METEC Research and Development (Military projects Division)

Learning materials on Composite technology

Module 5: Composite Manufacturing Processes

Compiled By Aerospace team

(Cpl. Birhanu Demeke)

Module 5: Composite Manufacturing Processes

 5.1 Fabrication/Manufacturing Techniques

5.1.1 Tooling of Composites

The manufacture of composite detailed parts and assemblies requires that some kind of
accurate repeatable tool surface be provided, which is capable of withstanding
repeated exposures to the cure cycle environment of high temperatures and pressures.
Individual composite parts or details will require a variety of support tooling-beyond
the initial cure tool, which are as follows:
• Master model reference patterns,
• Trim or router tools,
• Precision hole location drill tools,
• Assembly fixtures,
• Ply locating templates, and
• Associated shop aids.

The primary objective of any tool for composite fabrication is to make an accurate
repeatable part within the confines of the process parameters defined by the
manufacturer/designer and the detail performance characteristics meeting the
requirements of the end user. Design of the initial tool becomes the most pressing
initial issue of tooling for composites. Factors, which govern the basic tool design, are
as follows:
• Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). One of the most critical
parameters in the design of tooling for composites is the difference between
the CTE of the problems. The greater the difference between the CTE of
the composite detail and the tool, the more pronounced the effect would be.
One of the effects that occurs as a function of these dimensional differences
is called spring back
Composite details, when cured, hold the specific molded shape, as defined by
the tool, as a result of the cured combination of resin and reinforcement. The
spring back, or more accurately defined as a warpage condition, occurs when
the composite detail is cured into a tool that at a specific temperature has one
definite dimensional tolerance and then upon cooling to ambient temperature,
contracts to its original ambient dimensions. Warpage occurs when stresses
are induced to the composite as the tool begins to return to the ambient
dimensions. This condition will become predominant as the temperature
difference between ambient and cure temperature increases and the
dimensional size of tool increases. A common method of minimizing the
effect of spring back or warpage of a composite detail during and after cure
cycle is to determine the CTE of the composite part being fabricated and the
CTE of the tooling material selected. During the design of tooling, CTE of
the tooling material should be matched to that of the composite detail.
Another condition leading to warpage of the laminate includes an unbalanced
laminate orientation where the numbers of plies of material are more
dominant in one direction than other.
• Using CTE in the design of tooling for composites. Following two methods
are commonly used to minimize the effect of CTE when designing tooling
for the fabrication of composite details:
 Careful selection of the appropriate tooling material. Difference between CTE of
tooling material and composite detail to be fabricated should be as close as possible.
 Use of shrink factors in calculation of dimensions prior to tool fabrication.
 Choice of material in the design of tooling. Careful selection of the appropriate
material for tool use must include review of the following criteria:
 Anticipated tool usage i.e. expected life of tool. The life
expectancy of any tool fabricated for the lay-up and cure of
composite details is dependent on a variety of factors. Material
selection, shop handling procedures and cure cycle time all affect
the ability of tool to withstand long usage.
 Cost available for tool fabrication. Cost of tool fabrication
is
difficult to quantify due to variable factors such as material and
manpower cost.
 Material available for tool construction.
 Available methods for tool fabrication. Methods of
manufacturing
vary depending on equipment and personnel resources available.
Plaster type master models and wet lay-up type molds take
minimum facility requirements and basic shop skills. Use of
Prepreg materials requires additional skill levels and expenditure
on account of sophisticated ovens and autoclaves.
 Level of dimensional tolerances required from composite
details.
Based on the type of manufacturing method and the type of
material selected, different levels of dimensional tolerances are
possible. Initially, the dimensional tolerance for the composite
detail to be fabricated is determined. Compliance to this tolerance
is critical in meeting structural demands and conformance to any
form, fit or functional requirements.
• Designing tools for resistance to failure. Due to the abusive environment
experienced by tooling during the fabrication of composite details, life
expectancy of the tooling is always short of anticipated value. Repetitive cycling
from ambient to over 177°C (350°F),inadequate care and handling procedures,
incorrect fabrication techniques have lead to a variety of defects resulting in
premature, temporary or permanent failure of the tool. Failure modes common to
composite lay-up tools fabricated by both wet lay-up and Prepreg methods
generally involve fiber separation and delamination. This is due to a variation in
CTE between the resin matrix and the fiber. Possible solution to the problem of
delamination between layers of Prepreg tooling is the use of resin systems with
glass transition temperature values at or slightly above the maximum usable
temperature. For example, if the tool is intended to be cycled repeatedly at 177°C
(350°F), glass transition temperature value of the resin system in the 220°C
(425°F) range will allow more cycles.
5.1.1.1 Master Models
A master model is a master source identified with holes, scribe lines, trim lines or any
other feature of the part that requires duplicating to other tools. The master model is a
physical representation of the design or a point of reference to which all supporting
tooling, both for fabrication and inspection, would be indexed. Since this surface will
provide the reference pattern for all subsequent operations beyond initial fabrication,
extreme care must always be taken to protect the master model. Master models may be
fabricated from a variety of materials such as plaster, machined urethane or epoxy board
stock, monolithic graphite or ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Each material offers
distinct advantages and disadvantages. To determine which material is the most feasible,
the entire tooling philosophy must be reviewed. Master models are generally stored
indefinitely so that they may be referred to over the life cycle of the manufactured parts.
Due to hygroscopic nature of plaster, care must be taken to protect the master model
from the environment to maintain accuracy. Adequate storage conditions should be
utilized for complete protection of master model throughout the life expectancy.

5.1.1.1.1 Plaster Masters

One of the oldest methods of producing a master is from plaster. Plaster is made from the
mineral called gypsum (CaSO4) which is finely ground and dehydrated to produce a fine
powder with uniform properties. With the addition of water to form workable slurry, a
reaction occur which produces heat and the inert gypsum gets dried. Plaster is
manufactured in various textures or grades. Coarse grades are used to buildup the master
model surface and then followed by fine grades which allow precise details such as trim
lines or other identifications to be scribed into the surface. Depending on grade being
used, plaster has a setting expansion of approximately 0.080% and a thermal expansion in
the dried state of a maximum of 0.027ºC (0.0156ºF).

5.1.1.1.2Template Method
There are several techniques of building a plaster master determined by the shape of the
part. If the part is not symmetrical and does not have a constant cross-section or the size
is large, the master model is made from a series of templates secured to a flat base to
form a 3D full-scale model of the part. Space between the templates is relative to the
degree of abruptness of the contour. For normal gentle contours, a space of 15-20mm is
common. Templates are usually made of aluminum to prevent corrosion. For temporary
masters, steel is sometimes used, however, because of the amount of moisture present
during mixing and application of the plaster, steel templates may rust. A schematic
of typical template plaster master is shown in Fig5.1.
 Fig 5.1

If electronic data is available, the templates can be NC-machined or cut with water or
laser jet directly from the flat pattern generated by the data. Except for NC-method,
deburring is generally required to remove spurs or sharp edges from the templates prior to
use. Holes are drilled to the templates for threaded rod spacer sand screen support rods.
For large models, air passages are cut into the bottom of the template to allow for even
curing of the plaster. Once sufficient templates have been prepared, bluing is applied to a
flat-ridged steel table and scribed with a pointed tool to denote the location of each
template. Flatness of the table is critical and should be within 0.127mm. Tooling balls,
which indicate the x-, y- and z-direction are sometimes placed on the table corners as
reference points for the system. Each template is attached 90° to the base table with
angles. Threaded rods are secured with nuts on each side of the template to provide
rigidity to the template face. Wire mesh is placed between the templates and secured to
the threaded rod. This is used to hold plaster in place. Slurry of plaster is poured between
the templates; surface is made even and left to dry to form a smooth and accurate surface.
Because of the tendency of plaster to absorb moisture, it should be sealed after the surface
has had adequate time to cure. Commercially available lacquers can be used to seal the
surface and provide a suitable protection within the shop environment.
5.1.1.1.3 Follow Board Method
A method widely used when a constant cross-section is required to be built is the follow
board. A flat surface is required with an accurate side surface to act as a guide rail. A
template of the contour is prepared from sheet of aluminum or steel and attached to a
wooden guide support. Plaster is mixed and built up on the surface to within 3mm of the
final contour. Partial drying is recommended before the final plaster mix is applied. This
will prevent shrinking and cracking of the plaster surface which otherwise would affect
accuracy. Using the template and guide support, the plaster contour is formed by pushing
the template evenly over the surface (Fig 5.2).

Fig 5.2

5.1.1.1.4 Sweep Method

Sweep method is used when a symmetrical surface such as cone or hemispherical shape
is involved. As with the follow board method, a flat surface is required from which a
frame of desired shape can be constructed. For large shapes, intermediate templates
should be placed to provide adequate support.

The sweep itself is made from sheet metal of 3 mm minimum thickness and supported by
a wooden guide or other mechanical guides. Plaster can be reinforced to form the desired
shapes. All master models fabricated from plaster require, in addition to sealing with
commercial grade lacquer, suitable storage, if the model is required to be stored for any
period of time outside the shop environment. .
5.1.1.1.5 Lay-up Molds
Lay-up molds are used to form the shape of the part to be produced and have the part
periphery scribed on the surface. Tools can be made directly from a NC machined master
model or from a plastic faced plaster splash taken from a master model not capable of
elevated temperature and pressures. The choice of glass or carbon/epoxy for the mold is
generally governed by the complexity and CTE of the part to be fabricated. Lay-up
molds must be capable of maintaining a vacuum tight environment while being subjected
to high temperatures and pressures
.

NC-Machining
Due to the widespread use of CAD systems, a great deal of accuracy can be transferred
into the master model through the NC machining operations.

Composite Materials
Composite tools are usually made from epoxy resin matrix and either E-glass or carbon
fibers as reinforcements. Depending on the life cycle required, tools could be made from
Prepreg or by wet lay-up procedures. Prepregs generally require curing within an
autoclave because of the elevated pressures. Because of the increased compaction
available while curing in an autoclave, tooling fabricated from prepregs ate capable of a
greater number of cure cycles than the wet lay-up method. In addition to greater
compaction, autoclave curing offers better control of resin content and uniformity of
reinforcement.

5.1.1.1.6 Prepreg Method

There is considerable number of prepregs available as epoxy 'B' staged glass or carbon
reinforced cloth. The first step prior to Prepreg application on the master surface is to
ensure that the Prepreg and the master surface are absolutely clean and free from debris
and that the surface is smooth and without pin holes. A quick vacuum check is always a
good idea at a minimum of 6.2 kPa. A loss of 500 Pa within 5 minutes with the pump
Non-operating is acceptable. Apply masking tape around the tool periphery for later
application of the sealant tape. It is absolutely necessary that the, master surface can be
released with a suitable hard wax or other release agents. After the cleaning and releasing
processes have been completed, release coated tooling pins should be placed into the
holes of the master. Series of steps followed after the above processes are:
• Carefully lay each ply onto the surface and work out wrinkles or air bubbles and
maintain the warp direction of each ply in the 0ºdirection.
• An overlap between the plies should be preferably 3-6 mills.
• Debulking should be done to ensure that no air is entrapped at the interface and
the smooth surface on the tool. It is accomplished by application of a peel ply net
to the edge of the laminate and working out wrinkles and air bubbles.
• Sealant tape should be placed around the periphery to prevent resin flow.
Adequate precautions should be taken to allow for resin bleed.
• The orientation for each ply should be such that a balanced system is maintained
to minimize stress build up in the laminate.
• As a rule of thumb, debulking should be done after every 4-5 plies. Final build up
of the laminate should be at least 9.5 mm.
• Final vacuum bagging is performed with a layer of peel ply, perforated Teflon,
polyester breather and vacuum bag.
• Recommended heat up rate and cure temperature should be followed. Most
systems can be initially cured at up to 63°C (145°F) and 586-689 kPa of pressure
for 14 hours.
• After the autoclave cycle, carefully remove the bag and films .from the laminate
to avoid lift up from the master surface. Attachment of support or back up
structure (e.g. egg crate) to the laminate is very important to minimize any
 potential residual stresses built into the laminate. Support structure details are
shown in Fig. 5.3.
• Separation of the tool from the master should be done carefully to avoid damage
to the master or the tool itself. Tooling pins should be removed prior to
separation. Once the tool is separated, the surface should be inspected for pin
holes or -roughness. Pin holes can be filled with resin and the roughness can be
smoothened with fine grit sandpaper. Care must be taken that no fibers are lifted
by sanding along1he length of the fibers.

Fig 5.3

Once, the tool has been cleaned up, the required check for vacuum integrity is
accomplished by placing a layer of polyester breather cloth on the surface and a vacuum
bag over it. The acceptance criterion is generally that there is no loss greater that 500 Pa
in 5 minutes at a minimum of 6.2 kPa at the start of the test. If possible, depending on the
complexity of the tool, place the tool back onto the master and check for any warp or out
of contour problems.

5.1.1.1.7 Wet Lay-up Method

Wet lay-up of composite tools can be for room or elevated temperatures use. The
difference is only in the resin selection. Procedurally, the process is the same except for
the cure cycles. Initial steps in wet lay-up method are same as are described in Prepreg
method namely, cleaning of master surface, checking for vacuum integrity, placing of
masking tape around the periphery, releasing with a suitable wax or release agent, placing
of tooling pins into the holes of master, etc. For wet lay-up two resins are used, one for
the gel or face coat and one for laminating. The gel coat is generally the same as the
laminating resin but with additives to thicken it to make it adhere to the contour of the
master. Excessive buildup should be avoided incomers or at the bottom of contours while
applying the gel coat. Too much resin will result in cracking and crazing later in the tool
life cycle. It should also be ensured that air bubbles are removed. Air that remains
entrapped either on the tool surface or within the layers of cloth could result in possible
blisters and delamination later during tool usage. Application of first few plies should be
done carefully to avoid pushing through the gel coat surface. It should be ensured that the
plies are completely wet. All wrinkles and entrapped air should be worked out before
another ply is added. Overlaps of 6.35 mm between plies should be maintained but the
seam should never be placed over a seam from a previous ply.
After each ply, additional resin should be added to cover the surface. After the fourth ply,
or prior to the resin curing, apply a peel ply to the surface for compaction cycle.
Debulking should be performed after every 6-ply or before resin begins to cure. Final
laminate thickness should be 9.5 mm. After the final ply has been applied, the
compaction step is repeated with the peel ply, mold release film, bleeder and the vacuum
bag. Fabricate a support or backup structure of similar material to the laminate to avoid
stresses caused by the difference in CTE between the support structure and the laminate.
Allow the tool to stand at ambient temperature for a minimum of 24 hours prior to post
cure. After the final 177°C (350°F) post cure, inspect the surface for pinholes and repair
any blemishes with gel coat resin. A final vacuum check at 635 mm Hg with a loss of no
more than 51 mm is acceptable.

5.1.1.2 Plastic Faced Plaster

Plastic faced plasters (PFP) are tooling aids that minimize the wear and tear on masters
by duplicating the master surface with a suitable unit that can be used for variety of
purposes. PFP sallow for tooling to be directly fabricated from the master surface without
exposing the master model to adverse environmental conditions, such as autoclave
temperatures and pressures. If taken directly from the mater surface, the PFP is the
reverse of the master contour. An intermediate plaster splash is required to get back to the
master contour with a PFP. If the surface required is directly from the master model, the
PFP will be taken directly from the master surface. If the surface is above or below the
master surface, appropriate steps must be taken by either taking additional splashes with
or without layers of tooling wax to achieve the appropriate dimension. PFPs can be used
in an autoclave (with vacuum integrity) up to approximately 105°C (220°F), however, a
limit of one or two runs is all that can be expected. PFPs provide tooling aids for a variety
of other room temperature shop applications.

Drill Templates
Drill templates or fixtures are used primarily to drill and locate precision holes in the
production composite parts. Drill fixtures are fabricated using a room temperature fiber
glass/epoxy system. Because the tool is used in the shop environment at ambient
conditions, no vacuum integrity or elevated temperature requirements are needed.

Trim and Router Templates

Trim and router templates are used to trim and rout cured composite parts to a specific
dimensional tolerance. Accuracy is required for these tools in order for the composite
detail to fit precisely with adjacent details. Trim and router templates can be fabricated
directly from the master model, composite tool or tooling aids such as PFP. They are
generally fabricated using room temperature cured fiber glass/epoxy system. Since 'trim
and routing operations are always carried out at room temperature, CTE is not considered
in the design of this type of tooling.

Ply Locating Templates

Ply locating templates are used during the lay-up of the production part and designate
locations for the plies and indexing of detail parts. In addition, these templates may also
show individual ply orientation.
 5.1.2 Manufacturing Processes
5.1.2.0 Introduction
Manufacturing of composite materials involves distinct operations that may vary
depending upon available technology, existing facilities and personnel skill. The
manufacturing process may also vary due to wide variety of composite materials and
their application. Each of the fabrication processes has characteristics that define the
type of products to be produced. This is advantageous because this expertise allows
the manufacturer to provide the best solution for the customer. Factors considered for
selection of most efficient manufacturing process are as follows:
• User needs
• Total production volume
• Performai1ce requirements
• Economic targets
• Size of the product
• Labor
• Surface complexity
• Materials
• Appearance
• Tooling/assembly
• Production rate
• Equipment
The goals of the composite manufacturing process are to:
• Achieve a consistent product by controlling
Fiber thickness
Fiber volume
Fiber direction
• Minimize voids
• Reduce internal residual stresses
• Process in the least costly manner

The procedure to achieve these goals involves series of actions to select the three key
components, viz.
• Composite material and its configuration
• Tooling
• Process

As reinforcement for composite material, the choice between unidirectional tape and
woven fabric is made on the basis of the greater strength and modulus attainable with the
tape particularly in applications in which compression strength is important. Salient
advantages and disadvantages of tape and fabric for their selection are given below:
Tape Advantages
• Best modulus and strength efficiency
• High fiber volume achievable
• Low scrap rate
• Less tendency to trap volatiles
• Automated lay-up possible
• No discontinuities

• Available in thin plies

Tape Disadvantages
• Poor drape on complex shapes
• Cured composite more difficult to machine
• Lower impact resistance
• Multiple plies required for balance and symmetry
• Higher labor cost for-hand lay-up

Fabric Advantages
• Better drape for complex shapes
• Single ply is balanced and may be essentially symmetric
• Can be laid up without resin
• Plies stay in line better during cure
• Cured parts easier to machine
• Better impact resistance
• Many forms available

Fabric Disadvantages
• Fiber discontinuities (splices)
• Less strength and modulus
• Lower fiber volume than tape
• More costly than tape
• Greater scrap rates
• Warp and fill properties differ
• Fabric distortion can cause part warping

Another aspect considered important for composite fabrication is appropriate lay-up

techniques along with composite cure control. Some of the considerations for
choosing lay-up techniques are given below:
Consideration Manual Flat Tape Contoured Tape

Orientation Least accurate Automatic somewhat accuracy

accuracy dependent on tape
Ply count Dependent on Dependent on accuracy and computer
Program
operator operator records
Release film retention Up to operator Automatic Automatic

Tape lengths Longer tapes Longer tape is Longer tape is more

more difficult more economical economical
Cutting waste Scrap on cutting Less scrap Least scrap

Compaction pressure No pressure Less voids Least voids

Programming N/A N/A Necessary

5.1.2.1 Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Most widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fiber composites are as follows:

5.1.2.1.1 Open Mold Process

• Spray lay-up - Chopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled.
• Hand lay-up - Lay-up of fibers or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure.
• Filament winding.
• Sheet molding compound.
• Expansion tool molding.
• Contact molding.
5.1.2.1.2 Closed Mold Process
 Compression molding – Load with raw material, press into shape.
 Vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave - Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured.
 Injection molding – Mold injected under pressure.
 Resin Transfer – Fibers in place, resin injected at low temperature.
5.1.2.1.3 Continuous Process
 Pultrusion.
 Braiding.

All the methods described above are discussed in detail in the following sub-topics

5.1.2.1.1 Open Mold Processes

Open molding offers a number of process and product advantage over other high volume
and complex application methods. These include:.
 Freedom of design
 Easy to change design
 Low mold and/or tooling costs
 Tailored properties possible
 High strength large parts possible
 On-site production possible

Disadvantages associated with the open molding process include:

 Low to medium number of parts
 Long cycle times per molding
 Not the cleanest application process
 Only one surface has aesthetic appearance
 Operator skill dependent

5.1.2.1.1.1 Spray Lay-up

In a spray lay-up method, the fiber is chopped in a hand held gun and fed into a spray of
catalyzed liquid resin directed at the mold (Fig 10.1). The sprayed, catalyzed liquid resin
will wet the reinforcement fibers, which are simultaneously chopped in the same spray
gun. The deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.

Fig 5.4
Advantages
• Widely used for many years.
• Low cost way of quickly depositing fiber and resin.
• Low cost tooling.

Disadvantages
• Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and, therefore, excessively heavy.
• Only short fibers are incorporated, which severely limits the
mechanical properties of the laminate.
• Resins need to be low in viscosity to be spray able. This generally
compromises their mechanical/thermal properties.
• The high styrene content of spray lay-up resins generally means that
they have the potential to be more harmful and their lower viscosity
means that they have an increased tendency to penetrate clothing etc.

Applications
Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings,
bathtubs, shower trays, some small dinghies.

5.1.2.1.1.2 Wet Lay-up/Hand Lay-up

The hand (wet) lay-up is one of the oldest and most commonly used methods for
manufacture of composite parts. Hand lay-up composites are a case of continuous fiber
reinforced composites. Layers of unidirectional or woven composites are combined to
result in a material exhibiting desirable properties in one or more directions. Each layer is
oriented to achieve the maximum utilization of its properties. Layers of different materials
(different fibers in different directions) can be combined to further enhance the overall
performance of the laminated composite material. Resins are impregnated by hand into
fibers, which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched or bonded fabrics. This is usually
accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators
for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates
are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions. A typical hand lay-up method is
shown in Fig 5.5

Fig 5.5
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of hand lay-up of composite structures are as
follows:
Advantages
• Design flexibility.
• Large and complex items can be produced.
• Tooling cost is low.
• Design changes are easily effected.
• Sandwich constructions are possible.
• Semi-skilled workers are needed.
• Higher fiber content and longer fibers than with spray lay-up.

Disadvantages
• Only one molded surface is obtained.
• Quality is related to the skill of the operator.
• Low volume process.
• Longer cure times required.
• Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally
compromises their mechanical/thermal properties.
• The waste factor can be high.
Applications
• Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats, architectural moldings.

5.1.2.1.1.3 Filament Winding

Filament winding is automated processes for creating parts of simple geometry wherein
continuous resin impregnated fibers are wound over a rotating male tool called mandrel.
Fig 5.6 depicts a filament winding process where a continuous fiber roving passes
through a shuttle, which rotates and the roving is wrapped around a revolving or
stationary mandrel. Two basic types of filament winding are in use - (I) the polar or
planer method, and (ii) the high helical pattern winding.

The polar or planer method of winding utilizes a fixed mandrel and a shuttle that revolves
around the longitudinal axis of the part to form longitudinal winding patterns. This type
of winding is used if the longitudinal fibers are required with angle less than 25° to the
mandrel axis. The polar winding schematic is shown in Fig 5.7
 Fig5.6 Fig 5.7

In the high helical pattern winding, the mandrel rotates while the shuttle transverses back
and forth. Both the mandrel rotation and shuttle movement are in the horizontal plane. By
controlling the mandrel rotation and shuttle speed, the fiber angle can be controlled.
Angles of 25°-85° to the mandrel rotation axis are possible. The helical winding
schematic is shown in Fig 5.8a and b.

Fig 5.8 a

Fig 5.8b
After completion of the winding, the filament wound structure is cured at room
temperature or in an oven. The mandrel is removed after the curing. The mandrel, which
determines accurate internal geometry for the component, is generally the only major
tool. Low cost mandrel materials such as cardboard or wood can be used for winding low
cost routine parts. For critical parts requiring close tolerances, expensive mandrels
designed for long term use may be required. For high temperature cure 315°C (600°F),
graphite mandrels with low thermal expansion may be advantageous. However, attention
should be paid for potential difficulties for mandrel removal.

Mandrels are either removable or non-removable. Removable mandrels are classified

according to the removal techniques as:
• Entirely removed.
• Collapsible.
• Breakable or soluble.

The selection of mandrel involves several considerations. These include part size and
complexity, size of openings, resin system and its curing and the number of components
to be fabricated. The requirements for a mandrel are:
• It must be stiff and strong enough to support its own weight and the weight of the
applied composite while resisting the fiber tension pressure from winding and
curing.
• It must be dimensionally stable and should have thermal coefficient of expansion
greater than the transverse coefficient of the composite structure.

Different materials used for construction of mandrel are:

• Low melting temperature alloys used for small diameter applications.
• Sand, soluble plaster and eutectic salts used for irregular shapes.
• Inflatable material used in applications where sometimes the mandrel remains a
part of the structure.
• Segmented metal used for high production rates, and where the mandrel can be
withdrawn through a small hole in the part.

Of the above, segmented metal and inflatable mandrel are the reusable mandrels.

Advantages
 Excellent mechanical properties due to use of continuous fibers.
 High degree of design flexibility due to controlled fiber orientation and
lower cost of large number of composites.
 This is a very fast and economic method of laying down material.
 Resin content can be controlled by metering the resin onto each
fibre tow through nips or dies.
 Disadvantages
 Difficulty to wind complex shapes, which may require complex
equipment.
 Poor external finish.
 The process is limited to convex shaped components.
 Fiber cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
 Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
 Low viscosity resins usually need to be used with lower mechanical
properties.

5.1.2.1.1.4 Sheet Molding Compound

Sheet molding compound (SMC) refers to both a material and a process for producing
glass fiber reinforced polyester resin items. The material is typically composed of a filled,
thermosetting resin and a chopped or continuous strand reinforcement of glass fiber. A
SMC processing machine, (Fig 5.9) produces molding compound in sheet form. The glass
fiber is added to a resin mixture that is carried onto a plastic carrier film. After partial cure,
the carrier films are removed. The sheet molding material is cut into lengths and placed
onto matched metal dies under heat and pressure. Salient advantages of SMC molding
process are as follows:
• High volume production.
• Excellent part reproducibility.
• Minimum material scrap.
• Excellent design flexibility.
• Parts consolidation.

Fig 5.9
5.1.2.1.1.5 Expansion Tool Molding
Expansion tool molding makes use of rubber inserts in a metal or epoxy tool that expands
when heated to provide the molding pressure. The advantage of expansion tool molding is
its ability to fabricate parts without an autoclave. The method is dependent upon materials
with high coefficients of thermal expansion. It is designed to utilize the difference in
thermal expansion between rubber and the tooling material. The female areas of the mold
are made of a material with a low coefficient of thermal expansion. The male plug is made
of a silicon rubber or other rubber type tool material having comparatively high coefficient
of thermal expansion. When the tool is heated, the rubber male plug expands at a much
greater rate than the surrounding female tool.

Pressure up to 14 MPa (2000 psi) can be achieved at 175°C (350°F), which acts in all
directions. The molding pressure can be controlled by controlling the temperature, rubber
composition, rubber thickness and the ratio of rubber volume to the female mold volume.

Thermal expansion molding techniques are utilized for special applications of small
complex composite structures and composite tubing with critical outside surfaces. Fig
5.10 illustrates the methods allowing the expansion of the silicone rubber to provide the
required pressure for compacting of the composite materials.

Fig 5.10
5
The linear thermal coefficient of most silicone rubbers fall in the range of 1-2.1x10 . This
range is consistent over a 23-246°C (75-480°F) temperature range. The rubbers have a
linear expansion of approximately17 times that of carbon steels due' to which they are used
to mold composites by thermal expansion molding techniques. Silicone rubber is very slow
to cool down and extra time must be allowed because the rubber is impossible to remove
from the composite part until it has shrunk back to its original size..
 5.1.2.1.1.6 Contact Molding
Contact molding involves the application of molding material to an open mold where it is
allowed to cure. The process has been basically developed for the manufacture of large
fiber glass components such as boats, automotive parts, etc. The process requires minimal
tooling and equipment cost and thus is ideally suited for low volume production. The
method has two basic approaches, namely hand lay-up and spray lay-up, which differ
only in the manner in which. The material is applied to the mold. The method produces
high quality surface finish on only one side of the final product.

Before the lay-up, the mold surface is coated with a thin layer of gel. After the lay-up, the
part is allowed to cure at room temperature. The curing can be accelerated by using heat
lamps.

The major advantages of the method are its simplicity and low cost. The disadvantages of
the method are that only one good surface is produced while the other side is very rough.
Secondly, the method is relatively slow due to long lay-up and cure time and thus it is not
suitable for high volume production.

5.1.2.1.2 Closed Mold Processes

5.1.2.1.2.1 Compression Molding
Compression molding is one of the oldest manufacturing techniques in the composites
industry. The recent development of high strength, fast cure, sheet molding compounds
bulk molding compounds and advancement in press technology is making the
compression molding process very popular for mass production of composite parts. Fully
formed parts are molded in matched metal compression molds that give the final part
shape. In comparison with the injection molding process, better physical and mechanical
properties can be obtained in compression molding. This process utilizes large tonnage
presses wherein the part is cured between two matched steel dies under pressure and high
temperature. The moving platen is heated either by steam or electricity to promote
thermal curing. Curing of the part is affected by the following factors:
• Size of platen, which determines the length and width of the part, which can be
cured.
• Total tonnage of the press, which determines the pressure to be exerted on the
projected surface area of the part.
After placing the laminate to be cured called the 'charge' in the core of the mold, the cavity
is then closed at a rate of usually 4-12 mm/sec. In most cases the mold is heated to
150°C (302°F), which causes the charge viscosity to be reduced. With increasing mold
pressure as the mold is closed, the charge flows towards the cavity extremities, forcing air
out of the cavity. The molding pressure based on projected part area ranges from 0.7 to 9
MPa (100 to 1200 psi). Higher molding pressure causes sink marks, while lower pressure
cause scumming of the mold and porosity. The curing time is usually between 25 sec to 3
minutes depending on several factors including' resin-initiator-inhibitor reactivity, part
thickness, component complexity and mold temperature. The exertion of high pressure
eliminates the problem of development of voids. The primary advantage of the
compression molding is its ability of producing large number of parts with little
dimensional variations, if any, from part to part. A wide variety of shapes, sizes and
complexity can be produced by compression molding. An important factor to be
considered before deciding to use compression molding is the high tooling cost and the
need for large heated presses. Thus, this method is not practical for low volume
production.
Cure time is very critical. If the resin cure exothermic is not properly controlled,
cracking, blistering or warping may occur. Fig 5.11 shows a typical compression mold.

Fig 5.11
5.1.2.1.2.2 Vacuum Bag Molding
Today bag molded (vacuum and pressure) composites provide higher performance that
results from optimization of process controls, design refinements and improved materials.
Vacuum bagging techniques have been developed for fabricating a variety of aerospace
components and structures. The process is principally suited to Prepreg materials. This
method utilizes a flexible film or rubber bag that covers the part lay-up. The bag permits
evacuation of the air to apply atmospheric pressure. The primary limitation of this
method is the limited pressure that can be applied.

The bag used in this method has two fold objectives:

• It provides a means for removing volatile products during cure; and
• It provides a means for the application of a pressure of one atom which is
adequate for some materials.
The essential steps in the process are the lay-up, preparation of bleeder system and the
bagging operation. The required number of plies are cut to size and positioned in a mold.
When individual plies of a Prepreg material are formed to the lay-up tool, certain amount
of voids exists between layers. The lay-up is covered with a flexible membrane or vacuum
bag, which is sealed around the edges of the mold by a sealant. An edge bleeder is also
placed near the edges of the lay-up. Its function is to absorb excess resin, which may flow
during curing.
Requirement for proper bagging are:
• Bag to be impervious to air pressure,
• Bag to uniformly apply the cure pressure,
• Bag not to leak under over-pressure, and
•Good and high capacity vacuum path to be provided to evacuate air from between the
bag and the tool.
A vacuum is drawn on the lay-up, which helps in eliminating entrapped air. A maximum
pressure of about 104 kPa (15 psi) is achieved in this method. The removal of excess
resin results in higher fiber content and improved mechanical properties. The lay-up is
usually allowed to cool at room temperature. To reduce the cure time, oven is preferred. A typical
vacuum bag molding is shown in Fig 5.12

Fig 5.12

Functions of vacuum bag components are as follows:

No. Component Functions

1 Bag sealant Temporarily bonds vacuum bag to tool

2 Vacuum fitting and hardware Exhausts air, provides convenient connection to vacuum
pump

3 Bagging film Encloses part, allows for vacuum and pressure

4 Open weave breather mat Allows air or vacuum transfer to all of part

5 Polyester tape (wide) Holds other components of bag in place

6 Polyester tape (narrow) Holds components in place
7 Caul sheet Imparts desired contour and surface finish to composites
8 Perforated release film Allows flow of resin or air without adhesion
9 Non-perforated release Prevents adhesion of laminate film resin to tool surface
10 Peel ply Imparts a bondable surface to cured laminate
11 Laminate
12 Glass breather manifold Allows transfer of air or vacuum.
13 Glass bleeder ply Soaks up excess resin
14 Stacked silicon edge dam Forces excess resin to flow vertically, increasing fluid
pressure
Two types of vacuum bags commonly used are - (1) expandable bagging, or (2) reusable
bagging

5.1.2.1.2.2.1 Expendable Vacuum Bagging

Bleed-out systems are devised to maintain reduced pressures within the bags contents.
The bagged lay-up includes the bleed-out system designed for the composite part.
Bagged lay-ups can be bled in two ways, namely vertically or edge bled. The basic
difference between the two methods is shown in Fig 5.13 (a) & (b).

Fig 5.13a

Many of today's resin systems are mostly net resin and do not require any resin bleed
during cure. This allows for better control of the resin content of the composite structures.
If a resin bleed sequence is preferred, the following sequence can be used as a general
guide:
• The surface of the mold is prepared with the release agent.
• The composite plies are applied and rubbed out to remove the entrapped air.
• A perforated release film is applied over the composite laminate and extended
approximately 3.2mm beyond all edges.
• A predetermined number of bleeder plies are applied over the release film and
extended to the perimeter of the lay-up.
• A perforated release film is applied over the bleeders and extended 3.2 mm from
edge.
• One or two layers of a non-woven breather is placed over the lay-up and
extended over the release film.
• Sealant tape is applied around the perimeter of the bleeder.
• The vacuum bag is positioned and sealed.
• The contents are evacuated and the bag is checked and sealed against leaks.
• The bagged lay-up is ready for curing.
 Fig 5.13b

Vacuum bag bridging is one of the leading causes of resin rich and excessive voids in
corners of composite laminates. Fig 5.14 illustrates this common problem.

Fig.5.14

One method of eliminating bridging of the vacuum bag is presented in Fig 5.15 by
means of 'ears' in the bag. Another method to help reduce resin rich and excessive voids
in corners is the placement of an intensifier over the area, usually placed between the
separator film and breather. The intensifier can be molded rubber in the radius desired or
some sealant tape to fill the corners.
 Fig 5.15

5.1.2.1.2.2.2 Reusable Vacuum Bagging

Due to material and recurring cost associated with the use of expendable vacuum bags,
use of silicone rubber reusable bags are the solution.

Salient advantages and disadvantages of the vacuum bagging method are as follows:
Advantages
• Higher fiber content laminates can usually be achieved.
• Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
• Better fiber wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibers,
with excess into bagging materials.
• The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.

Disadvantages
• The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
• A higher level of skills required by the operators.
• Mixing and control of resin contents till largely determined by operator skill.

5.1.2.1.2.3 Autoclave Molding

Autoclave molding is similar to vacuum bag process except that the lay-up is subjected to
greater pressures and compact parts are produced. Primary disadvantage is high initial
and recurring operating cost. The advantage is to produce parts with complex
configuration and very large sizes.

Autoclave curing of composites is of prime importance for manufacturing high quality

aerospace laminates. Curing is achieved through a combination of pressure, temperature
and heat under inert conditions in an enclosed vessel. Processing materials must be added
to a composite ply lay-up before autoclave curing. These materials control the resin
content of the cured part and ensure proper application of autoclave pressure to the lay-
up.
The materials usually used in preparing a lay-up for autoclave curing are peel ply,
separator, bleeder, barrier, breather, dam and vacuum bag. The materials are
compatible with the maximum cure temperature and pressures required for the matrix
system being cured. The peel ply if used is placed immediately on top of or under the
composite laminate. It is ultimately removed just before bonding or painting
operations so that a clean, bondable surface is available.

A separator (release material) is placed on top of or under the laminate and peel ply. It
allows volatile and air to escape from the laminate and excess resin to be bled from the
laminate into the bleeder plies during cure. It also gives the cured part a smooth surface.

The purpose of the bleeder is to absorb excess resin from the lay-up during cure, thereby
producing the desired fiber volume. Fiber glass fabric or other absorbent materials are
used for this purpose. The amount of bleeder used is a function of its absorbency, the
fiber volume desired in the part, and the resin content of the Prepreg material used in the
lay-up. In advanced composites essentially all excess resin is bled from the surface of the
laminate, with edge bleeding being minimized by properly damming the lay-up edges.

The barrier is commonly placed between the bleeder plies, and breather plies. In the case
of epoxy resin, unperforated film is used so that resin removal from the part can be
controlled. For resins that produce volatile by-products during cure, a film with small
perforations and large spacing is used to prevent the breather materials from becoming
clogged with resin.

The breather is a material placed on top of the barrier film to allow uniform application of
vacuum pressure over the lay-up and removal of entrapped air or volatile during cure. It
may be drop able or loosely woven fabric.

The dam is sometimes located peripherally to minimize edge bleeding. It may be an

integral part of the tool or built-in position using materials such as pressure-sensitive
tape, silicone rubber or Teflon or metal bars.

The vacuum bag is used to contain any vacuum pressure applied to the lay-up before and
during cure and to transmit external autoclave pressure to the part. It prevents any
gaseous pressurizing medium used in the autoclave (air or inert gas) from permeating the
part and causing porosity and poor or unacceptable part quality.

Major components of autoclave are - a vessel to contain pressure; sources to heat the gas
stream and circulate it uniformly within the vessel; a sub-system to pressurize the gas
stream; a sub-system to apply vacuum to parts covered by a vacuum bag; a sub-system to
control operating parameters; and a sub-system to load the models into the autoclaves.

The materials, which can be processed in the autoclave, are metal bonding adhesives,
reinforced epoxy laminates, thermoplastic laminates, ceramics, carbon matrix materials;
and many other applications.
An autoclave system allows a complex chemical reaction to occur inside a pressure
vessel according to a specified schedule in order to process a variety of materials. The
pressure and temperature requirements are governed by the type of material to be cured.
The evolution of materials and processes has taken autoclave operating conditions from
120°C (248°F) and 276 kPa (40 psi) pressure to well over 760°C (1400°F) and 69 MPa
(10000 psi). Epoxy matrix composites, in general, use autoclave cure cycles, which
involve487-690 kPa (85-100 psi) pressure and 175°C (350°F) temperature. The materials
processed in autoclaves range from metal bonding adhesives, reinforced epoxy laminates,
thermoplastic laminates, metal, ceramic and carbon matrix materials, to many other
aerospace and electronic components. Autoclave is generally provided with automatic
programmable controllers, which monitor and maintain the required heat up and cool
down cycles. The vacuum surrounding the part lay-up is also controlled and is
discontinued after initial temperature increase to prevent excess resin flow. Brief
functioning of various parts of autoclave is discussed in the following Sub-topics.

Pressure Vessel
It provides the means to retain pressure inside the work space. Typically, the pressure
vessel is fabricated from pressure vessel quality carbon steel. It is thermally insulated. All
autoclave vessels and closures are required to be inspected at regular interval. This will
reveal any potentially dangerous situation.

Gas Stream Heating

Several heating methods are available for autoclave systems. Most common method for
large autoclaves is indirect gas firing in which products of combustion are passed from
external chamber to an internal coil. Gas heating is regularly used in autoclaves with
maximum operating temperature of 450°-540°C (8500-1000°F).

Earlier, hot oil was used as a heating medium in which oil was circulated from an external
heater to an internal coil. This system became obsolete due to contamination problems of
bonding area leading to improper processing of parts. Steam heating is often used for
autoclaves operating in the 150°-175°C (3000-350°F) range. The superheated steam is
passed through a coil in the autoclave to heat the circulating gas. Most small autoclaves
are electrically heated.

Gas circulation, within the autoclave, is essential to provide temperature uniformity and
proper heat transfer to the loaded part. The gas circulation is maintained at 1 to 3 m/s
(250to 300 ft/min) in the workspace.

Gas Stream Pressurization

The three pressurizing gases typically used for autoclaves are (a) air (b) nitrogen and (c)
carbon dioxide.
 Air is used for most of the 120°C (250°F) cures. However, disadvantage of air is that it
sustains combustion and maybe hazardous at temperatures above 150°C (300°F).
Nitrogen is commonly used in the autoclaves. Liquid Nitrogen is stored in cryogenic
form and then vaporized at approximately 1380 to 1552 kPa (200 to 225 psi). Carbon
dioxide is the second most commonly used gas. It is stored as refrigerated liquid at
approximately 2070 kPa (300 psi). Disadvantages of carbon dioxide are its high density,
hazards to personnel, etc.

Vacuum Systems
Most parts processed in autoclaves are covered with vacuum bags, which are used
primarily for compaction of laminates and to provide vacuum for removal of volatile
products. The bag allows the part to be subjected to differential pressure in the autoclave
without being directly exposed to the autoclave atmosphere. The vacuum bag is also used
to apply varying levels of vacuum to the part. The ability to provide pressure on the part
under the bag by means of vacuum results in reduced void content.

Control System
Control system means ability to monitor and control cure cycles. The cure cycle is
controlled by feedback from thermocouples, transducers and sensors, which are provided
at different locations in the autoclave.

Loading System
Carts or trolleys help in placing the parts horizontally and vertically in the autoclave. The
parts are loaded s~ that they are accessible to enable repair of bag leaks. All vacuum
sources and vacuum sensor lines are connected to the part when loaded on cart and desired
vacuum maintained. The cart must be gently rolled into the autoclave.

At present, computer controlled autoclaves with facility for storage of up to 60 different

curing cycles programmes are available in the world market.

In industry, autoclave curing of composites is used to improve cured product quality and
reduce fabrication costs by providing:
• Process optimization.
• Reduced process inconsistencies and product rejections. Accurate, real-time
quality assurance with rapid error detection and correction.
• Verification of process reaction behavior kinetics.
• Non-destructive verification of cured properties.
• Accurate, permanent process documentation.
• Flexibility in adapting to new or modified processes.
5.1.2.1.2.4 Injection Molding
Injection molding refers to a process that generally involves forcing or injecting a fluid
plastic material into a closed mold. It is differentiated from compression molding, in
which plastic materials in a soft but not fluid condition are formed by transferring them
into an open mold, which is then forcibly closed. This method is not normally used in
polymeric matrix compound processes due to fiber damage in the barrel.

The molding compound is fed into injection chamber through the feed hopper. The
molding compound is heated in the injection chamber wherein it changes into liquid
form. It is forced into the injection mold by the plunger. A typical injection mold is
shown in Fig 5.16

The injection molding process generally has the following advantages over the
compression molding:
• More readily automated process,
• Permits finer part detail.

Fig 5.16

The part and the mold can often be designed in a manner so that no subsequent trimming
or machining operations are required. However, all plastic materials cannot be injection
molded successfully. There are two basic categories of plastic injection molding (a)
thermoplastic and (b) thermoset. In the former, a thermoplastic material is melted and
forced through an orifice into the mold, which is kept relatively cool. The material
solidifies in the mold from which it can then be removed. In thermoset injection molding,
the solidification occurs at high temperature. Therefore, a reaction material is forced into
a generally warm mold in which the material further polymerizes into a solid part.

This method is normally used for high-volume and low-cost component manufacturing.
The disadvantage of the method is that it is limited to materials with very short fiber
lengths. Also, since there is large amount of flow during the process, material non-
uniformities do exist.
 5.1.2.1.2.5 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
Resin transfer molding is a closed mold low pressure process that allows the fabrication
of composites ranging in complexity from simple, low performance to complex, high
performance parts and in size from small to large (Fig10.14). The process is
differentiated from other molding processes in that the dry reinforcement and the resin
are combined within the mold to form the composite component. The fiber
reinforcement, which may be pre-shaped, is placed into a tool cavity, which is then
closed. A tube connects the closed tool cavity with a supply of liquid resin, which is
pumped or transferred into the tool to impregnate the reinforcement for subsequent
curing. Injection pressure is normally less than 690 kPa (100 psi). The displaced air is
allowed to escape through vents to avoid dry spots. Cure cycle is dependent on part
thickness, type of resin system and the temperature of the mold and resin system. The
part cures in the mold, normally heated by controllers.

Fig5.17

The advantages and associated disadvantages of the RTM process are given below:
Advantages
• Parts can be made with better reproducibility than with wet lay-up.
• Reinforcement and combination of reinforcements can be used to meet specific
properties.
• Production cycles are much faster than with wet lay-up.
• Using matched tools for the mold, one can improve the finish of all the surfaces.
• Mechanical properties of molded parts are comparable to other composite
fabrication processes.
• Large and complex shapes can be made efficiently.
• Volatile emissions are low because RTM is a closed mold process.
• The skill level of operator is less critical.
• Mold surfaces can be gel coated to improve surface performance.
 Disadvantages
• The mold design is critical and requires good tools or great skill.
• Reinforcement movement during resin injection is sometimes a problem.
• Control of flow pattern or resin uniformity is difficult. Radii and edges tend to be
resin rich.

Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM)

In the RTM process, a matched set of molds or closed mold is used. The fibre
reinforcements are usually pre-shaped off line to enhance the production cycle time of the
molds. Resin is injected through the injection ports and the process is sometimes assisted
with vacuum.

However, VARTM is different for many reasons compared to RTM. First, the fabrication
of parts can be accomplished on a single open mold. Second, the process uses the
injection of resin in combination with a vacuum and captured under a bag to thoroughly
impregnate the fiber reinforcement. This process has been used to make both thin and
very thick laminates. In addition, complex shapes with unique fiber architectures allow
the fabrication of large parts that have a high structural performance.

Fabrics are laid up as a dry stack of materials as in RTM and covered with peel ply and a
knitted type of non-structural fabric. The whole dry stack is then vacuum bagged, and
once bag leaks have been eliminated, resin is allowed to flow into the laminate. The resin
distribution over the whole laminate is aided by resin flowing easily through the non
structural fabric, and wetting the fabric.

Advantages
• Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a vacuum bag.
• Large components can be fabricated.
• Standard wet lay-up tools may be modified for this process.
• Cored structures can be produced in one operation.
Disadvantages
• Relatively complex process to perform well.
• Resins must be very low in viscosity, properties, thus compromising mechanical
• Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.

Resin Film Infusion (RFI)

In resin film infusion process, dry fabrics are laid up interleaved with layers of semi-solid
resin film supplied on a release paper. The lay-up is vacuum bagged to remove air
through the dry fabrics, and then heated to allow the resin to first melt and flow into the
air-free fabrics, and then after a certain time, to cure. The main attraction of resin film
infusion is probably for parts of high surface area.
Advantages
• High fiber volumes can be accurately achieved with low void contents.
• Good health and safety and a clean lay-up, like Prepreg.
• High resin mechanical properties due to solid state of initial polymer material and
elevated temperature cure.

Disadvantages
• Not widely proven outside the aerospace industry.
• Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures of the resin film.
• Core materials need to withstand the process temperatures and pressures.

5.1.2.1.3. Continuous Processes

5.1.2.1.3.1 Pultrusion
Pultrusion is an automated process used to create shapes by pulling roving’s through a
shaped and heated die. The use of pultruded parts in aircraft is limited to specialized
applications. Practical applications are limited to constant cross-section parts. Pultrusion
is used to manufacture constant cross-section shapes, viz., I-beam, box, channels, tubing,
etc.

The Pultrusion process machine consists of six different parts namely, the creel, the resin
bath, the forming die, the heated curing die, the pullers and the cut-off saw. The creel is
the beginning of the Pultrusion process and is the material storage system from which the
fibers and mat or fabric are drawn in the correct sequence to match the design
requirements of the structural shape. Virtually all Pultrusion processes utilize a resin
impregnation bath to facilitate the impregnation of the resin into the fiber structure. The
use of pre-impregnated fibers eliminates the resin bath.

Two types of dies are used in Pultrusion process, namely, the forming and the heating or
curing die. Forming is done immediately after the impregnation process. Forming dies are
normally attached to the heating or curing die in order to provide the correct relationship
between the forming and the heated curing step. The roving’s go through a heated die that
represents the cross-section of finished part. Curing is accomplished by heating the die.
The product continuously pulled out and as it comes out of the puller mechanism, it is cu
the desired length by an automatic saw.

The process is continuous and can be used to manufacture extremely long sections. At
typical continuous Pultrusion process is shown in Fig5.18
 Fig 5.18

There are two categories of Pultrusion products. The first category consist of solid rod and
bar stock produced from axial fiber glass reinforcements and polyester resins. These are
used to make fishing rods and electrical insulator rods which require high axial tensile
strength. The second category consists of structural profiles, which uses a combination of
axial fibers and multi-directional fiber mats to create a set of properties that meet the
requirements of the application in the transverse and longitudinal directions.

More than 90% of all pultruded products are fiber glass reinforced polyester. When better
corrosion resistance is required, vinyl ester resins are used. When a combination of
superior mechanical and electrical properties is required, epoxy resin is used. Higher
temperature resistance and superior mechanical properties generally dictate the use of
epoxy resins reinforced with Aramid or carbon fibers.

The major limitation of this method for aircraft use is the constant cross section
requirement. Also, more complex geometries are not feasible by this technique. The chief
advantage of the method is the ability to produce consistent parts at very low cost in a
short period of time. Pultruded composite parts exhibit all the features produced by other
composite processes, such as, high strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance,
dimensional stability, etc.
Advantages
• Production is continuous.
• Material scrap rate is low.
• The requirement for support material is eliminated i.e., breathers. bleeder, cloth,
separator film, bagging film, edge tape, etc.
• Labor requirements are low.
Disadvantages
• Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
• Heated die costs can be high.
5.1.2.1.3.2 Braiding
The braiding process involves the weaving of fibers into shape by repeatedly crossing
them back and forth over a mandrel. The use of braiding process in the aircraft industry is
generally restricted to non-structural applications. The braiding process has been utilised
extensively for covering of the electrical wires and fuel lines. The primary advantage that
braiding offers is a rapid, automated method for forming an interwoven structure. The
method is a product of textile technology and usually utilises equipment adapted from the
textile industry. The braiding carriers follow a zigzag path in a large circle surrounding
the mandrel. The surface of the mandrel is tightly woven with the fibres in a helical
pattern.

Due to high level of conformability and the damage resistance capability of braided
structures, the composite industry had found structural applications of braided composites
ranging from rocket launchers to automotive parts to aircraft structures.

2-D braided structures are inter-twined fibrous structures capable of forming structures
with 0° and ±θ fiber orientation. Although 2-D braids can be fabricated in tape form, the
majority of braided structures are fabricated with tubular geometry. Thickness is built up
by over braiding previously braided layers similar to a ply lay-up process. Braiding can
take place vertically or horizontally. A schematic of a horizontal braider is shown in Fig
5.19. Although braiding is similar to filament winding, the major difference between
braiding and filament winding is that braids are interlaced structures having as many as
144 or more interlacing per braiding cycle.

Fig 5.19

3-D braiding technology is an extension of 2-D braiding in which the fabric is

constructed by the inter-twining or orthogonal interlacing of yarns to form an integral
structure through position displacement. A unique feature of 3-D braids is their ability to
provide through the thickness reinforcement of composites as well as their ready
adaptability to the fabrication of a wide range of complex shapes ranging from solid rods
to I-beams to thick walled rocket nozzles. A generalized schematic of a 3-D braiding
process is shown in Fig.5.20
 Fig.5.20

*Prepreg Molding
In Prepreg molding, fabrics and fibers are pre-impregnated under heat and pressure or
with solvent, or a pre-catalyzed resin. The catalyst is largely latent at ambient
temperatures giving the material useful life when defrosted. The resin is usually a near
solid at ambient temperatures, and so the pre-impregnated materials (prepregs) have a
light sticky feel, such as that of adhesive tape. The prepregs are laid up by hand or
machine onto a mold surface, vacuum bagged and then heated to typically120-180°C
(248-356°F). This allows the resin to flow followed by curing. Additional pressure for the
molding is usually provided in an autoclave.

Advantages
• Resin/catalyst levels and the resin content in the fiber are accurately set by the
materials manufacturer. High fiber contents can be safely achieved.
• The materials have excellent health and safety characteristics and are clean to
work with.
• Fiber cost is minimized in unidirectional tapes since there is no secondary process
to convert fiber into fabric prior to use.
• Resin chemistry can be optimized for mechanical and thermal performance, with
the high viscosity resins being impregnable due to the manufacturing process.
• The extended working times (of up to several months at room temperatures)
means that structurally optimized, complex lay-up scan be readily made.
• Potential for automation and labor saving. .

Disadvantages
• Materials cost is higher for pre-impregnated fabrics.
• Autoclaves are usually required to cure the component.
• Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures involved.
• Core materials need to be able to withstand the process temperatures and
pressures.
In conclusion, it may be seen that a fiber reinforced composite may be manufactured by
one of the many standard fabrication methods as explained above. The selection of the
best method for a given application requires the consideration of numerous factors. The
selection process must determine the appropriate constituent materials, the actual part
design, the required tooling, the fabrication process and the necessary inspection and
testing requirements to assure part quality.