Introduction to Civil Engineering as a Bachelor Program Geotechnical Engineering

and as a Profession
Because nearly all of the built environment is ultimately
Bachelor's degree - Post-secondary degree awarded to supported by the ground, geotechnical engineers are
an individual after completion of undergraduate course needed to apply their knowledge of soil and rock
work usually taking eight semesters and 120 credits to mechanics in all civil engineering design. Work
complete. Course work for bachelor's degrees is done at performed by geotechnical engineers includes
the undergraduate level and is made up of general performing site investigations, designing shallow and
studies and major specific classes. Bachelor's degrees deep foundations, evaluating slope stability, conducting
are awarded in specific concentrations and are built on and overseeing materials testing, planning tunnels, and
the Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts, or Bachelor of designing soil/rock and other ground improvements.
Fine Arts foundations. Individuals pursue bachelor's
Structural Engineering
degrees to further their education and career
advancement. A bachelor's degree may also be referred Structural engineers apply scientific principles to design
to as a baccalaureate. building, bridges and other structures to withstand the
forces of nature and protect human safety. Structural
engineers are knowledgeable of how structures and
TUP – Bachelor of Science in Civil Egineering materials behave under loads. They design structures to
perform their intended functions and be economical
Completed 195 units within eight (8) semesters
within the constraints of building code requirements.
Three (3) options professional course Structural engineers typically design structures made of
reinforced concrete, structural steel and wood.
Specislization : Structural Engineering
Environmental/Water Resources Engineering
Specislization : Construction Engineering and
Management Environmental engineers apply a vast range of technical
knowledge to protect the environment from human
Specislization : Water Resources Engineering activities and maintain public health. The work of
environmental engineers includes the design of water
treatment and wastewater treatment plants,
Civil Engineering Profession development of systems for handling non-hazardous
Civil engineers are highly trained professionals that and hazardous wastes, development of pollution
provide technical services throughout the world. Civil control measures and cleanup of contaminated sites.
engineers are needed in big cities and small towns, Water resources engineers are involved in the planning
working in both the government and private sectors. and management of facilities used to supply and
Within the profession are several major disciplines, transport water used for municipal, agricultural and
summarized below. industrial activities. In addition, water resources
engineers develop facilities and methods to capture and
Major Disciplines Within Civil Engineering store water from storms while avoiding and/or
minimizing flooding.
Transportation Engineering
CIVIL ENGINEERS of all disciplines can be found in
Transportation engineers work to develop
companies and organization of all sizes, in urban and
transportation systems that safely and efficiently move
rural settings, and in civilian, military, or government
people and goods. Transportation engineers design
roles.
highways and roads in both urban and rural areas and
manage traffic systems to keep operations functioning (NOTE 1) Civil engineering involves the design,
effectively. They also plan rail, air and waterway construction, and maintenance of works such as roads,
transportation systems. Transportation engineers bridges, and buildings. It's a science that includes a
develop and incorporate new technologies to improve variety of disciplines including soils, structures, geology,
transportation and maintain safety. and other fields. Thus the history of civil engineering is
closely associated with the history of advancement in 18th century that the term civil engineering was firstly
these sciences. In ancient history, most of the used independently from the term military engineering.
construction was carried out by artisans, and technical The first private college in the United States that
expertise was limited. Tasks were accomplished by the included Civil Engineering as a separate discipline was
utilization of manual labor only, without the use of Norwich University established in the year 1819. Civil
sophisticated machinery, since it did not exist. engineering societies were formed in United States and
Therefore, civil engineering works could only be realized European countries during the 19th century, and similar
with the utilization of a large number of skilled workers institutions were established in other countries of the
over an extended period of time. world during the 20th century. The American Society of
Civil Engineers is the first national engineering society in
Prehistoric and Ancient Civil Engineering the United States. In was founded in 1852 with
Structures members related to the civil engineering profession
Pyramid of Djoser - One of the First Pyramids located globally. The number of universities in the world
that include civil engineering as a discipline have
It might be appropriate to assume that the science of increased tremendously during the 19th and the 20th
civil engineering truly commenced between 4000 and centuries, indicating the importance of this technology.
2000 BC in Egypt when transportation gained such
importance that it led to the development of the wheel. Modern Concepts In Civil Engineering
According to the historians, the Pyramids were Numerous technologies have assisted in the
constructed in Egypt during 2800-2400 BC and may be advancement of civil engineering in the modern world,
considered as the first large structure construction ever. including high-tech machinery, selection of materials,
The Great Wall of China that was constructed around test equipment, and other sciences. However, the most
200 BC is considered another achievement of ancient prominent contributor in this field is considered to be
civil engineering. The Romans developed extensive computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided
structures in their empire, including aqueducts, bridges, manufacture (CAM). Civil engineers use this technology
and dams. A scientific approach to the physical sciences to achieve an efficient system of construction, including
concerning civil engineering was implemented by manufacture, fabrication, and erection. Three-
Archimedes in the third century BC, by utilizing the dimensional design software is an essential tool for the
Archimedes Principle concerning buoyancy and the civil engineer that facilitates him in the efficient
Archimedes screw for raising water. designing of bridges, tall buildings, and other huge
The Roles of Civil And Military Engineer in Ancient complicated structures.
Times Civil engineering as a distinct field is a modern
As stated above, civil engineering is considered to be invention, but its practice dates back much further than
the first main discipline of engineering, and the the founding of Mobile, AL. Once considered a science
engineers were in fact military engineers with expertise within architecture, civil engineering later evolved into
in military and civil works. During the era of battles or an independent field which touches upon most facets of
operations, the engineers were engaged to assist the everyday life. Here is a brief history of civil engineering
soldiers fighting in the battlefield by making catapults, in Mobile, AL and how it affects us all today.
towers, and other instruments used for fighting the
enemy. However, during peace time, they were
concerned mainly with the civil activities such as (NOTE 2) Ancient roots
building fortifications for defense, making bridges, Engineering began when people started building cities
canals, etc. and phasing out their nomadic lifestyles. This led to the
Civil Engineering in the 18th – 20th Century development of construction, as trial and error
distinguished good design from less effective
Until the recent era, there was no major difference approaches. Mesopotamia contained some of the most
between the terms civil engineering and architecture, skilled engineers in the ancient world, as did Ancient
and they were often used interchangeably. It was in the Egypt.
Other notable structures that remain standing and well whether a civil engineer is addressing flood plain
working today offer a strong testament to early management, designing a bridge or planning roadways.
engineers. The qanat water management system This software leads to effective products and cost
appears in several cultures and remains functional. savings.
Romans built the Appian Way, and the Chinese created
their accomplishment, the Great Wall of China. There is
still evidence of sprawling irrigation and aqueduct It is difficult to find an area where civil engineering has
systems that controlled flooding and provided water not been involved. If you work in a new building, cross a
throughout the Americas and Europe. All of these bridge or move into a new subdivision, there was likely
structures offer a strong statement on the quality of a civil engineer involved in the original plans.
engineering knowledge long before we developed
computers and used advanced software.
If your project requires skilled and dedicated civil
engineering in Mobile, AL, contact Polysurveying &
Becoming a specialty Engineering. We offer free quotes for our services and
look forward to learning more about your endeavor.
Civil engineering and architecture did not exist without
each other. There was no need for specialization, as
professionals learned both fields. Design and structural
integrity both needed consideration or nothing (NOTE 3)
remained standing. Building Materials

The history of civil engineering and architectural

This changed in the 18th century. Civil engineering was projects is regional in nature. The development of
broadly defined as those developments that were not building design and construction on an African grassland
exclusive to the military, such as water management, differs greatly from building design and construction in
roads and bridges. The term “civil engineering” first Alaska or the mountainous regions of Peru. A major
arose during this realization, and the first engineering reason for differences in the development of
school opened in 1747. Called the National School of construction techniques is the availability of local
Bridges and Highways, it was located in France and was materials. Although it is possible to import materials
the first sign of the disciplines separating from each from great distances, the historic reality is that people
other. often used what was easily available to them when
constructing buildings. This influenced architectural
style and the selection of structural elements. Of course
climate also has an effect on the design and
The first to use the title “civil engineer” was John
construction of buildings. For example, sun dried bricks
Smeaton, who built the Eddystone Lighthouse. He
can support loads in a dry climate but will disintegrate
started the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, which
in wet climates.
turned into more of a social group than a true
professional organization. In the U.S., its first Current day Iraq consists mostly of alluvial plains – no
engineering school opened in 1819 and was named stone, and wood is scarce. Sun-dried bricks (clay-rich
Norwich University. The Institution of Civil Engineers soil mixed with straw) was used as early as the 4 th
became the first true professional society, receiving its millennium BC. The ruins of the famed city of Babylon
royal charter in London in 1828. illustrate the use of mud-bricks.

Greece consists almost entirely of limestone and has

many sources of marble. The finest source of marble is
The modern approach
Mount Pentelicus from which the marble used in the
Today, civil engineering addresses complex design with Parthenon was cut.
advanced technology. CAD and CAM help with design,
creation and testing of structure simulations. It works
The pre-Columbian Inca site of Machu Picchu sits on a The Parthenon was built to house a statue of Athena,
mountain ridge in Peru. The central buildings of Machu Greek goddess of war. Like other temples of its day, it
Picchu use the classic architectural style of dry stone was designed to be seen from the outside only.
walls in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together
The Parthenon is an example of post-and-lintel
tightly without mortar.
construction: horizontal beams placed across vertical
Because of their durability, examples of stone and brick posts. This form of construction came about due to an
buildings from past civilizations do exist. However, few early problem in architecture – how can door and
examples of ancient buildings exist where less durable window openings be provided in bearing walls without
materials such as wood and grass were used. sacrificing support? Post-and-lintel construction is an
example of an early frame system.
In China and in Japan, most ancient buildings were
constructed of wood (except for the tile roofs). Because The columns of the Parthenon are closely spaced
wood tends to deteriorate over time, few examples of because it is made of stone, which has little tensile
ancient Chinese buildings exist. However, the Chinese capacity (unable to support wide openings).
have long standardized uniform features of structures
Greek temples showed a change from wide columns to
through manuals and drawings that were passed down
slender columns. Why this movement toward
for generations. Therefore, we can determine that
slenderness and greater intermediate spans? Although
Chinese architecture changed little over thousands of
the main reason was aesthetics, the desire to reach
years.
greater heights and to bridge greater spans with less
The Pyramids material cannot be ignored.

The earliest large structures were the pyramids. Arches

Pyramids in Egypt were built as monuments to house
Supporting large openings was a major problem in the
the tombs of the pharaohs.
early design of structures. Although very strong in
The earliest know architect was Imhotep of (im HO tep) compression, stone is weak in tension and cannot
of Egypt. He was known for creating the first step support the weight of the structure across a large
pyramid at Sakkara (suh CAH ruh) around 2700 B.C. This openings. The Romans developed the arch to overcome
pyramid was a solid structure, but many early buildings the limitations of the post and lintel. An arch is a curved
were bearing wall types. Bearing walls are solid walls structure for spanning an opening, designed to support
that provide support for each other and for the roof. a vertical load primarily by axial compression. Because
The building next to the pyramid in the right image they are made from smaller and lighter blocks of stone,
illustrates a bearing wall system. they are easier to erect. Blocks are placed in a curved
formation in such a way that they give each other
200 years later, the Great Pyramid of Khufu (KOO foo)
support. The wedge-shaped units in the arch are called
was built. It is the largest masonry structure ever built.
voussoir (voo SWAR). The keystone is the voussoir at
The base measures 756 ft on each side and is 480 ft tall.
the crown of the arch, serving to lock the others in
The builder was Cheops (KEE ops), also known as Khufu.
place. The arch is often used in the construction of
His pyramid is the only surviving of the Seven Wonders
bridges, tunnels, sewers, and palaces.
of the Ancient World.
The Vault
The Egyptians were not the only ones building
pyramids. In the Americas pyramids were built for The development of the arch led to the vault, which is a
religious ceremonies or scientific use. This stepped series of arches that form a continuous arched covering.
pyramid in Yucatan, Mexico was built for astronomical
When two of these vaults intersect, a cross vault is
purposes.
created. Another name for the cross vault is the groin
The Parthenon vault. Vaults allow for the construction of bridges,
walkways, and other passages.

Domes
Another form that developed from the arch was the The Roman aqueducts were built from 300 BC to 200
dome. A dome is an arrangement of several arches AD. These provided Rome with an ample supply of fresh
whose bases form a circle and the tops meet in the water. In the first century AD, almost 180 million gallons
center. of water poured daily into Rome. These aqueducts are
another example of an arch and dome system.
Pantheon
Road Systems
The Pantheon is an example of an arch and dome
system. It is the oldest standing domed structure in Ancient roadways were used by the Persians and
Rome. Romans for strategic and commercial purposes.

Two amazing aspects of the Pantheon have to do with Greeks needed to have roads available in the event of a
the materials used to create it. religious exodus. Greek highways consisted of two
wheel ruts of about 4 ft 11 in. gauge either carved out
The Pantheon's concrete was a mixture of volcanic ash,
or worn down. The roads typically had a width of 8 or 9
lime, and a small amount of water. That mixture was
feet and a depth of 3 to 4 inches. Sometimes this was
packed, not poured, into place. Today we have Portland
increased to 12 inches to make the road smoother in
cement, a hydraulic cement that is a key ingredient in
the rocky ground. Urban streets were mostly paved.
concrete and many other cementitious (SEE men TISH
us) products such as masonry bricks and plaster. Roman roads were created by using large blocks of
Hydraulic cement hardens by reacting with water and is stone (called the stratumen) for the base, over which
water-resistant. broken stone or debris (called rudus) was spread and
covered by a layer of sand (referred to as the nucleus)
Colosseum
and finally by large polygonal basalt blocks (summum
Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, this arch dorsum), with the polished top surfaces serving as the
and dome system (Colesseum) is the largest ever built in road surface. The stones were set in lime mortar. In
the Roman Empire. It is considered by many to be one marshy regions the Romans used wooden causeways
of the greatest works of Roman architecture and resting on pile foundations.
engineering. Modern sports arenas are styled after the
Romans were generally believed to be masters of road
Colosseum, so named probably due to a colossal statue
engineering. At the height of their power, they had
of Emperor Nero which is nearby.
constructed 50,000 miles of paved roads. No
Great Wall of China comparable road system existed outside the Roman
Empire. Overland lines of communication outside the
The great wall is one of the most ambitious construction Roman Empire consisted of beaten paths. The cost of
projects the world has ever seen. It spans 4500 miles. the roads was defrayed by public costs or private
Construction spanned from the 5th century BC to the donations. Augustus, for example, assigned roads to
16th century. The wall as seen today was mostly wealthy Senators who were responsible for their
constructed during the Ming Dynasty of stone and maintenance.
bricks.

WATER SUPPLY
Early Bridge Designs
The need for a dependable water supply for domestic
and agricultural purposes led to the construction of The earliest know Roman bridge, the Pons Sublicius in
dams, canals, and aqueducts. This usually involved Rome, was made of wood and was constructed using
conducting the water over long distances. The columns and beams. The pile foundation was created by
engineering involved constructing the massive dams following specific steps: excavate, clear, and then drive
and solving problems associated with getting the water previously charred alder, olive, or oak piles into the
to flow to its destination. Since water flows downhill, a ground as close to each other as possible. The spaces
combinations of canals, tunnels, and aqueducts were were filled with ashes. The is an example of a timber
often required. bridge.
Roman Bridges HISTORY OF BRIDGES

Most ancient Roman bridges used the arch as the basic Old Bridge
structure and were typically made of stone and
Bridge is a structure that provides passage over
concrete. Although some jobs were mechanized, there
obstacles such as valleys, rough terrain or bodies of
was little change in building materials or methods of
water by spanning those obstacles with natural or
construction from those of the Romans until the middle
manmade materials. They first begun be used in ancient
of the 18th century. The same simple cranes, pulley
times when first modern civilizations started rising in
systems, wedges, and inclined planes were still
the Mesopotamia. From that point on, knowledge,
commonly used to move heavy objects. The hammer,
engineering, and manufacture of new bridge building
plane, and chisel were still the tools of choice of the
materials spread beyond their borders, enabling slow
carpenter. However, in the middle of the 18 th century,
but steady adoption of bridges all across the world.
iron became cheaper and more readily available. The
first iron bridge was built over the Servern in 1779. A
new blast furnace nearby lowered the cost and
encouraged local engineers and architects to use iron to In the beginning bridges were very simple structures
cross the river. The use of iron allowed longer spans and that were built from easily accessible natural resources-
lighter structures. wooden logs, stone and dirt. Because of that, they had
ability only to span very close distances, and their
structural integrity was not high because mortar was
not yet invented and rain slowly but constantly
Reinforced Concrete
dissolved dirt fillings of the bridge. Revolution in the
The concrete mixture used by the Romans was very bridge construction came in Ancient Rome whose
weak in tension and bending. Experiments with engineers found that grinded out volcanic rocks can
improving the tensile strength of concrete by serve as an excellent material for making mortar. This
embedding metal rods into the mixture began in the invention enabled them to build much more sturdier,
mid 1800s. Eventually engineers learned how to powerful and larger structures than any civilization
efficiently take advantage of the combined strength of before them. Seeing the power of roads and
concrete in compression and steel in tension. Since that connections to distant lands, Roman architects soon
time, reinforced concrete has been used for a variety of spread across the Europe, Africa and Asia, building
construction projects. The flexibility of concrete allowed bridges and roads of very high quality.
the use of free flowing curves and a break from the
rectilinear designs of structural steel.
Bridges History

Bridge history is filled with incredible achievements and

Reinforced Concrete BRIDGES
new technologies that enabled bridges to become one
Engineers quickly understood that reinforced concrete of the most important tools of bridging cities, countries
could be used in the design and construction of bridges. and continents. This is their story.
The first reinforced concrete bridge was built in France
in 1907.
Facts about Bridges
The Cedar Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis (shown) was
completed in 1929 and is considered the crowning During their long history, bridges managed to influence
achievement of city engineer Dristoffer Olsen Oustad, our culture and improve the way we travel, do business
who was involved in the design of several prominent and forge policies. Here you can found out some of the
structures in the area. The bridge was added to the most incredible facts about bridges.
Register of Historic Places in 1989.
Most Famous Bridges

If you want to know what bridges ar the most famous in Modern bridges are usually made with the combination
the world, here is the perfect place to do so. Learn of concrete, irons and cables, and can be built from very
about historical bridges, marvels of modern engineering small sizes to incredible lengths that span entire
and bridges with the designs that will live forever. mountains, rough landscapes, lakes and seas.

Model Bridge Building (NOTE 2) HISTORY OF BRIDGES

Model bridge building is a popular pastime, where Simple bridges

hobbyists create bridge models from various materials
Even the most primitive human communities must often
like spaghettis, toothpicks, balsa wood, etc. Miniature
have created bridges from material lying easily to hand.
bridge making is also often used in education in areas
Hunters and gatherers follow favourite paths; streams
like physics and engineering. Numerous competitive
need to be crossed. A fallen tree can be dragged into
bridge building contents are held annually, with various
position to serve as a plank. Forest tendrils may be
rules and goals.
intertwined as an elementary suspension bridge. Or
One of the defining successes of Roman bridge rafts can be tied together in a pontoon.
architecture was their discovery of arches. By using this
But bridges over more than a narrow width require an
type of building, load forces of the bridge were
architectural device which arrives relatively late on the
conveyed to move along the curve of the arch, meeting
scene. This is the Roman arch - an invaluable principle
with the ground where they were canceled by supports
which they make their own. It is with them that the
on the end of the arch. Because of that, Romans were
story of bridges begins.
able to create bridges that were much lighter than
before and were able to hold load that was twice as Roman bridges: 1st - 2nd century AD
heavy as the bridge itself. In construction of their
numerous aqueducts, Roman architects even managed Bridges are as much part of the Roman architectural
to create water carrying bridges with multiple arched achievement as aqueducts, and they present even
tiers that reached incredible heights! greater constructional problems.

By using this new building technique, Romans had the Some of the most impressive Roman bridges are over
ability to quickly produce cheap, light and very powerful ravines. A fine surviving example, built for Trajan in AD
bridges from materials that could be found in the 105, spans the Tagus in Spain, at Alcántara. Its two
vicinity of the project. The only material that had to be massive central arches, 110 feet wide and 210 feet
imported from Italy was mortar dust, which was above the normal level of the river, are made of
combined with water and inserted into bridge structure. uncemented granite. Each wedge-shaped block weighs
8 tons. During construction these blocks are winched
into place by a system of pulleys, powered perhaps by
slave labour on a treadmill. They are supported on a
Roman Arch Bridge
huge timber structure standing on the rocks below - to
After the fall of roman empire, bridge building be removed when the arch is complete.
techniques in Europe and Asia stagnated until the 18th
An equally remarkable feat of Roman construction is the
century (if we ignore introduction of Rope suspension
building of bridges across rivers where no rock or island
bridges that were brought back to Europe from Central
emerges from the water to carry the piers. An example
and South America) when new age of science and
survives in Rome - the Sant'Angelo bridge, built for
engineering swept across the world. Architects of that
Hadrian in AD 134 as an approach to his great circular
time started using new construction material – cast
mausoleum, now the Castel Sant'Angelo.
iron! Iron enabled creation of new bridge designs such
as truss systems. Sadly, wrought iron did not have
tensile strength to support heavy structures, which was
fixed with the advent of steel and the ideas of famous
French architect and engineer Gustave Eiffel.
The building of such bridges is made possible by the
Roman perfection of cement and concrete, and by their
Ironbridge: 1779
invention of the cofferdam.
In the space of a few months in 1779 the world's first
Inhabited bridges: 12th - 16th century
iron bridge, with a single span of over 100 feet, is
The greatest contribution of the Middle Ages to bridge erected for Abraham Darby (the third of that name)
building is the attractive notion of bridges with houses over the Severn just downstream from Coalbrookdale.
on them. This development has two practical origins. In Work has gone on for some time in building the
walled cities, where accomodation is strictly limited, any foundations and casting the huge curving ribs. But in
firm foundation for a building is valuable; and with this new technology little time need be spent in
water mills now a common source of power, a bridge assembling the parts - which amount, it is proudly
with a mill upon it serves two useful purposes. announced, to 378 tons 10 cwt. of metal.

Inhabited bridges are built in considerable numbers. The lightness of the structure strikes all observers. An
France is known to have had as many as thirty-five. In early visitor comments: 'though it seems like network
the 16th century in Paris the Ile de la Cité is joined to wrought in iron, it will be uninjured for ages.' It is
the banks of the Seine by three such bridges on one side uninjured still. A great tradition, bringing marvels such
and two on the other. as the Crystal Palace, begins in this industrial valley.

The most famous bridge with houses is also one of the (NOTE 3) HISTORY OF BRIDGES
earliest and the longest lasting. London Bridge is built
Bridge is not a construction but it is a concept, the
between 1176 and 1209, with the work apparently
concept of crossing over large spans of land or huge
entrusted to Peter, chaplain of St Mary Colechurch. His
masses of water, and to connect two far-off points,
task is formidable. This is the world's first stone bridge
eventually reducing the distance between them. The
to be constructed in a tidal waterway, with a large rise
bridge provides passage over the obstacle of small
and fall of level every twelve hours.
caverns, a valley, road, body of water, or other physical
obstacle. Designs of bridges vary depending on the
nature of the terrain and the function of the bridge and
The stone foundations of the nineteen pointed arches
where it is constructed.
are placed within timber cofferdams, in the technique
pioneered by the Romans. The piers and their
protective cladding are so thick that the river's width is
The first bridges were believed to be made by nature —
reduced by 75%. Water surges between them like a mill
as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first
race - with the useful side effect of keeping the water
bridges made by humans were probably spans of
level artificially high upstream of the bridge.
wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a
Old London Bridge, with its tall and picturesque rows of simple support and crossbeam arrangement.
houses and shops, lasts for more than six centuries until
finally replaced in 1823.
The Indian Epic literature Ramayana provides
mythological accounts of bridges constructed from India
Of surviving medieval bridges with houses on, the Ponte to Sri Lanka by the army of Sri Rama, the mythological
Vecchio in Florence is probably the best known. When King of Ayodhya.
built in 1345 it replaces one on the same site also
The recent satellite photograph depicts the existence of
known as the Ponte Vecchio, so the present bridge is
this bridge, referred to in Ramayana.
first known as the Nuovo Ponte Vecchio ('new old
bridge'). The covered way which forms a top storey Ram Setu
above the shops is added in 1565 to enable the Medici
to walk from the Uffizi to the Palazzo Pitti on the other Mention of bridges being constructed by Mauryan
side of the river without descending to street level. dynasty in India, is given in Kautilya’s “Arthasastra”.
During the wars Mughals have constructed many
bridges across major rivers, in India
The ancient Romans were the greatest bridge builders
of antiquity.

Before pre-historic people began to build the crudest Ancient Roman Bridges
shelter for themselves they bridged streams. Trees that
They used cement, – called pozzolana consisting of
have fallen across the stream from bank to bank acted
water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock, which reduced the
as bridges. The wandering tribe that first deliberately
variation of strength found in natural stone.
made a tree fall across a stream were the first bridge
builders. Though extremely versatile, wood has one obvious
disadvantage and during the 18th century there were
Observing monkeys swing of the several vines, led to
many innovations in the design and a major
connecting parallel cables with some sort of cross
breakthrough in bridge technology came with the
pieces, to support as bridges. Later hand grips were
erection of the Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale in England
proved which led to suspension bridges.
during 1779, using cast iron for the first time as arches
to cross the river Severn.

Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were With the Industrial Revolution, steel, which has a high
used by the Inca civilization in the Andes Mountains of tensile strength, replaced wrought iron for the
South America construction of larger bridges to support large loads,
and later welded structural bridges of various designs
The first bridges were natural of huge rock arch that
were constructed.
spans. The first man-made bridges were tree trunks laid
across streams in girder fashion, flat stones, and Bridges are classified as Beam bridges, Cantilever
festoons of vegetation, twisted or braided and hung in bridges, Arch bridges, Suspension bridges, Cable stayed
suspension. bridges and Truss bridges.

Beam Bridge: A horizontal beam supported at its ends

comprises the structure of a beam bridge. The
These three types – beam, arch, and suspension – have
construction of a beam bridge is the simplest of all the
been known and built since ancient times and are the
types of bridges.
origins from which engineers and builders derived
various combinations such as the truss, cantilever, Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—
cable-stayed, tied-arch, and moveable spans horizontal beams that are supported on only one end.
Most cantilever bridges use two cantilever arms
Bridges of twisted vines and creepers were found in
extending from opposite sides of the obstacle to be
many parts of India. Wooden bridges are some of the
crossed, meeting at the center.
most ancient.
The Arch Bridge is arch-shaped and has supports at
Suspension bridges had been known in China as early as
both its ends. The weight of an arch-shaped bridge is
206 BC.
forced into the supports at either end.
Suspension Bridge
The suspension bridge is suspended from cables. The
Chinese built big bridges of wooden construction, and suspension cables are anchored at each end of the
later stone bridges, and the oldest surviving stone bridge. The load that the bridge bears converts into the
bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge built around 605 tension in the cables.
AD during the Sui Dynasty.

Chinese Bridges - Zhaozhou Bridge

This bridge is also historically significant as it is the

world’s oldest open- stone segmental arch bridge.
The Cable-stayed Bridges like suspension bridges are almost 2.5 kilometers,343 meters elevation from the
held up by cables. However, in a cable-stayed bridge, ground, and the inclusion of eight large spans, made
less cable is required and the towers holding the cables this bridge instantly took the breath away when it was
are proportionately shorter. The longest cable-stayed constructed in 2004 with the price tag of incredible 394
bridge is the Sutong bridge over the Yangtze River in million Euro.
China.
Rialto Bridge
Truss bridges are composed of connected straight
Venice is a city of thousand bridges, but one managed
elements with the help of pin joints. They have a solid
to distinguished itself from the rest and became an
deck and a lattice of pin-jointed or gusset-joined girders
architectural icon of the city. Single-arched Rialto Bridge
for the sides. Early truss bridges were made of wood,
was built in 1591 under the oversight of the architect
and later of wood with iron tensile rods, but modern
Antonio da Ponte whose controversial non-
truss bridges are made completely of metals such as
Romanesque proposal outperformed even those of
wrought iron and steel or sometimes of reinforced
famous Michelangelo. Rialto Bridge spans the Grand
concrete.
Canal of Venice, connecting the center of the city and
Cable-stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one or the famous Rialto Markets on the same place where old
more columns – towers or pylons, with cables and unreliable wooden pontoon bridges served the
supporting the bridge deck. Venice for centuries.

FAMOUS BRIDGES IN THE WORLD Si-o-se Pol

London Tower Bridge Si-o-se Pol is one of the most famous bridges created in
the entire Middle East, featuring an incredible design of
London Tower Bridge is one of the most iconic 33 arches over river Zayanderud that together span
structures of this old city. Set on the river Thames and distance of almost 300 meters. Hailed as the most
built with a combinations of suspension (static) and impressive of the eleven bridges in Isfahan, Iran, Si-o-se
bascule (moveable) elements, the defining feature of Pol is regarded today as the shining example of the
this bridge are two enormous towers connected by two Safavid bridge school of art.
parallel walkways. During early years of its history, this
bridge was famously known as “Tower of London,” Stari Most
named by the royal prison that was located in the
Stari Most (Old Bridge) is the most famous bridge design
towers.
of Ottoman Turks. Dating from 1566, it stood over the
Golden Gate Bridge river Neretva in the city of Mostar (Bosnia and
Herzegovina) in almost perfect untouched state until for
The modern history of bridge building is defined by centuries it got damaged during the War in Bosnia and
several magnificent structures, out of which Golden Herzegovina in the 1990s. The newly restored bridge
Gate bridge in San Francisco is hailed as being one of still showcases all the beauty of this striking looking
the most recognizable ones. Designed by the architect single-arched bridge.
mastermind Joseph B. Strauss, this bright red bridge
dominates strait of Golden Gate between the city of San Sydney Harbor Bridge
Francisco and Marin County to the north. This 894,500-
Sydney Harbor Bridge is one of the best known and
ton marvel of modern engineering remained the longest
most photographed bridges in the world. Since its
suspension bridge in the world until 1964 and the
opening in 1932 it managed to capture the imagination
construction of Japan's Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge.
of millions of tourists who visit Sidney, and together
Millau Bridge with Sydney Opera house, it instantly became one of
the most recognizable architectural symbols of the
Millau Bridge located on the uneven grounds of entire continent of Australia, and its colorful
southern France represents one of the crowning decorations are frequently showcased during New
achievements of European bridge building. Its Year’s Eve celebrations.
impressive characteristics, such as the total distance of
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge features additional decking that is intended only
for pedestrian and bicycle use.
This 3.9-kilometer suspension bridge connects the
Japanese mainland of Honshu to the Awaji Island,
passing over the dangerous Akashi Strait that claimed
Charles Bridge
several passenger ferries in the 1950s. Designed by the
Satoshi Kashima who oversaw the construction of the The center of the city of Prague would not be the same
bridge that started in 1988 with a budget of around $3.6 without the presence of one of the most impressive
billion, Akashi Kaikyo bridge and it record-setting central Gothic structures ever to be made. Charles Bridge was
span that is almost 2 km long became opened for public the centerpiece of the medieval Prague road network,
use on April 5, 1998. This massive and very expensive and as such, it was protected by large gothic towers to
project of Japanese government paid off, connecting be not only one of the most important military defense
Awaji Island with the rest of the Japan road network points of the city but also as a showcase of rich Czech
and becoming a new part of the Honshu–Shikoku history and art. After centuries of use as a road bridge,
Highway. today this 515m bridge serves as a reminder of more
than 600 years of European history.
Bridge of Sighs
After numerous renovations that happened over its
No bridge in the world has managed to become such a
lifetime, Charles Bridge became famous all around the
synonym for a renaissance period as a Ponte dei Sospiri,
world in the early 1700s with its avenue of 30 mostly
a small prison bridge that connected government offices
baroque statues that showcased the artistic prowess of
with a nearby prison in the center of the iconic Italian
Czech sculptors and artists.
city of Venice. Built in early years of 17th century, this
bridge immediately captured the imagination of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge
public, spawning several myths and serving as an
inspiration to several similar bridges that were built Very few bridges in the world have ever been described
across the world. as one of the “seven engineering wonders of the
modern world,” but the mega-structure Chesapeake
Originally believed to be the last point from which Bay Bridge deserved to be called that way. Completed in
Venetian prisoners would be able to see the beauty of 1964 with the budget of around $200 million, this
the city before they were executed, in modern times almost 7-kilometer-long bridge easily connects Eastern
this bridge became connected with the tourist-friendly Shore region of US state of Maryland with urbaner
myth of ever-lasting love. Western Shore as the part of the U.S. Route 50 and US
Route 301. In the following years after the original
Brooklyn Bridge
construction, Chesapeake Bay Bridge gained an
Built between 1869 and 1883, this large hybrid cable- additional parallel span, and since then each span of the
stayed/suspension bridge is hailed today as one of the bridge is used for a single travel direction (one for
oldest surviving roadway bridges in the United States. westbound and one for eastbound).
Designed by John Augustus Roebling, his son
The position of this bridge makes it one of the most
Washington Roebling, and his wife Emily Warren
popular crossings of the Chesapeake Bay, which has
Roebling, Brooklyn Bridge features two colossal towers
proven to lead to regular periods of congestion during
and an intricate network of cables that keep the 5.9
peak travel hours. The expected rise in traffic density
kilometers of decking above the East River, connecting
will soon be alleviated with the construction of a
the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn.
parallel tunnel that would become part of the existing
Immediately after it was opened to the public on May Chesapeake Bay Bridge roadway network.
24, 1883, Brooklyn Bridge (then called New York and
Coronado Bridge
Brooklyn Bridge or East River Bridge) became one of the
most impressive landmarks in New York City. It’s almost Travel congestion of ferries between the cities of San
half a kilometer central span was 50% longer than any Diego and Coronado pushed government officials to
other at that time. Today, the renovated Brooklyn fast-track building of the bridge that will span the wide
San Diego Bay in a unique way. After winning a 1978 cars across that part of Great Lakes. Although the bridge
World Bridge Beauty Contest, the bridge design of the has a simple design, it’s staggering size puts it apart
Robert Mosher was finally realized and opened to the from other similar bridges – it has a central span of
public on August 3, 1939. Created with 32 spans (with 1,158 meters and is the longest suspension bridge with
21 of its piers being located in water), this bridge two towers between anchorages in the Western
managed to effortlessly reduce the traffic congestion Hemisphere.
between these two cities with five car lanes (two for
Pont du Gard
both directions and a modular middle one) and to
provide enough clearance that even the largest ships of Ancient Roman architects created many impressive
the US Navy could pass below its massive central span structures, but one of their most enduring ones was the
that is 200m wide and 61m high. aqueduct bridge that crosses Gardon River in southern
France. As part of the larger Nîmes aqueduct, this 48.8-
Forth Bridge
meter-tall aqueduct bridge with more than 50 arches
Forth Bridge is a large 2.467-meter-long cantilever was instrumental for transporting clear water from
bridge, located 14 kilometers west of the Edinburgh City springs of Ucetia to the city of Nemausus and its 50
Centre where it spans the Firth of Forth, wide estuary of thousand inhabitants. After centuries of use, the lowest
several Scottish rivers. Located between villages of tier of the bridge was partially modified to allow
South Queensferry and North Queensferry, this bridge transport of people and was augmented by a side
became an integral part of the railway network that bridge with traditional decking in the 18th century.
spans the England, Scotland, and Wales. Originally Today, Pont du Gard is regarded as a national treasure
designed by Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker and of France and one of its most popular tourist
released for the rail traffic on March 4, 1890, this bridge destinations.
today holds significant importance to the Scottish
Ponte Vecchio
nation where it was voted as Scotland's greatest man-
made wonder in 2016. The scenic view of the city center of the Italian city of
Florence is greatly enhanced with the presence of one
Iron Bridge
of its most prized structures – ancient Ponte Vecchio
The history of bridge design would not be the same bridge that has for hundreds of years housed stores of
without the presence of the Iron Bridge, a first bridge goldsmiths and artisans. Enhanced in numerous ways
made out of cast iron. Located in the Shropshire, heart throughout the ages, this incredible example of early
of England’s Industrial Revolution, and spanning the medieval Italian engineering stands tall today as one of
deep Severn Gorge, this bridge managed to revitalize the most famous examples of European Renaissance.
private and commercial travel in the region and
The History
popularize the use of cast iron as the construction
material . Built with the oversight of the designer Aqueducts - Where do they come from?
Thomas Farnolls Pritchard between 1777 and 1779, this
bridge immediately popularized the region as the viable Aqueducts have been around for a long time and they
tourist destination. Today, the bridge and the will continue to exist for a much longer time. Aqueducts
surrounding Severn Gorge area are protected as cultural were first invented by the Romans in 312 BCE. The
and heritage sites of highest importance. romans invented the aqueduct system because they
were originally grabbing water from the Tiber River and
Mackinac Bridge local springs/wells. Though as the city began to grow
these water sources were becoming polluted. This is the
The defining feature of the Straits of Mackinac is an 8-
moment that the Romans began to find the need to
kilometer-long bridge known previously as Big Mac or
grab water from another source. The city was ever
Mighty Mac. Constructed in 1957 under the oversight of
increasing and they had no local clean water. In this
the designer and David B. Steinman after decades of
dilemma the Romans found that the near by mountains
deliberations and delays, this bridge dramatically
had many large clean springs of water. They thought
reduced the traffic congestion in the area, putting out of
that they could build a structure that would be able to
service numerous ferries that transported people and
carry this water from the mountains into the city The earliest and simplest aqueducts were constructed
allowing for clean water for all the citizens. They of lengths of inverted clay tiles and sometimes pipes
immediately went to work and through their trials and which channelled water over a short distance and
tribulations they eventually found the system of followed the contours of the land. The earliest examples
aqueduct that is known and loved today. Once the of these date from the Minoan civilization on Crete in
Romans fell their aqueduct systems were very rarely the early 2nd millennium BCE and from contemporary
used again. People turned back to using wells and once Mesopotamia. Aqueducts were also an important
the industrial revolution hit running water that entered feature of Mycenaean settlements in the 14th century
your house began to be a more common amenity. It has BCE, ensuring autonomy against siege for the acropolis
to been until recently that the need to use aqueducts of Mycenae and the fortifications at Tiryns.
again has arisen. When the USA was beginning to form
Aqueducts in Mesopotamia
its more major cities like New York and Los Angeles
some of these cities found that they were at a shortage The first sophisticated long-distance canal systems were
for water. Los Angeles found a solution by creating an constructed in the Assyrian empire in the 9th century
aqueduct that went all the way from the Colorado River BCE and incorporated tunnels several kilometres in
to the city that is known today. Los Angeles also grabs length. These engineering feats permitted the
water from the nearby mountains by aqueducts. aqueducts to be constructed in a more direct line
Aqueducts have come a long way since they were first between source and outlet. The Babylonians in the 8th
developed by the Romans, as modern humans have put century BCE also built extensive and sophisticated canal
a few bells and whistles, but aqueducts are a green systems. In the 7th century BCE a wide canal crossed a
technology that will hopefully continue to be used into 280m long bridge to bring water to Nineveh and water
the future. Look bellow to see a slide show on some of was brought through a 537m tunnel to supply
the aqueduct systems that the Romans built. Jerusalem.
In antiquity, aqueducts were a means to transport Fountain Entrance, Mycenae
water from one place to another, achieving a regular
and controlled water supply to a place which would not Another important innovation in water management
otherwise have received sufficient water to meet basic was qanats. These probably originated from Persia (or
needs such as irrigation of food crops and drinking perhaps Arabia) and were large underground galleries
fountains. They may take the form of underground which collected groundwater. Tunnels at a lower level
tunnels, networks of surface channels and canals, than the reservoir and often several kilometres in length
covered clay pipes or monumental bridges. then channelled off the water via the force of gravity.
Qanats were present throughout the ancient world
Ever since the human race has lived in communities and from Egypt to China.
farmed the land, water management has been a key
factor in the well-being and prosperity of a community. Greek Water Management
Settlements not immediately near a fresh-water source The first Greek large-scale water management projects
dug shafts into underground water tables to create occurred in the 7th century BC and were usually to
wells and cisterns were also created to collect rainwater supply communal drinking fountains. Both Samos and
so that it could be used at a later date. Aqueducts, Athens were supplied by long-distance aqueducts from
however, allowed communities to live further from a the 6th century BCE; the former was 2.5km long and
water source and to utilise land which would otherwise included the famous 1km tunnel designed by Eupalinus
have been unusable for agriculture. of Megara. Pisistratus constructed an aqueduct of 15 to
25cm wide ceramic pipes in the Ilissus valley, 8km long.
Earliest Aqueducts
In the 4th century BCE Priene in Asia Minor had a similar
THE FIRST SOPHISTICATED LONG-DISTANCE CANAL
pipeline which followed an artificial ditch covered in
SYSTEMS WERE CONSTRUCTED IN THE ASSYRIAN
stone slabs. Third century BCE Syracuse benefitted from
EMPIRE IN THE 9TH CENTURY BCE.
no fewer than three aqueducts and Hellenistic
Pergamon, ca 200 BCE, had some of the most
sophisticated water management structures known at The first aqueducts to serve Rome were the 16km long
that time. Aqua Appia (312 BCE), the Anio Vetus (272-269 BCE)
and the 91km long Aqua Marcia (144-140 BCE).
Steadily, the network increased and even created
connections between aqueducts: the Aqua Tepula (126-
125 BCE), Julia (33 BCE), Virgo (22-19 BCE), Alsietina (2
Roman Aqueducts BCE), Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus (completed in 52
It is, however, the Romans who have rightly gained CE), Aqua Traiana (109 CE) and the Aqua Alexandrina
celebrity as the aqueduct builders par excellence. (226 CE). Gradually, other aqueducts were built across
Hugely ambitious engineering projects successfully Italy, for example, in Alatri (130-120 BCE) and Pompeii
mastered all kinds of difficult and dangerous terrain and (ca 80 BCE). Julius Caesar built an aqueduct at Antioch,
made their magnificent arched aqueducts a common the first outside Italy. Augustus oversaw the
sight throughout their empire, supplying towns with construction of aqueducts at Carthage, Ephesus, and
water to meet not only basic needs but also those of the 96km aqueduct which served Naples. Indeed, the
large public baths, decorative fountains (nymphaea) and first century CE saw an explosion of aqueduct
private villas. Whilst most aqueducts continued to run construction, perhaps connected to the spread of
along the surface and follow land contours wherever Roman culture and their love of bathing and fountains
possible, the invention of the arch allowed for the but also to meet the water needs of ever larger
construction of large-span structures employing new population concentrations. From the first to the second
materials such as concrete and water-proof cement centuries CE, the very limits of architectural feasibility
which could ignore unfavourable land features and were stretched and some of the largest Roman
draw the water along the straightest possible route aqueducts were constructed. These had two or three
along a regular gradient. Similarly, an increase in arcades of arches and reached prodigious heights. The
engineering expertise allowed for large-scale and deep aqueduct of Segovia was 28m high and the Pont du
tunnelling projects. Gard in southern France was 49m in height, both of
which still survive today as spectacular monuments to
the skill and audacity of Roman engineers.
Another innovation which allowed for aqueducts to
cross valleys was the large-scale inverted siphon. These
were made of clay or multiple lead pipes reinforced
with stone blocks and with the force of gravity and
pressure as the water ran down the valley the
momentum gained could drive the water up the
opposite side. Arched bridges running across the valley
floor could lessen the height the water had to fall and
more importantly, go up on its ascent. Stopcocks to
manage pressure and regulate the water flow, storage
reservoirs, settling tanks to extract sediment and mesh
filters at outlets were other features of Roman
aqueducts. Sometimes water was also ‘freshened’ by
aerating it through a system of small cascades.
Interestingly, Roman aqueducts were also protected by
law and no agricultural activity was allowed near them
in case of damage by ploughing and root growth. On the
other hand, agriculture did benefit from aqueducts, as
in many cases, run-off channels were created to provide
water for land irrigation.

Los Milagros Aqueduct, Mérida