate for neutron radiation, as well. Mammography appliances
In such a case, the only place in which neutron To shield mammography appliances, 0.25 mm of
radiation needs to be specifically considered is lead suffices (corresponding to 1.3 mm of steel,
the door in the passageway to the radiotherapy 30 mm of concrete or 78 mm of plasterboard),
treatment room, as neutrons produced in the provided the imaging voltage is less than 35 kV.
treatment room can scatter there along the If mammography appliances are located in a
passageway. If needed, the passageway must be room with concrete or brick walls, additional
equipped with a shielding door. shielding is usually not required for the walls.
The dose rate of the neutron radiation However, the need for additional shielding for a
produced in an accelerator and scattered to window (to watch the patient) and doors must be
the door of the treatment room along the separately estimated.
passageway can be estimated using Formula (B7) If the user of the appliance is in the
in Appendix B. examination room during the examination
and cannot use fixed shields, his/her radiation
A.2 Use of X-ray appliances in health care protection, where necessary, shall be arranged
Radiation output from X-ray appliances in health through, for example, user shields mounted on
care is expressed in terms of air kerma. Its unit is the appliance, or mobile shields.
the gray (Gy). Most often, shielding calculations
concerning X-rays can, with sufficient accuracy, Conventional dental imaging appliances,
consider the value of the air kerma expressed shielded appliances and appliances
in units of Gy as the value of the ambient dose with small-size beams and low power
equivalent expressed in units of Sv. Rooms with conventional dental imaging
The radiation shields in rooms where X-ray appliances, well-shielded X-ray appliances, or
appliances are used should be designed so that low-power appliances operating on small-size
the adjacent areas need not be classified as beams (such as shielded X-ray appliances for
supervised. This requirement is usually easily imaging tissue samples or bone mineral density
reached, allowing the unrestricted use of any measurement appliances with small-size beams)
surrounding areas.
In the use of X-rays, control rooms not shielded *) Conventional use of X-ray appliances in health care here
up to the ceiling or without doors should be refers to activities involving the most common X-rays of
bone, soft tissue and respiratory organs (the voltage of
avoided. Such open rooms may lead to restrictions
equipment not more than 150 kV) with the number of
examinations per year not more than 10 000.

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GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

do not necessarily require specific radiation Primary radiation

shielding. However, the need for shielding shall be Transmission factor B for a radiation shield
assessed if the walls of the appliance room are of required for primary radiation for a room in
lightweight construction (e.g. wood, plasterboard which an X-ray appliance is used in health care
or chipboard). is calculated using Formula (B4) in Appendix
If the user of the appliance is in the B so that the product W∙K is substituted for
examination room during the examination, the product H& 0 ⋅ t . Here W is the weekly
his/her radiation protection, where necessary, workload (mAmin/week) and K is the radiation
shall be arranged through, for example, mobile output of the X-ray tube.
shields. The radiation output K of an X-ray tube in
units of mGy/mAmin (mSv/mAmin) at a distance
Some examples of the specification of shielding for dental of one metre from the focal spot of the tube at
imaging appliances are given in STUK’s publication several tube voltages is presented in Table C4 in
”Hammasröntgentoiminnan laadunvalvonta ja ku­ Appendix C. In Formula (B4), then d0 = 1 m.
vaushuoneen säteilysuojaus” (STUK opastaa 1/2011) The tenth value layers for X-ray appliances´
(“Quality control of dental X-ray practices and primary radiation for several shielding materials
radiation shielding of imaging room” (Advice from and tube voltages are given in Tables C5-1, C5-2
STUK 1/2011)). and C5-3 in Appendix C. The lead equivalents of
certain shielding materials are given in Table C6
Fixed fluoroscopy appliances and in Appendix C.
computed tomography appliances
The shields for rooms in which fixed fluoroscopy Leakage radiation
appliances or computed tomography equipment Transmission factor Bv for radiation shields
(CT equipment) are used shall be specifically required for leakage radiation for rooms in which
calculated where the rooms are small in surface X-ray appliances are used in health care is
area and the appliance is placed close to a wall calculated using Formula (B5) in Appendix B,
or control room. In addition, if the workload of inserting H& v = 1 mSv/h (0.25 mSv/h in the case
the appliance is exceptionally great, shields shall of conventional dental imaging appliances). A
be specifically calculated. In other cases, shields smaller value is acceptable if it can be shown
with lead equivalents of 3 mm suffice. that the dose rate of leakage radiation is less
than this. The dose rate of leakage radiation
Transportable X-ray appliances is determined at a distance of one metre from
and fluoroscopy appliances the focal spot of the tube; therefore d0 = 1 m
If fixed shields cannot be introduced when using in Formula (B5). The leakage radiation value
transportable X-ray appliances, the radiation H& v = 1 mSv/h refers to the maximum voltage
protection of the user of the appliance, any other permitted for the appliance and the permitted
workers and the patients shall be arranged maximum tube power averaged in one hour.
through personal protective devices and mobile Therefore, the effective time in one week shall
shields. If any appliance is used continuously be used in Formula (B5) (the time in one week
in one room (e.g. in an operating room), the corresponding to the greatest continuous tube
shielding requirement of such a room shall be current), in other words t = W/Ijatk , in which Ijatk
specifically investigated. equals the greatest tube current permitted for
continuous use in one hour, and W equals the
Other appliances weekly workload of the appliance.
Shields for rooms for health care X-ray appliances, The TVLe values given in Tables C5-1, C5-2
if these rooms were not mentioned above, or if and C5-3 in Appendix C can be used for tenth
their shielding requirements were specifically value layers for leakage radiation from X-ray
referred to above, are designed as presented in appliances for given shielding materials and tube
the following items. voltages.

11
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Scattered radiation used for industrial radiography appliances shall

Transmission factor Bs for radiation shields be the following:
required for radiation scattered from the patient, H& v = 1 mSv/h, when the tube voltage is lower
for rooms in which X-ray appliances are used than 150 kV
in health care, is calculated using Formula H& v = 2.5 mSv/h, when the tube voltage is 150–
(B6) in Appendix B so that the product W∙K is 200 kV
substituted for the product H& 0 ⋅ t . If the values &
Hv = 5 mSv/h, when the tube voltage is higher
in Table C4 are inserted for K, then d0 = 1 m in than 200 kV.
Formula (B6). In addition, A in the formula is Lower values are acceptable if it can be shown
given the value of the area on the surface of the that the dose rate of leakage radiation is less
scattering object exposed to the primary beam. than the given values. The dose rate of leakage
The values for the scattering factors for radiation is determined at a distance of one
primary X-rays for several scattering angles metre from the focal spot of the tube; therefore
and X-ray tube voltages are given in Table C7 d0  = 1 m in Formula (B5).
in Appendix C. The TVL values for primary
radiation given in Tables C5-1, C5-2 and C5-3 in The TVLe values given in Tables C5-1, C5-2
Appendix C can be used for tenth value layers and C5-3 in Appendix C can be used for tenth
for scattered X-rays for given shielding materials value layers for leakage radiation from X-ray
and tube voltages. appliances for given shielding materials and tube
voltages.
A.3 Use of X-ray appliances in
industry, research and education Leakage radiation of radiography appliances is
Separate radiation shields are not required discussed in Guide ST 5.6.
for rooms in which enclosed or shielded X-ray
appliances are used. In all other cases, shields Scattered radiation
are designed as presented in this item. Transmission factor Bs for radiation shields
required for radiation scattered from the
Enclosed and shielded appliances are discussed in irradiated object or the walls, floor or ceiling of
Guide ST 5.2. the room, for rooms in which X-ray appliances
are in industrial use, is calculated using Formula
Primary radiation (B6) in Appendix B. The dose rate of the primary
Transmission factor B for radiation shields radiation of the appliance must be known. In
required for primary radiation for rooms in addition, A in the formula is given the value of
which X-ray appliances are in industrial use is the area on the surface of the scattering object
calculated using Formula (B4) in Appendix B. exposed to the primary beam.
Here, the dose rate of the primary radiation of The values for the scattering factors for
the appliance must be known. primary X-rays scattered from water are given
The tenth value layers for industrial X-ray for several scattering angles and tube voltages
appliances’ primary radiation for several shield­ in Table C7 in Appendix C. In industrial use of
ing materials and tube voltages are given in X-rays, the scattering factors for water can be
Tables C5-1, C5-2 and C5-3 in Appendix C. The used as safe upper limits for scattering from
lead equivalents of certain shielding materials other materials (concrete, steel), as well. The
are given in Table C6 in Appendix C. TVL values for primary radiation given in Tables
C5-1, C5-2 and C5-3 in Appendix C can be used
Leakage radiation for tenth value layers for scattered X-rays for
Transmission factor Bv for radiation shields given shielding materials and tube voltages.
required for leakage radiation for rooms in
which X-ray appliances are in industrial use is A.4 Radioactive substances
calculated using Formula (B5) in Appendix B. Separate radiation shields are not required for
Leakage radiation dose rate values H& v to be rooms in which industrial radiometric measuring

12
GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

appliances containing radioactive substances are distance of the radioactive substance to people
used. In all other cases, shields are designed as working in or otherwise occupying the supervised
presented in this item. or unclassified area. In addition, t = 1 shall be
inserted for work spaces and living quarters and
Radiometric appliances are discussed in Guide ST 5.1. for facilities that may be continuously occupied.
The following values shall be used for H& v
Primary radiation for leakage radiation from the source container
Transmission factor B for radiation shields of a radioactive substance at a distance of one
required for primary radiation for rooms in which metre from the surface of the container:
appliances containing radioactive substances or H& v = 7.5 μSv/h for industrial radiometric
in which unshielded radioactive substances (i.e. measuring appliances
the substance has no shield of its own) are used, &
Hv = 10 μSv/h for afterloading equipment in
is calculated using Formula (B4) in Appendix radiotherapy
B. There, d0 is the distance of the radioactive H& v = 20 μSv/h for industrial radiography
substance from the point at which the dose appliances.
rate of the radiation emitted by the substance When these values are used in Formula (B5) of
is determined, and d is the shortest distance Appendix B, then d0 = 1 m. Smaller dose rate
of the radioactive substance to people working values are acceptable if it can be shown that the
in or otherwise occupying the supervised or dose rate is less than the given values.
unclassified area in question. The value U =  1
shall be used for orientation factor U if the The TVLe values given in Table C8 in Appendix
substance is unshielded. C can be used for tenth value layers for given
The tenth value layers for several shielding shielding materials for leakage radiation from
materials for some commonly-used radioactive appliances containing radioactive substances.
substances are given in Table C8 in Appendix C.
If the dose rate H& 0 of the radioactive The dose rates of leakage radiation from source
substance is not known, it can be calculated on containers are discussed in Guides ST 5.1 and ST 5.6.
the basis of the activity A of the substance as
follows: Scattered radiation
H& 0 = Γ ⋅ A (A1) Transmission factor Bs for radiation shields
required for radiation scattered from the
In Formula (A1), G is the dose rate constant irradiated object, for rooms in which appliances
(gamma factor). The values of this constant for containing radioactive substances are used,
some commonly-used radioactive substances are is calculated using Formula (B6) in Appendix
presented in Table C9 in Appendix C. These B. There, d0 is the distance of the radioactive
values express the dose rates from radionuclides substance from the point at which the dose
with activities of 1 GBq at a distance of one rate of the radiation emitted by the substance
metre from the substance. If the dose rate thus is determined, and d1 is the distance of the
calculated is inserted into Formula (B4) in radioactive substance from the scattering object.
Appendix B, then d0 = 1 m. Values for scattering factors for radiation
emitted from radioactive substances are provided
Leakage radiation for concrete and steel as well as for certain
Transmission factor Bv for radiation shields scattering angles in Table C10 in Appendix C.
required for leakage radiation for rooms in which The tenth value layers for primary radiation
appliances containing radioactive substances from each particular radioactive substance (Table
are in use is calculated using Formula (B6) in C8 in Appendix C) can be used as tenth value
Appendix B. There, d0 is the distance of the layers for scattered radiation for given shielding
radioactive substance from the point at which the materials. However, when the scattering angle
dose rate of the leakage radiation emitted by the is greater than 70o, the tenth value layers for
substance is determined, and d is the shortest positron emitters can be used for 60Co, 137Cs,

13
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Ra and other nuclides with gamma energies of

226

over 0.5 MeV. The tenth value layers for primary

radiation shall be used for them as well with
scattering angles of less than 70o.

14
GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

Appendix B

Calculation formulae

In this appendix, a “(radiation) dose” always refers to the ambient dose equivalent, unless otherwise
specified.

Transmission factor and thickness of shield

When designing radiation shields, the first item to calculate is a transmission factor B, which refers to
the ratio of the dose H through the shield to the dose H0 in the case of no shield:

B = H/H0 . (B1)

The number n of tenth value layers TVL required for a shield is calculated from the transmission
factor as follows:

n =log10(1/B) . (B2)

Then, the shield thickness s equals

s = n·TVL1, if n ≤ 1 (B3-1)

s = TVL1 + (n-1)·TVL2, if 1 < n ≤ 2 (B3-2)

s = TVL1 + TVL2 + (n-2)·TVL3, if 2 < n ≤ 3 (B3-3)

s = TVL1 + TVL2 + TVL3 + (n-3)·TVLe, if n > 3 (B3-4)

where TVL1, TVL2 and TVL3 are the first, second and third tenth value layers
TVLe is the equilibrium tenth value layer (the tenth value layer behind a
strongly attenuating shield).

In radiation protection, the values to be used for tenth value layers and half-value layers (1 HVLe =
0.3 TVLe) shall be the values measured in a wide-beam geometry.
When the required thicknesses have been calculated for leakage radiation and scattered radiation,
the shielding thickness required for the combined effect of these components can be determined from
the difference of the calculated thicknesses in the following way:
• If the difference between the thicknesses is less than one TVLe, the necessary shielding thickness
will be the larger thickness added with one more HVLe.
• If the difference between the thicknesses is equal to or larger than one TVLe, the larger of the
thicknesses can be used as the necessary thickness.
If the TVLe values of leakage radiation and scattered radiation differ from each other, the safest way
is to use the larger of these for calculations. Some computing software used in shielding design may
note the combined effects of radiation components without any actions on the user’s part.

15
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Primary radiation
Transmission factor B for a shield required for primary radiation in a room in which radiation
appliances*) are used is calculated using the formula

H& A ⋅ d 2 (B4)
B=
H& 0 ⋅ t ⋅ U ⋅ T ⋅ d0 2
where
H& A is the planning value (either 120 μSv/week (6 mSv/year) or 6 μSv/week (0.3 mSv/year)
depending on whether the shield is intended for the protection of individuals working in or
otherwise occupying a supervised area or an unclassified area)
&
H0 is the dose rate of the appliance’s primary radiation at a distance of d0 from the target (focal
spot) of the appliance
t is the proportion of the time which the appliance produces radiation of the weekly working
hours��)
U is the orientation factor of the appliance in the respective direction
T is the occupancy factor
d0 is the distance of the appliance’s target (focal spot) from the point at which the dose rate of the
primary radiation is determined
d is the distance of the appliance’s target (focal spot) from any individuals working in or
otherwise occupying a supervised area or an unclassified area.

Leakage radiation
Transmission factor Bv for a shield required for leakage radiation in a room in which radiation
appliances are used is calculated using the formula

H& A ⋅ d2 (B5)
Bv =
H& v ⋅ t ⋅ T ⋅ d0 2

where
H& A is the planning value (either 120 μSv/week (6 mSv/year) or 6 μSv/week (0,3 mSv/year)
depending on whether the shield is intended for the protection of individuals working in or
otherwise occupying a supervised area or an unclassified area)
&
Hv is the dose rate of the appliance’s leakage radiation at a distance of d0 from the target (focal
spot) of the appliance
t is the proportion of the time which the appliance produces radiation of the weekly working
hours**)
T is the occupancy factor
d0 is the distance of the appliance’s target (focal spot) from the point at which the dose rate of the
leakage radiation is determined
d is the distance of the appliance’s target (focal spot) from any individuals working in or
otherwise occupying a supervised area or an unclassified area.

Scattered radiation
Transmission factor Bs for a shield required for scattered radiation in a room in which radiation
appliances are used is calculated using the formula
H& A ⋅ d12 ⋅ d22 (B6)
Bs =
H& 0 ⋅ t ⋅ α ⋅ A ⋅ T ⋅ d0 2

*) In this case, “radiation appliance” can refer to an unshielded radioactive substance, as well.
**) See item 3.3. chapter 3 concerning shift work.

16
GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

where
H& A is the planning value (either 120 μSv/week (6 mSv/year) or 6 μSv/week (0.3 mSv/year)
depending on whether the shield is intended for the protection of individuals working in or
otherwise occupying a supervised area or an unclassified area)
&
H0 is the dose rate of the appliance’s primary radiation at a distance of d0 from the target (focal
spot) of the appliance
t is the proportion of the time which the appliance produces radiation of the weekly working
hours���)
a is the scattering factor in the relevant direction
A is the area on the surface of the scattering object exposed to the primary beam
T is the occupancy factor
d0 is the distance of the appliance’s target (focal spot) from the point at which the dose rate of the
primary radiation is determined
d1 is the distance of the appliance’s target (focal spot) from the scattering object
d2 is the distance of the scattering object from any individuals working in or otherwise occupying
a supervised area or an unclassified area.

Scattering of neutrons from radiotherapy accelerators

The dose rate H& s of scattered neutron radiation at door opening (with no door) to the passageway to
the therapy room can be calculated using the formula:

A d2 (B7)
H& s = H& 0 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 02 ⋅ 10 − d2 / 5m
A1 d1

where
H& 0 is the dose rate of neutron radiation at a distance of d0 from the appliance’s target
A0 is the cross-sectional area of the opening from the passageway to the treatment room
A1 is the cross-sectional area of the passageway
d0 is the distance of the appliance’s target from the point at which the dose rate of neutron
radiation is determined
d1 is the distance of the appliance’s isocentre from the point on the centre line of the passageway
which still allows a view to the isocentre
d2 is the distance of the door opening of the passageway from the point on the centre line of the
passageway which still allows a view to the isocentre.

Formula (B7) can be used for calculating the neutron dose rate for the cases where there is one bend
between the treatment room and the passageway. If there are two bends, the added distance due to
the second bend shall be noted in parameter d2, and, in addition, the coefficient 1/3 shall be added to
the right side of the formula.

Neutrons scattering from the treatment room along the passageway to the door opening produce high-
energy photon radiation (gamma radiation) due to their scattering and absorption reactions in the
passage walls. The dose rate of this radiation at the door opening is 25–50% of the neutron dose rate.
The following tenth value layers can be used for designing the shield required for the passageway
door:
• neutron radiation, TVL = 45 mm paraffin or hydrogenous plastic material
• photon radiation, TVL = 61 mm lead.
The hydrogenous material on the door construction shall be on the side of the treatment room and the
passageway.
***) See item 3.3. chapter 3 concerning shift work.

17
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Appendix C

Parameter values for calculation formulae

The tenth value layers and lead equivalents given for the shielding materials in this appendix are
valid for the following material densities:
• lead 11.3 g/cm3
• steel 7.4–7.9 g/cm3
• concrete 2.3–2.4 g/cm3
• solid brick 1.8 g/cm3
• plaster 0.84 g/cm3.

Table C1. Tenth value layers for primary radiation (MV range) [7].
Acceleration Tenth value layer (mm) for various shielding materials
voltage (MV) (TVL2=TVL3=TVLe)
Lead Steel Concrete
TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe
2 35 40 75 70 220 200
4 50 55 90 90 290 290
6 55 55 100 100 350 350
8 55 55 105 105 380 380
10 55 55 105 105 410 400
12 55 55 105 105 440 420
15 55 55 110 110 470 440
20 55 55 110 110 490 450
25 55 55 110 110 510 460

Table C2. Scattering factors for primary radiation (MV range) [6].
Acceleration Scattering factor (m2/cm2) for various scattering angles
voltage(MV) 30o 45o 60o 90o 135o 150o

6 6.9∙10-6 3.5·10-6 2.1·10-6 1.1·10-6 0.75·10-6 0.72·10-6

10 8.0·10-6 3.4·10-6 1.9·10-6 1.0·10-6 0.76·10-6 0.69·10-6

The scattering factor is given for scattering from the patient (water). It expresses the ratio of the
dose of scattered radiation, measured at a distance of one metre from the patient, to the dose in the
primary beam, measured on the patient’s skin (no back-scatter) when the field size on the patient’s
skin equals 1 cm2.
The scattering angle of 0° means that the direction of scattered radiation is the same as the
direction of primary radiation. Respectively, the scattering angle of 180° means that the direction of
scattered radiation is the opposite to the direction of primary radiation.

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GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

Table C3-1. Tenth value layers for lead for scattered radiation (MV range) [6].
Accelera- Tenth value layer (mm) for various scattering angles
tion volt- (TVL2=TVL3=TVLe)
age (MV) 30 o 45 o 60o 90o 120o
TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe TVL1 TVLe
4 33 37 24 31 18 25 9 13 5 8
6 38 44 28 34 19 26 10 15 5 8
10 43 45 31 36 21 27 12 16 8 14

The tenth value layer is given for radiation scattered from the patient (water). Scattering angle of 0°
means that the direction of scattered radiation is the same as the direction of primary radiation. Re-
spectively, scattering angle of 180° means that the direction of scattered radiation is the opposite to
the direction of primary radiation.

Table C3-2. Tenth value layers for concrete for scattered radiation (MV range) [6].
Accelera- Tenth value layer (mm) for various scattering angles
tion volt- (TVL1=TVL2=TVL3=TVLe)
age (MV) 15o 30 o 45o 60o 90o 135o
4 300 250 220 210 170 140
6 340 260 230 210 170 150
10 390 280 250 220 180 150

The tenth value layer is given for radiation scattered from the patient (water). Scattering angle of 0°
means that the direction of scattered radiation is the same as the direction of primary radiation. Re-
spectively, scattering angle of 180° means that the direction of scattered radiation is the opposite to
the direction of primary radiation.

Table C4. Radiation output of an X-ray tube [8].

X-ray tube voltage (kV) Radiation output (mGy/mAmin)
30 2.6
50 1.1
70 2.2
85 3.3
100 4.7
125 7.2
150 9.8

Radiation output values are determined at a distance of one metre from the focal spot of the tube. The
total filtration of the tube equals approximately 2.5 mm of aluminium at all kV values except at 30 kV
where molybdenum filtering is used.

19
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Table C5-1. Tenth value layers for primary radiation (kV range) for lead, 50–150 kV [8], 200–400 kV [2]. The
values for 30 kV and 35 kV were calculated in STUK on the basis of the information in reference [5].
X-ray tube voltage Tenth value layer (mm) for lead
(kV) TVL1 TVL2 TVL3 TVLe
30 0.015 0.025 0.036 0.05
35 0.018 0.032 0.049 0.07
50 0.07 0.13 0.18 0.25
70 0.13 0.28 0.37 0.42
85 0.19 0.47 0.62 0.67
100 0.25 0.66 0.84 0.93
125 0.35 0.69 0.87 1.0
150 0.45 0.66 0.87 1.3
200 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4
250 0.9 1.5 2.0 3.6
300 2.0 2.7 4.3 5.4
400 3.6 5.0 6.4 8.2
Table C5-2. Tenth value layers for primary radiation (kV range) for steel, 50–150 kV [8]. The values for 30 kV
and 35 kV were calculated in STUK on the basis of the information in reference [5].
X-ray tube volt- Tenth value layer (mm) for steel
age (kV) TVL1 TVL2 TVL3 TVLe
30 0.07 0.12 0.20 0.28
35 0.08 0.16 0.28 0.36
50 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.3
70 0.9 1.7 2.6 3.1
85 1.3 3.1 4.5 5.0
100 1.8 4.4 6.1
125 2.8 7.1
150 4.2 10.6

Table C5-3. Tenth value layers for primary radiation (kV range) for concrete, 50–150 kV [8], 200–400 kV [2]. The
values for 30 kV and 35 kV were calculated in STUK on the basis of the information in reference [5].
X-ray tube voltage Tenth value layer (mm) for concrete
(kV) TVL1 TVL2 TVL3 TVLe
30 1,6 2,9 4,3 6,4
35 1,8 3,7 6,1 8,1
50 11 18 21 25
70 19 30 37 39
85 23 43 48 48
100 31 50 53 53
125 42 60 62 63
150 50 68 70 72
200 65 83 83 83
250 71 87 87 87
300 75 100 100 100
400 135 100 95 95

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GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

Table C6. Lead equivalents of certain shielding materials (kV range) [7]. The values equivalent to 0.5 mm of
lead were calculated in STUK.
Shielding Thick- Thickness (mm) of shielding material equivalent to the thickness of
material ness lead at various X-ray tube voltages (kV)
of lead 50 70 100 150 200 300
(mm)
Concrete 0.5 65 58 51 56
1 130 105 80 105 95 80
2 195 140 180 165 125
3 285 190 250 220 155
4 240 300 270 185
6 340 410 360 240
Brick (solid) 0.5 94 84 74 81
1 200 120 150 130 105
2 195 260 230 165
3 260 340 310 210
4 330 420 370 250
6 450 570 490 330
Steel 0.5 3.0 3.2 3,4 5.1
1 6.5 6,5 14 16 16
2 13 28 32 26
Plaster 0.5 157 145 132 153
1 290 200 270 240 190

Table C7. Scattering factors for primary radiation (kV range), 30–150 kV [5], 200–300 kV [3].
X-ray tube Scattering factor (m2/cm2) for various scattering angles
voltage (kV) 30o 45o 60o 90o 120o 135o
30 0.6·10-6 0.2·10-6 0.2·10-6 0.3·10-6 0.9·10-6 1.3·10-6
50 4.7·10-6 4.1·10-6 3.7·10-6 3.9·10-6 5.1·10-6 5.9·10-6
70 5.1·10-6 4.4·10 -6 4.1·10 -6 4.3·10 -6 5.4·10-6 6.2·10-6
100 5.5·10-6 4.9·10 -6 4.5·10 -6 4.7·10 -6 5.9·10-6 6.7·10-6
125 5.9·10-6 5.3·10 -6 4.9·10 -6 5.1·10 -6 6.3·10-6 7.1·10-6
150 6.3·10-6 5.7·10 -6 5.3·10 -6 5.5·10 -6 6.7·10-6 7.5·10-6
200 6.0·10-6 5.0·10-6 4.8·10-6 4.8·10-6 6.8·10-6 7.0·10-6
250 6.3·10-6 5.3·10-6 4.8·10-6 4.8·10-6 6.8·10-6 7.0·10-6
300 6.5·10-6 5.5·10-6 5.0·10-6 4.8·10-6 6.5·10-6 7.0·10-6

The scattering factor is given for scattering from the patient (water). It expresses the ratio of the
dose of scattered radiation, measured at a distance of one metre from the patient, to the dose in the
primary beam, measured on the patient’s skin (no back-scatter) when the field size on the patient’s
skin equals 1 cm2.
The scattering angle of 0° means that the direction of scattered radiation is the same as the
direction of primary radiation. Respectively, the scattering angle of 180° means that the direction of
scattered radiation is the opposite to the direction of primary radiation.

21
STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Table C8. Tenth value layers for radiation emitted from radioactive substances, 60Co, 137Cs, 192Ir, 226Ra [2],
positron emitters, 99Mo, 99mTc, 111In, 123I, 131I, 201Tl [9].
Radioactive Tenth value layer (mm) for various shielding materials
substance (TVL3=TVLe)
Lead Steel Concrete
TVL1 TVL2 TVLe TVL1 TVL2 TVLe TVL1 TVL2 TVLe
Positron emit-
ters*) 15 15 14 63 44 43 225 150 125
60Co 45 40 40 72 70 70 280 205 205
99Mo 20 25 24 56 58 45 210 160 155
99mTc 0,9 0,9 0,9 20 17 16 145 90 75
111In 2,5 3,5 3,5 31 29 29 160 105 95
123I 2 10 17 21 31 45 130 110 115
131I 11 17 22 56 43 44 210 140 140
137Cs 21 22 22 65 50 50 210 165 165
192Ir 12 18 18 48 42 42 170 140 140
201Tl 1,3 1,3 1,3 12 21 21 105 90 90
226Ra 44 44 44 80 70 70 250 245 245
*) For example 11C, 13N, 15O, 18F.

Table C9. Dose rate constants of certain radioactive substances [1], 226Ra [10].
Radioactive substance Dose rate constant
(mSv/h)/GBq
Positron emitters*) 0.16
60Co 0.33
99Mo 0.046
99mTc 0.022
111In 0.072
123I 0.034
131I 0.064
137Cs 0.092
192Ir 0.14
201Tl 0.018
226Ra 0.20
*) For example 11C, 13N, 15O, 18F.
The dose rate constant refers to the dose rate of a radioactive substance with an activity of 1 GBq, in
air at a distance of one metre from the substance.
Note! The dose calculated on the basis of the dose rate constant for short-lived substances (half-life
in the range of some minutes) is (noticeably) greater than the actual dose from this substance in one
hour.

Table C10. Scattering factors for radiation emitted from radioactive substances [4].
Radiation Scattering factor (m2/cm2) for various scattering angles
energy 105o 120o 180o
(MeV) Concrete Steel Concrete Steel Concrete Steel
0.2 2·10-6 0.7·10-6 3·10-6 1·10-6 5·10-6 2·10-6
0.5 1·10-6 0.7·10-6 2·10-6 1·10-6 2·10-6 2·10-6
1.0 0.6·10 -6 0.5·10 -6 1·10 -6 0.7·10 -6 1·10-6 0.9·10-6
2.0 0.4·10 -6 0.3·10 -6 0.6·10 -6 0.4·10 -6 0.6·10-6 0.5·10-6

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GUIDE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011 ST U K

The scattering factor expresses the ratio of the dose of scattered radiation, measured at a distance
of one metre from the scattering material, to the dose in the primary beam, measured on the surface
of the scattering material (no back-scatter) when the field size on the surface of the scattering object
equals 1 cm2.
The scattering angle of 0° means that the direction of scattered radiation is the same as the
direction of primary radiation. Respectively, the scattering angle of 180° means that the direction of
scattered radiation is the opposite to the direction of primary radiation.

Bibliography
1. Delacroix D, Guerre JP, Leblanc P, Hickman C. Radionuclide and Radiation Protection Data
Handbook 2002. Rad. Prot. Dos. 2002; 98 (1).
2. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Protection against Ionizing Radiation from
External Sources Used in Medicine. ICRP Publication 33. Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1982.
3. International Atomic Energy Agency. Radiation Protection in the Design of Radiotherapy Facilities.
Safety Reports Series No. 47. Vienna: IAEA; 2006.
4. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Radiation Protection for Particle
Accelerator Facilities. NCRP Report No. 144. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2003.
5. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Structural Shielding Design for
Medical X-Ray Imaging Facilities. NCRP Report No. 147. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2004.
6. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Structural Shielding Design and
Evaluation for Megavoltage X- and Gamma-Ray Radiotherapy Facilities. NCRP Report No. 151.
Bethesda, MD: NCRP; 2005.
7. Pukkila O (toim.). Säteilyn käyttö. Säteily- ja ydinturvallisuuskirjasarja, osa 3 (Pukkila O (ed.).
Use of radiation. Radiation and nuclear safety book series, Part 3). Helsinki: STUK; 2004.
8. Tapiovaara M. Röntgenhuoneen säteilysuojaustarpeen arviointiin käytettävä tietokoneohjelma:
RtgSuojaus (A computer program for assessing the radiation shielding needs of X-ray rooms).
STUK-STO-TR 2. Helsinki: STUK; 2005.
9. DIN 6844-3 und DIN 6844-3 Berichtigung 1. Nuklearmedizinische Betriebe – Teil 3: Strahlen-
schutzberechnungen (DIN 6844-3 and DIN 6844-3 Amendment 1. Installations for nuclear
medicine – Part 3: Radiation protection calculations). DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.
10. Toivonen H, Rytömaa T, Vuorinen A (toim.). Säteily ja turvallisuus. (Toivonen H, Rytömaa T,
Vuorinen A (eds.). Radiation and safety). Helsinki: STUK; 1988.

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STU K GUIdE ST 1.10 / 14 July 2011

Appendix D

Definitions and concepts

Tenth value layer (TVL) (Radiation) shielding

The material layer which reduces the radiation Reduction of the dose rate of radiation through
dose or radiation dose rate to one-tenth of its the use of radiation shields.
initial value.
(Radiation) shield
Occupancy factor (T) Material, structure or device used for reducing
The factor which indicates the proportion of the the dose rate of radiation.
time that any individuals work in or otherwise Additional explanation: In this Guide, the
occupy a room which receives radiation while a term “radiation shield” does not refer to the shield
radiation source produces output. of the radiation appliance itself, i.e. a shield
or shell immediately adjacent to the radiating
Primary radiation part of the appliance, nor does the term refer to
Radiation from the source not attenuated by the the source container or a similar device in any
shield of the source itself. afterloading equipment.

Half-value layer (HVL) Radiation safety measures

The material layer which reduces the radiation Procedures to prevent and decrease radiation
dose or radiation dose rate to one-half of its doses and detrimental effects of radiation
initial value. to humans and to ensure the safety of the
responsible party’s own workers, students and
Scattered radiation apprentices as well as the safety of the members
Radiation which has deviated from its initial of the public and any outside workers working
direction or lost some of its initial energy when for the responsible party. These procedures also
encountering an object. include the measures which aim to prevent
Additional explanation: This Guide regards accidents and mitigate their results.
radiation scattered within the shield of the source
itself as leakage radiation. Security arrangements
Measures to detect and prevent the theft,
Orientation factor (U) *) sabotage or unlawful transfer of a radiation
The factor which indicates the proportion of source, unlawful entry to an institution or
the time that primary radiation is directed in facilities which contain these sources, or a similar
a certain direction while a radiation source malicious act. These measures also include the
produces output. counter-measures after a malicious act.

Radiation appliance Leakage radiation

An appliance which produces radiation electrically Radiation from the source through the radiation
or contains any radioactive substance. shield of the source itself.

Radiation source
A radiation appliance or radioactive substance.

*) In some texts this factor is also called for ”Use factor”.

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