Introduction to Calculus/Limits

< Introduction to Calculus

This lesson assumes you have a working knowledge of the topics presented in the following lessons:

Introduction to Limits

Limit processes are the basis of calculus. As opposed to algebra, where a variable is considered to have a
fixed value (think of the solution of word problems, where there are one or more discrete answers), we
allow a variable to change continuously and study how a function's value changes.

Outline

This article addresses limits of functions of a single variable. It starts with an informal definition,
discusses the basic properties of the limit operation, and progresses to the precise definition of limit.
This rigorous definition is used to prove the earlier results, which were stated without proof. A number
of examples of applying the definition are given, which helps develop facility with inequalities.

An Informal Definition

Consider the function . As x increases, y increases. As we crank x up towards a number, say 100, y gets
closer to the number 200.

Limits are concerned with what the value of a function (in this case, y) approaches as a variable it is
based on (in this case, x) approaches a number (in this case, 100), not the actual value of the function
when the variable equals the number. This is useful because not all functions are continuous and you
may get a different result in the limit of y as you crank x down instead of up to that number.

Continuous Functions

Look at these two graphs. Notice that the top one is a single, unbroken curve, whereas the bottom one
has many "jumps." Now the top graph is continuous and the bottom one is not. This is the basic idea of
continuity for a function; a function that is not continuous will have jumps. Points themselves can also
be continuous and not continuous. For example, the point where x equals -1/2 in the second graph is
continuous because there are no jumps in that specific section. On the other hand, where x equals two,
there is a jump, so the point is not continuous. Not a very formal definition, this jump thing! Because the
jump thing is so informal, they invented a new way to phrase it using limits

Definition of a Continuous Function

Say we want to prove that the top function is continuous for all values between -3 and 3. (This is a
closed interval, or a section of a function that includes the two endpoints. Likewise, an open interval is a
section of a function that does not include the two endpoints. The closed interval between -3 and 3
includes -3 and 3; the open interval does not.) The first definition is that of continuity in an interval

Definition of continuity in a closed interval

A continuous closed interval is continuous at every point, including the left and right endpoints.

Not too complicated, eh? Now on to the definition of continuity at a point that is in a open interval; that
is, not including the endpoints

Definition of continuity at a point in an open interval in a function

Let c be the x-value of the coordinate where we want to prove that the function is continuous. The
function f is said to be continuous at the point c if the three following conditions hold:

exists,

exists, and

Now, when can the limit as x approaches c not exist? Just look at the second graph! If you try to find the
limit at two from numbers larger than two, you get a result that does not equal the results from using
numbers smaller than two! There is a way to write this mathematically, so we define new types of limits.

The mathematical way to write "The limit of f(x) as x approaches c created by using numbers larger than
c" is

The mathematical way to write "The limit of f(x) as x approaches c created by using numbers smaller
than c" is

Basic Theorems for Limit Operations

The limit operator satisfies linearity. That is, "the limit of sum, is the sum of the limits".

There are also basic rules for doing arithmetic with limits. They can be found in the calculus textbook for
reference. Follow this link and study the limits. Convince yourself that these rules are intuitive. Also note
that if f(a) is defined, and if f is a

continuous function, then .

The main purpose of limits

You can find otherwise undefined expressions with limits. They allow you to use algebraic rules, even at
values when the rules are false! For example, look at . What does this equal?

Let's use an algebraic rule that is true at all values of x besides zero. The rule states that equals x for all
numbers beside 0. When we apply this rule to our old limit, we see that the limit is equivalent to , which
is easily seen to be equal to 0.

For more on finding limits, see the

calculus wikibook.

Exercise 1

More about the definition of limits and basic limit operations

A More Precise Definition of Limit

For almost all purposes, the informal definition of a limit works very well; however, because of its vague
wording, it is very dificult to use it in any sort of proof about limits. For proofs, the formal definition of a
limit , from Wikibooks, is used instead.

Applying the Definition

Limits involving Polynomials

Finding the limit of a polynomial is a simple process. The easiest method of taking the limit of a
polynomial is substitution. The value of a polynomial as x approaches a is equal to f(a). Consider the
following example:

Limits involving Rational Functions

Limits involving Trigonometric Functions

This is a unit circle. It has a radius of one unit, and its angles are measured in radians. Using this circle,
we can prove that

Notice that this makes sense, since as theta approaches 0, arc DA becomes very close to being
congruent to arc DC. This doesn't prove anything, though! To prove this, we need to look at areas. First
notice that , since each area contains the last are, plus another layer. Now, we can find the area of these
three areas. The first area, ODC, is a triangle. This triangle has a base of , and it has a height of . Using
the area formula for a triangle, we find

Now, we go on to the next area, ODA. It is a sector of a circle. The formula to find the area of the sector
of a circle is

This makes sense, since when you think that a complete circle would have two pi radians, the formula
turns into the formula for a circle. In our unit circle, the area is simply , since the radius is one.

The third area is also a triangle, with height of , or . With a base of one, its area turns into

Now from the original expression of

, we have

Multiply this whole inequality by two

Now divide the whole thing by

Now we apply the limit!

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

In these lessons, we will learn

the definition of limits

how to evaluate limits using direct substitution

how to evaluate limits using factoring and canceling

how to evaluate limits by combining fractions

how to evaluate limits by multiplying by the conjugate

how to evaluate limits by expanding and simplifying

We have also included a limits calculator at the end of this lesson. This math tool will show you the steps
to find the limits of a given function.

The following table gives the Existence of Limit Theorem and the Definition of Continuity. Scroll down
the page for examples and solutions.

Definition of Limits

We write

and say “the limit of f(x), as x approaches

a , equals L ”

if we can make the values of f(x ) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either
side of

a ) but not equal to a .

This says that as x gets closer and closer to the number a (from either side of a ) the values of f(x) get
closer and closer to the number L In finding the limit of f(x) as x approaches, we never consider x = a . In
fact, f(x) need not even be defined when x = a. The only thing that matters is how f(x) is defined near a .

What is a Limit?

Basic idea of Limits, informal definition of Limit, and what it means to calculate a limit.

In general, there are 3 ways to approach finding limits:

• Numerical Approach: t-table

• Graphical Approach: analyze the graph

• Analytical Approach: use algebra or calculus

What is the Limit Theorem?

As x approaches c, the limit of f(x) is L, if the limit from the left exists and the limit from the right exists
and both limits are L.

Limits ( An Introduction )

Approaching ...

Sometimes we can't work something out directly ... but we can see what it should be as we get closer
and closer!

Example:

 (x 2 − 1) 

(x − 1)

Let's work it out for x=1:

 (1 2 − 1) 

(1 − 1) =  (1 − 1) 

 (1 − 1)  =  0 

 0 

Now 0/0 is a difficulty! We don't really know the value of 0/0 (it is "indeterminate"), so we need another
way of answering this.

So instead of trying to work it out for x=1 let's try approaching it closer and closer:

Example Continued:

x  (x 2 − 1) 

(x − 1)

0.5 1.50000

0.9 1.90000
0.99 1.99000

0.999 1.99900

0.9999 1.99990

0.99999 1.99999

... ...

Now we see that as x gets close to 1, then  (x 2 −1) 

(x−1) gets close to 2

We are now faced with an interesting situation:

When x=1 we don't know the answer (it is indeterminate)

But we can see that it is going to be 2

We want to give the answer "2" but can't, so instead mathematicians say exactly what is going on by
using the special word "limit"

The limit of  (x 2 −1) 

(x−1) as x approaches 1 is 2

And it is written in symbols as:

lim

x→1  x 2 −1 

x−1 = 2

So it is a special way of saying, "ignoring what happens when we get there, but as we get closer and
closer the answer gets closer and closer to 2"

As a graph it looks like this:

So, in truth, we

cannot say what the value at x=1 is.

But we can say that as we approach 1,

the limit is 2.

Test Both Sides!

It is like running up a hill and then finding the path is magically "not there"...

... but if we only check one side, who knows what happens?

So we need to test it from both directions to be sure where it "should be"!

Example Continued

So, let's try from the other side:

x  (x 2 − 1) 

(x − 1)

1.5. 2.50000

1.1. 2.10000OK

1.01 2.01000

1.001. 2.00100

1.0001. 2.00010

1.00001. 2.00001

... ...

Also heading for 2, so that's OK

How about a function f(x) with a "break" in it like this:

The limit does not exist at "a"

We can't say what the value at "a" is , because there are two competing answers:

3.8 from the left, and

1.3 from the right

But we can use the special "−" or "+" signs (as shown) to define one sided limits:

the left-hand limit (−) is 3.8

the right-hand limit (+) is 1.3

And the ordinary limit "does not exist"

Are limits only for difficult functions?

Limits can be used even when we know the value when we get there ! Nobody said they are only for
difficult functions.

Example:

lim

x→10  x 

 2  = 5

We know perfectly well that 10/2 = 5, but limits can still be used (if we want!)

Approaching Infinity

Infinity is a very special idea. We know we can't reach it, but we can still try to work out the value of
functions that have infinity in them.

Let's start with an interesting example.

Question: What is the value of  1 

∞?

Answer: We don't know!

Why Don't We Know?

The simplest reason is that Infinity is not a number, it is an idea.

So  1 

∞ is a bit like saying 1

 beauty  or

 tall  .

Maybe we could say that  1 

∞ = 0, ... but that is a problem too, because if we divide 1 into infinite pieces and they end up 0 each,
what happened to the 1?

In fact  1 

∞ is known to be undefined .
But We Can Approach It!

So instead of trying to work it out for infinity (because we can't get a sensible answer), let's try larger
and larger values of x:

x  1 

 x 

1. 1.00000

2 0.50000

4 0.25000

10 0.10000

100 0.01000

1,000. 0.00100

10,000. 0.00010

Now we can see that as x gets larger,  1 

 x  tends towards 0

We are now faced with an interesting situation:

We can't say what happens when x gets to infinity

But we can see that  1 

 x  is going towards 0

We want to give the answer "0" but can't, so instead mathematicians say exactly what is going on by
using the special word "limit"

The limit of  1 

 x  as x approaches Infinity is 0

And write it like this:

lim

x→∞  1 

 x  = 0
In other words:

As x approaches infinity, then  1 

 x  approaches 0

When you see "limit", think "approaching"

It is a mathematical way of saying "we are not talking about when x= ∞ , but we know as x gets bigger,
the answer gets closer and closer to 0

Properties of Limits of Functions in Calculus

Properties of limits of functions, in the form of theorems, are presented along with some examples of
applications and detailed solutions.

Theorem: If f and g are two functions and both limx→a f(x) and lim x→a g(x) exist, then

Property 1: The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.

lim [ f(x) + g(x) ] = lim f(x) + lim g(x)

Example 1

Calculate lim x→-2 h(x) where h(x) is given by

h(x) = x + 5

Solution to Example 1:

We may consider h(x) as the sum of f(x) = x and g(x) = 5 and apply theorem 1 above

lim x→-2 h(x) = limx→-2 x + lim x→-2 5

x and 5 are basic functions and their limits are known.

lim x→-2 x = -2

and

lim x→-2 5 = 5

Hence, lim x→-2 h(x) = -2 + 5 = 3

Property 2: The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.

lim [ f(x) - g(x) ] = lim f(x) - lim g(x) :

Example 2

Calculate lim x→10 h(x) where h(x) is given by

h(x) = x - 7

Solution to Example 2:

We may consider h(x) as the difference of f(x) = x and g(x) = 7 and apply theor 2 above

lim x→10 h(x) = limx→10 x - lim x→10 7

x and 7 are basic functions with known limits .

lim x→10 x = 10

and

lim x→10 7 = 7

Hence, limx→10 h(x) = 10 - 7 = 3

Property 3: The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits

lim [ f(x) × g(x) ] = lim f(x) × lim g(x) :

Example 3

Calculate lim x→-5 m(x) where m(x) is given by

m(x) = 3 x

Solution to Example 3:

Let m(x) = f(x) * g(x), where f(x) = 3 an g(x) = x and apply theorem 3 above

lim x→-5 m(x) = lim x→-5 3 * limx→-5 x

3 is a constant function and x is also a basic function with known limits .

lim x→ 3 = 3

and

lim x→- 5 x = - 5

Hence,

lim x→-5 m(x) = 3*(- 5) = - 15

Property 4: The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits if the limit in the
denominator is not equal to 0. lim [ f(x) / g(x) ] = lim f(x) / lim g(x) ; if li g(x) is not equal to zero.

Example 4

Calculate lim x→3 r(x) where r(x) is given by

r(x) = (3 - x) / x

Solution to Example 4:

Let r(x) = f(x) / g(x), where f(x) = 3 - and g(x) = x and apply theorem 4 ab

limx→3 r(x) = limx→3 (3 - x) / lim x

3 - x is the difference of two basic functions and x is also a basic func

limx→3 (3 - x) = 3 - 3 = 0

and

limx→3 x = 3

Hence, limx→3 r(x) = 0 / 3 = 0

Property 5: The limit of the nth root of function is the nth root of the limit of t function, if the nth root of
the limit is a real number.

lim n √[ f(x) ] = n√[ lim f(x) ]. If n is even, lim f(x) has to be positive.

Example 5

Calculate lim x→5 m(x) where m(x) i given by

m(x) = √[2 x - 1]

Solution to Example 5:

Let f(x) = 2 x - 1 and find its limit applying the difference and product theorems above

limx→5 f(x) = 2*5 - 1 = 9

We now apply theorem 5 since the square root of 9 is a real number.

limx→5 m(x) = √(9) = 3

Calculus

Limits and Continuity of Functions

Properties of Limits

Notation of Limit

The limit of a function is designated by \(f\left( x \right) \to L\) as \(x \to a\) or using the limit notation: \
(\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right) = L.\)

Below we assume that the limits of functions \(\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right),\) \(\lim\limits_{x \to
a} g\left( x \right),\) \(\lim\limits_{x \to a} {f_1}\left( x \right),\) \(\ldots,\) \(\lim\limits_{x \to a}
{f_n}\left( x \right)\) exist.

Sum Rule

This rule states that the limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their limits:

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} \left[ {f\left( x \right) + g\left( x \right)} \right] }={ \lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x
\right) + \lim\limits_{x \to a} g\left( x \right).}\]

Extended Sum Rule

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} \left[ {{f_1}\left( x \right) + \ldots + {f_n}\left( x \right)} \right] }

= {\lim\limits_{x \to a} {f_1}\left( x \right) + \ldots + \lim\limits_{x \to a} {f_n}\left( x \right).}

\]

Constant Function Rule

The limit of a constant function is the constant:

\[\lim\limits_{x \to a} C = C.\]

Constant Multiple Rule

The limit of a constant times a function is equal to the product of the constant and the limit of the
function:

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} kf\left( x \right) }={ k\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right).}\]

Product Rule

This rule says that the limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits (if they exist):

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} \left[ {f\left( x \right)g\left( x \right)} \right] }={ \lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right)
\cdot \lim\limits_{x \to a} g\left( x \right).}\]
Extended Product Rule

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} \left[ {{f_1}\left( x \right){f_2}\left( x \right) \cdots {f_n}\left( x \right)} \right] }

= {\lim\limits_{x \to a} {f_1}\left( x \right) \cdot \lim\limits_{x \to a} {f_2}\left( x \right)

\cdots}\kern0pt{ \lim\limits_{x \to a} {f_n}\left( x \right).}

\]

Quotient Rule

The limit of quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided that the limit in the
denominator function is not zero:

\[

{\lim\limits_{x \to a} \frac{{f\left( x \right)}}{{g\left( x \right)}} }={ \frac{{\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x

\right)}}{{\lim\limits_{x \to a} g\left( x \right)}},\;\;\;}\kern-0.3pt

{\text{if}\;\;\lim\limits_{x \to a} g\left( x \right) \ne 0.}

\]

Power Rule

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} {\left[ {f\left( x \right)} \right]^p} }={ {\left[ {\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right)}
\right]^p},}\]

where the power \(p\) can be any real number. In particular,

\[\lim\limits_{x \to a} \sqrt[\large p\normalsize]{{f\left( x \right)}} = \sqrt[\large p\normalsize]

{{\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right)}}.\]

If \(f\left( x \right) = x^n,\) then

\[

{\lim\limits_{x \to a} {x^n} = {a^n},\;n = 0, \pm 1, \pm 2, \ldots \;\;\;}\kern-0.3pt

{\text{and}\;\;a \ne 0,\;\;\text{if}\;\;n \le 0.}

\]

This is a special case of the previous property.

Limit of an Exponential Function

\[\lim\limits_{x \to a} {b^{f\left( x \right)}} = {b^{\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right)}},\]

where the base \(b \gt 0.\)

Limit of a Logarithm of a Function

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} \left[ {\log _b f\left( x \right)} \right] }={ \log_b \left[ {\lim\limits_{x \to a}
f\left( x \right)} \right],}\]

where the base \(b \gt 0.\)

The Squeeze Theorem

Suppose that \(g\left( x \right) \le f\left( x \right) \le h\left( x \right)\) for all \(x\) close to \(a,\) except
perhaps for \(x = a.\) If

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to a} g\left( x \right) = \lim\limits_{x \to a} h\left( x \right)} = {L,}\]

then

\[\lim\limits_{x \to a} f\left( x \right) = L.\]

The idea here is that the function \(f\left( x \right)\) is squeezed between two other functions having the
same limit \(L.\)

Solved Problems

Click a problem to see the solution.

Example 1

Find the limit \(\lim\limits_{x \to 10} \left( {2x\lg {x^3}} \right)\).

Example 2

Find the limit \(\lim\limits_{x \to 9} {\large\frac{{4{x^2}}}{{1 + \sqrt x }}\normalsize}\).

Example 3

Suppose that \(\lim\limits_{x \to 1} f\left( x \right) = 2\) and \(\lim\limits_{x \to 1} g\left( x \right) = 3.\)
Calculate the limit \(\lim\limits_{x \to 1} {\large\frac{{g\left( x \right) – 3f\left( x \right)}}{{{f^2}\left( x
\right) + g\left( x \right)}}\normalsize}.\)

Example 4

Calculate the limit \(\lim\limits_{x \to \infty } {\large\frac{{3x + \cos x}}{{2x – 7}}\normalsize}.\)

Example 5

Find the limit \(\lim\limits_{x \to \infty } {\large\frac{{2\sin x – 5x}}{{3x + 1}}\normalsize}.\)

Example 1.

Find the limit \(\lim\limits_{x \to 10} \left( {2x\lg {x^3}} \right)\).

Solution.

\[{\lim\limits_{x \to 10} \left( {2x\lg {x^3}} \right) }

= {\lim\limits_{x \to 10} 2x \cdot \lim\limits_{x \to 10} \lg {x^3} }

= {2\lim\limits_{x \to 10} x \cdot \lg \left( {\lim\limits_{x \to 10} {x^3}} \right) }

= {2 \cdot 10 \cdot \lg 1000 = 20 \cdot 3 = 60. }