SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SUBJECT TITLE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY SUBJECT CODE: SBAX1023

Course: BCOM Year: III Semester: VI

UNIT II

RESEARCH PROCESS

Research is a process. A process is a set of advices that are performed to achieve a targeted
outcome. That is a process involves a number of activities which are carried out either
sequentially or simultaneously. So research process would refer to various steps and stages
involved in research activity. The various stages are listed below;
Ø Formulating the Research problem
Ø Extensive literature survey
Ø Developing the hypothesis
Ø Preparing the research design
Ø Determining the sample design
Ø Collecting the data
Ø Analysis of data
Ø Hypothesis testing and
Ø Preparation of report

Formulating the Research Problem;

In research process the first and foremost step is selecting and defining a research problem. A
researcher should at first find the problem. Then he should formulate it so that it becomes
susceptible to research. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know what a problem
is? What is a Research problem a problem can be called a research problem if it satisfies the
following condition;
• It must be worth studying
• The study of the problem must be socially useful
• It should be a problem untouched by other researchers or even if touched must be in need of
further research possibility.
• A research problem should come out with solutions to the issue.
• It should be up to date and relevant to the current social happenings.
• All the special terms that are used in the statement of the problem should be clearly defined.
In selection of the problem the researcher should take into consideration of the
following factors:
 Researchers’ Interest
 Topic of significance
 Researcher’s resource
 Time availability
 Availability of data
 Feasibility of the study
 Benefits of the research

Review of Literature:

After defining the problem the researcher should undertake an extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. In this context he can refer previous studies magazines journals and
dissertations published, academic journals etc., In this process, oit should be remembered that
one source will lead to another. The earlier studies if any which are similar to the study in hand
should be carefully studied.

Developing the Hypothesis:

This is the next stage to the review. Here the researcher should state in clear terms the
hypothesis. Hypothesis is an assumption to be proved or disproved. A research hypothesis is a
predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods. That relates an independent
variable to some dependent variable.

Features:
 It should be clear and precise
 It should be capable of being tested
 It should state the relation between variables
 It should be limited in scope and must be specific
 It should be stated in simple terms

Normally a hypothesis will be developed in the following ways:

Ø The researcher has to consult and deliberate with colleagues and experts about the problem.
Ø He has to examine the existing data, concerning the problem for possible trends and clues and
Ø He has to review studies on similar problems

Preparing the Research Design:

After developing hypothesis the researcher has prepare a research design. A research design
could be defined as the blue print specifying every stage of action in the course of
research. Such a design would indicate whether the course of action planned will minimize the
use of resources and maximize the outcome. Research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose and
economy in procedure.

Research design would answer the following questions.

§ What is the study about?
§ Why is the study being made?
§ Where will be the study should be carried out?
§ What type of data and where it would be collected?
§ What is the period of study?
§ Whether any sample would be used and if so what type of sample will be sued?
§ What type of tools to be used?

A good research design should possess the folly features. However the qualities of a
good research would differ from study to study:
Ø It should be flexible
Ø It should help to minimize bias at every stage
Ø It should facilitate collection and analysis
Ø It should be closely linked with objectives of the study
Ø It is a plan that specifies the sources and type of inform relevant to the research problem.
Ø It should specifically mention the type of approach to the study
Ø It should also includes the time and cost budget since most studies are suffered by these two
constraints:

Broadly there could be four different types of research design: viz.,

(Contents of Research design)

Sampling design

CONCEPTS
Observational design
OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN Statistical design

Operational design

Sampling design: all the details connected with the sampling process from the determination of
sample size down to the collection of data, would be spelt out.
Observational design: If the study makes use of observational technique then what type of
observation technique would be used, conditions under which the observations will e made
would be indicated.

Statistical design: This part of research design would spell out the type of analysis that would be
carried out.

Operational design: This design would lay down the steps that would be taken at each stage as
the design is executed.
Research design may be classified as:
 Exploratory Research design
 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
 Experimental Research design
 Conclusive Research Design

Determining the sample Design:

A sample, as the name implies is a smaller representation of a large whole simple speaking the
method of selecting for the a study portion of the universe with a view to draw conclusion about
the universe is known as sampling. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or
what is popularly known as the sample design, In other words a sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from given population
samples can be either probability samples or non probability samples.

Collecting the Data:

Collection of data is on important stage in research. In fact the quality of data collected
determine the quality of research. A researcher has several ways of collecting the appropriate
data which offer considerably I the context of money, time and other resources as per its sources
the data may be classified as primary data and secondary data. Primary data is known as the data
collected for the first time through field survey. Such data are collected with specific set of
objectives to assess the current status of any variables studied. By survey methods data can be
collected by anyone or more of the following ways:

Ø Observation Method
Ø Personal Interviews
Ø Telephone survey
Ø Questionnaires
Ø Schedules
Secondary data refers to the information or facts already collected such data are collected with
the objective of understanding the past status of any variable.

Processing and analysis of Data:

Processing refers to the subjecting the data collected to a process in which the accuracy,
completeness, uniformity of entries and consistency of information gathered are examined. Most
commonly processing is understand as editing, coding, classification and tabulation of the data
collected. After processing in research a scholar explains the tools that he has adopted for
analyzing the data. The scholar should select the tools of analysis by considering the objectives
set for the study. He should examine the type of analysis required for accomplishing each
objectives set. Based on that this he must explain the features of the tool and how is it applied.

Testing the Hypothesis:

The researcher after analyzing the data will test the type of /Hypothesis while testing the
hypothesis various tests such as chi-square, test, t-test, F-test will be used depending upon the
nature and object of research. Hypothesis – testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or rejecting it.

Preparation of the Report:

After the analysis and interpretations are over, the research has to prepare the report. The body of
the report includes – introduction review of literature, methodology result and discussions and
summary and conclusions.

SOURCES FOR RESEARCH PROBLEM

Reading study book, academic experience, daily experience, field situations, and
consultation with experts, brain storming, previous research and Intuition.

CRITERIA OF SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Internal criteria:
Researchers own interest
Researcher’s competence
Researcher’s own resource: finance and time

External Factors:
Research ability of the problem
Its importance and urgency
Novelty of the problem
Feasibility
Facilities
Usefulness and social relevance
Research personnel.

DIFFERENT TYPES (Sources) OF LITERATURE

A. BOOKS
1. Encyclopedias.
- General
 - Specific
2. Year Books e.g., Published as supplements to Encyclopedias.
3. Text Books.
4. Reference Books.
B. JOURNALS: Published monthly, Quarterly, Half yearly or Annually.
C. REPORTS:
1. Reports of Committees/Commissions appointed by Governments and Public
institutions.
2. Seminar Reports and Conference proceedings.
3. Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations.
D. Research Dissertations and theses
E. Newspapers
F. Micro Forms: Audio and Video tapes

PURPOSES (NEED) OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The reasons for review of related literature are:

To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to
formulate researchable hypotheses.
To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods, of measuring concepts
and techniques of analysis.
To identify data sources used by other researchers and
To learn how others structured their reports.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis is an assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved. A research

Hypothesis is a predictive statement incapable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates
an independent variable with some variable. Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal
instrument for research. Its main function is to suggest new experiments and
observations.

Definition of Hypothesis:
A research hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods,
that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. The feature of a hypothesis
statement are as follows:
 It should be clear and precise
 It should be capable of tested
 It should state the relationship between variables
 It should be limited in scope and must be specific
 It should be stated in simple terms

The Role of the Hypothesis

In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions:

1. It guides the direction of the study:

Quite frequently one comes across a situation when the researcher tries to collect all possible
information on which he could lay his hands on. Later on he may find that only part of it he
could utilize. Hence there was an unnecessary use of resources on trivial concerns. In such a
situation, hypothesis limits what shall be studied and what shall not be.

2. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not:

Who shall be studied (married couples), in what context they shall be studied (their consumer
decision making), and what shall be studied (their individual perceptions of their roles).

3. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate:

Depending upon the type of hypothesis a decision is made about the relative appropriateness of
different research designs for the study under consideration. The design could be a survey
design, experimental design, content analysis, case study participation observation study and/or
Focus Group Discussions.

4. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings:

5.It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically
tested.

6.It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to
make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.

7.It gives direction to an investigation.

8.It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the
examination of the problem.

The Characteristics of a Testable Hypothesis

 Hypothesis must be conceptually clear. The concepts used in the hypothesis should be
clearly defined, operationally if possible. Such definitions should be commonly accepted
and easily communicable among the research scholars.
 Hypothesis should have empirical referents. The variables contained in the hypothesis
should be empirical realities. In case these are not empirical realities then it will not be
possible to make the observations. Being handicapped by the data collection, it may not
be possible to test the hypothesis. Watch for words like ought, should, bad.
 Hypothesis must be specific. The hypothesis should not only be specific to a place and
situation but also these should be narrowed down with respect to its operation. Let there
be no global use of concepts whereby the researcher is using such a broad concept which
may all inclusive and may not be able to tell anything. For example somebody may try to
propose the relationship between urbanization and family size. Yes urbanization
influences in declining the size of families. But urbanization is such comprehensive
 variable which hide the operation of so many other factor which emerge as part of the
urbanization process. These factors could be the rise in education levels, women’s levels
of education, women empowerment, emergence of dual earner families, decline in
patriarchy, accessibility to health services, role of mass media, and could be more.
Therefore the global use of the word ‘urbanization’ may not tell much. Hence it is
suggested to that the hypothesis should be specific.
 Hypothesis should be related to available techniques of research. Hypothesis may have
empirical reality; still we are looking for tools and techniques that could be used for the
collection of data. If the techniques are not there then the researcher is handicapped.
Therefore, either the techniques are already available or the researcher is in a position to
develop suitable techniques for the study.
 Hypothesis should be related to a body of theory. Hypothesis has to be supported by
theoretical argumentation. For this purpose the research may develop his/her theoretical
framework which could help in the generation of relevant hypothesis. For the
development of a framework the researcher shall depend on the existing body of
knowledge. In such an effort a connection between the study in hand and the existing
body of knowledge can be established. That is how the study could benefit from the
existing knowledge and later on through testing the hypothesis could contribute to the
reservoir of knowledge.

Hypothesis should be logically consistent. Two or more propositions logically derived

from the same theory must not be mutually contradictory.

A hypothesis should be a simple one requiring fewer conditions or assumptions. But

‘simple ‘ does not mean obvious. Simplicity demands insight. The more insight the researcher
has into a problem, the simpler will be his hypothesis about it.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses are classified in several ways. They are:

Descriptive Hypotheses: These are propositions that describe the characteristics of a variable.
The variable may be an object, person, organization, situation or event. Example: The rate of
unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates.

Relational Hypotheses: These are propositions, which describe the relationship between two
variables. The relationship suggested may be positive or negative correlation or causal
relationship. Example: Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation.

Casual Hypotheses state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to an
effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter the
dependent variable. When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher
must consider the direction in which such relationships flow, i.e., which is cause and which is
effect.

Working Hypotheses: While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed. Initially
they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as ‘Working Hypothesis’ which
are subject to modification as the investigation proceeds.

Null and Alternate Hypotheses: These are the important hypotheses normally used in academic
research. Null hypotheses always start with negation. I.e. the hypotheses will be framed with way
that as there is no association between variables. The hypotheses which are opposite and
alternate to null hypotheses are called as Alternate Hypotheses.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESES:

Hypotheses can be derived from various sources:

Theory: This is one of the main sources of hypotheses. It gives direction to research by stating
what is known. Logical deduction from theory leads to new hypotheses. For example,
profit/wealth maximization is considered as the goal of private enterprises. From this
assumption, various hypotheses are derived, for example. “the rate of return on capital employed
is an index of business success”
Observation: Hypotheses can be derived from observation. From the observation of price
behaviour in a market. For example, the relationship between the price and demand for an article
is hypothesized.

Intuition: Intuition and personal experience may also contribute to the formulation of
hypotheses. Personal life and experiences of persons determine their perception and conception.
They may, in turn, direct a person to certain hypotheses more quickly.

Findings of studies: Hypotheses may be developed out of the findings of other studies in order
to replicate and test.

Continuity of research: The continuity of research in a field itself constitutes an important

source of hypotheses. The rejection of some hypotheses leads to the formulation of new ones
capable of explaining dependent variables in subsequent researches on the same subject.

TYPE I ERROR AND TYPE II ERROR:

In the process of testing a hypothesis, a researcher may commit two type of errors namely type I
error and Type II error.
Type I error: We commit this error when we reject a null hypothesis which is true.
Type II error: This error is committed when we accept the null hypothesis which is false.
Accept Ho Reject Ho
H(true) Correct Decision Type I Error
H(false) Type II error Correct Decision

PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The researcher has to state Ho as well as Ha

The researcher has to specify the level of significance (or the α

value)

The researcher has to decide the correct sampling distribution

 The researcher has state sample a random sample(s) and
workout an appropriate value from sample date

He has to calculate the probability that sample result could

diver age as widely as it has from expectation Ho wee true

If this probability equal to or smaller then a value in case of one

– tailed test and a/2 in case 2-tailed test
Yes No

Reject Ho Accept Ho

Making a formal statement:

It consists of making a formal statement of the null hypothesis Ho and also of the alternative
hypothesis Ha

Selecting a significance level:

Generally the hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same
should be specified. Generally in practice either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.

Deciding the distribution to use:

After deciding the level of significance the researcher has to determine the appropriate sampling
distribution.

Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value:

The researcher has to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value from the
sample data.

Calculation of the probability

The researcher has to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as
it has from expectations.

Comparing the probability

Afterwards, the researcher has to compare the probability thus calculated with the specified value
for α significance level.

RESEARCH DESIGN

After developing hypothesis the researcher has to prepare a research design. A research design
could be defined as he blue print specifying every stage of action in the course of research. Such
a design would indicate whether the course of action planned will minimize the use of resources
and maximize the outcome. Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose and economy in procedure.

TYPES: EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN:

This is also called formulative research design. This aims of formulating a problem for more
precise idea or hypothesis, Based on this the subsequent stages of research could be planned. As
this design is only of formulate type it should be highly flexible. While applying this design.
Three different methods are followed:
Survey of related literature – by studying intensively the past studies and contributions relating
to the field of study, the research problem could be easily formulated.
Conducting experience survey –this refers to undertaking collection of details and discussion
with the experienced people in the chosen field of research. This would help the researcher to
determine the extent to which he is original and can avoid duplication.
Analysis of insight-stimulating examples is yet another method in which depending upon the
study on hand. In this method, the experience of people would be used as guide to develop or
formulate a hypothesis.
 Exploratory

TYPES OF
RESEARCH Descriptive and
DESIGN diagnostic

Experimental

DESCRIPTIVE AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN:

Descriptive research design is concerned with research studies with a focus on the portrayal of
the characteristics of a group or individual or a situation. The main objective such studies is to
acquire knowledge. For example, to identify the use of a product to various groups,. a research
study may be undertaken to question whether the use varies with income age sex or any other
characteristics of population.

On the other hand the diagnostic studies aim at identifying the relationship of any xisting
problem. Based on the diagnosis, it would also help to suggest methods to solve the
problem. In this process it may also evaluate the effectiveness of the suggestions already
implemented.
EXPERIMENATAL RESEARCH DESIGN

The experimental research studies are mainly focused on finding out the cause and effect
relationship of the problem under study. Actually when observation is arranged and controlled it
becomes experimental study. An experiment is a test or trial or an act or operation for the
purpose of discovering something unknown or of testing principle, supposition etc., it is a
process in which one or more variables are manipulate under conditions that permit the
collection of data that show the effects of any of such variables is a unconfused fashion.
The experimental design is broadly classified as a) informal experimental design and b)formal
experimental design. The formal includes after only design, after only with control design before
and after without control design before and after control and expost facto design. The formal
experimental design would include completely randomized design randomized block design;
Latin squares design and factorial design.

ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN

1. The richness of the research in the discipline is evaluated depending on whether the
discipline is in the initial stages of exploration and classification or a mature subject
leading to considerable amounts of application in practice.

2. The degree of clarity of the problem should be judged. The higher the degree of clarity,
the more rigorous the research designs, tending towards experimental research.

3. The degree of control that can be obtained over a variable should be evaluated. If this is
negligible, then field studies are preferred and the relationships or hypotheses tend to
become somewhat weak.

4. The time scale with respect to phenomenon to be studied should be determined.

5. The objectives set forth should be related to the units of study.

Questions
1.Define the term research design?
2.What do you understand by the term research design?
3. What various stages in research process?
4.What is review of literature?
5.What is hypothesis testing?
6.What is collection of data?
7.List out the types of research design?
8.Explain the term exploratory research design and bring out its three methods.
9.What is experimental research design?
10.Explain the term descriptive and diagnostic research design?
11.List and explain the factors that influence the research design?
12.Distinguish between primary data and secondary data?