10.

Control Volume Approach

For flow of fluids, individual particles are not easily identified one from each other, the
problems are solved by focusing a space through which the fluid flows. This is called control
volume approach.

10.1. Lagrangian and Eulerian Approach

Engineers are often concerned about evaluating the pressure and velocities at arbitrary
locations in a flow field. In this chapter we will study the motion of fluid and the subject that
is concerned with fluid motion is called kinematics. From a fundamental point of view there
are two distinct ways to describe fluid motion: (a) Lagrangian method, named after the Italian
mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 – 1813) and (b) Eulerian method, named aft6er
the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783).

Fig. 10.1: Lagrangian description - Identify a small mass of fluid in a flow, called a fluid
particle and describe its motion with time
In the Lagrangian description, we must keep track of the position and velocity of individual
particles. Newton’s laws are used to describe the motion of such objects and we can
accurately predict where they go and how momentum and kinetic energy are exchanged from
one object to another. In case of fluid flow, we can generate a series of pathlines are
streamlines through the flow field and determine flow properties at any point along the lines
by applying Euler’s or Bernoulli’s equation. As you can imagine, this method of describing
motion of fluid is very difficult. From a microscopic point of view, a fluid is composed of
billions of molecules that are continuously banging into one another.The task of tracking even
a subset of these molecules is quite difficult, even for our fastest and largest computers.
However, there are many practical applications of the Lagrangian description, such as the
tracking of passive scalars in a flow model of contaminant transport and the development of
flow visualization and measurement system based on particle tracking method.

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 Control Volume Approach

Fig. 10.2: Eulerian approach - Fix a point (window) in the flow field and describe the velocity
of the particles passing through this point
A more common method of describing fluid flow is the Eulerian description of fluid motion.
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow domain or control
volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out. Instead of tracking individual fluid
particles, we define field variables such as pressure, velocity, acceleration, etc. as functions
of space and time within the control volume. The field variable at a particular location at a
particular time is the value of the variable for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that
location at that time instant. The field variables are defined as

Pressure field: P  P( x, y, z, t )

Velocity field: V  V ( x, y, z, t )

Acceleration field: a  a( x, y, z, t )
Therefore, in the Eulerian approach we don’t really care what happens to individual fluid
particles; rather we are concerned with the pressure, velocity, acceleration, etc., of whichever
particle happens to be at the location of interest at the time of interest.
The difference between these two descriptions is made clearer by imagining a person
standing beside a river, measuring its properties. In the Lagrangian approach, he throws in a
probe that moves downstream with water. In the Eulerian approach, he anchors the probe at
a fixed location in the water.
While there are many occasions in which the Lagrangian description is useful, the Eulerian
description is often more convenient for fluid mechanics applications. Furthermore,
experimental measurements are generally more suited to the Eulerian description. However,
the equations of motion in the Lagrangian description following individual fluid particles are
well known (e.g. Newton’s law), the equations of motion of fluid flow are not so readily
apparent in the Eulerian description and must be carefully derived. We do this for control
volume (integral) analysis via the Reynolds Transport Theorem.

10.2. Characterizing the rate of Flow

In order to develop the Eulerian, or control volume approach, there is a need to be able to
calculate the flow rates through a control volume. Also, the capability to calculate flow rates

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 Control Volume Approach

is important in analyzing water supply systems, natural gas distribution networks, and river
flows. The equations for calculating flow rates are developed in this section.
Discharge or volume flow rate
The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through
an area per unit time. Typical units for discharge are ft3/s (cfs), ft3/min (cfm), gpm, m3/s, and
L/s.
Consider the idealized flow of fluid in a pipe as shown in Fig. 5.3 in which the velocity (V) is
constant across the pipe section. Suppose a marker is injected over the cross section at
section A-A for a period of time Δt. The fluid that passes A-A in time Δt is represented by the
marked volume. The length of the marked volume is VΔt so the volume is Δ  = AVΔt, where
A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The volume flow per unit time past A-A is

Q  lim  VA (10.1)
t 0 t
which will be referred to as the discharge or volume flow rate equation. It is important to
realize that discharge refers to a volume flow rate.

Figure 10.3: Volume fluid that passes section A - A in time Δt

The discharge given by Eq. (10.1) is based on a constant flow velocity over the cross-sectional
area. In general, the velocity varies across the section such as shown in Fig. 10.1. The volume
flow rate through a differential area of the section is V dA, and the total volume flow rate is
obtained by integration over the entire cross-section:
Q   VdA (10.2)
A

In many problems—for example, those involving flow in pipes—one may know the discharge
and need to find the mean (average) velocity without knowing the actual velocity distribution
across the pipe section. By definition, the mean velocity is the discharge divided by the cross-
sectional area,
Q
V (10.3)
A
The volume flow rate equation can be generalized by using the concept of the dot product. In
Fig. 5.5 the flow velocity vector is not normal to the surface but is oriented at an angle θ with

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 Control Volume Approach

respect to the direction that is normal to the surface. The only component of velocity that
contributes to the flow through the differential area dA is the component normal to the area,
Vn. The differential discharge through area dA is
dQ  Vn dA (10.4)

Figure 10.4: Velocity vector is oriented at angle θ with respect to the normal.
If the vector, dA, is defined with magnitude equal to the differential area, dA, and direction
normal to the surface, then Vn dA  V cos  dA  V  dA , where V  dA is the dot product of the
two vectors. Thus a more general equation for the discharge or volume flow rate through a
surface A is
Q   V  dA (10.5)
A

If the velocity is constant over the area and the area is a planar surface, then the discharge is
given as
Q V  A (10.6)
If, in addition, the velocity and area vectors are aligned, then
Q  VA (10.7)
which reverts to the original equation developed for discharge, Eq. (10.1).
Mass Flow Rate
The mass flow rate, is the mass of fluid passing through a cross-sectional area per unit time.
The common units for mass flow rate are kg/s, lbm/s, and slugs/s. Using the same approach
as for volume flow rate, the mass of the fluid in the marked volume in Fig. 5.3 is
m 
m  lim   lim   Q   AV (10.8)
t 0 t t  0 t

The generalized form of the mass flow equation corresponding to Eq. (5.4) is
m   V  dA (10.9)
A

where both the velocity and fluid density can vary over the cross-sectional area.

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 Control Volume Approach

10.3. System, Control Volume and Control Surface

A fluid system is defined as a continuous mass of fluid that always contains the same fluid
particles. A system moving through a flow field is shown in Fig. 1.3. The size and shape of a
system may change during a process but no mass crosses its boundary. The fundamental
equations, such as Newton’s second law and the first law of thermodynamics, apply to a
system.
A control volume is defined as a volume located in space and through which matter can pass
and the control surface is the surface enclosing the control volume, as shown in Figs. 10.3 and
10.4. The fluid mass enters and leaves the control volume through the control surface and the
mass in the control volume can change with time. The selection of control volume and its shape
is problem dependent. A control volume can deform with time, rotate in space and move.
However, many real world applications involve fixed, non-deformable control volume.

Figure 10.5: System, control volume and control surface in a flow field

Figure 10.6: Definitions of control volume and control surface

Summary on Control volume:
i. A control volume is volume in space and through which matter can pass
ii. The selection of control volume and its shape is problem dependent
iii. The control volume is enclosed by control surface
iv. The control volume can deform with time and rotate in space
v. The mass in control volume can change with time

10.4. System vs Control Volume

All the laws of mechanics are written for a system, which is defined as an arbitrary quantity
of mass of fixed identity. Everything external to this system is denoted by the term
surroundings, and the system is separated from its surroundings by its boundaries. The laws

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 Control Volume Approach

of mechanics (conservation of mass, the linear momentum relation, the angular momentum
relation, and the energy equation) then state what happens when there is an interaction
between the system and its surroundings.
These laws apply to either fluid or solid systems. They are ideal for solid mechanics, where
we follow the same system forever because it represents the product we are designing and
building. For example, we follow a beam as it deflects under load. We follow a piston as it
oscillates. We follow a rocket system all the way to Mars.
But fluid systems do not demand this concentrated attention. Instead it is likely that the fluid
forms the environment whose effect on our product we wish to know. We wish to know the
wind loads on the beam, but where the fluid particles in the wind go after they leave the beam
is of little interest to a beam designer. We need to convert the system laws to apply to a
specific region, which the system may occupy for only an instant. The system passes on, and
other systems come along, but no matter. The basic laws are reformulated to apply to
this local region called a control volume. The control volume resembles the free-body
concept, which is applied to systems in solid mechanics analyses.
To convert a system analysis to a control volume analysis, we must convert our mathematics
to apply to a specific region rather than to individual masses. This conversion, called the
Reynolds transport theorem, can be applied to all the basic laws. This also relates the Eulerian
and Lagrangian approaches.

10.1. Extensive and Intensive properties

Extensive Property (B): An extensive property is any property that depends on the amount of
matter present. The extensive properties of a system include: Mass (m), Momentum (mv),
and Energy (E). Another example of extensive property is weight because the weight is mg.
Note: Extensive properties of a system are proportional to the mass of the system.
Intensive Property (β): An intensive property is any property that is independent of amount
of matter present. Examples of intensive properties include Pressure (p) and Temperature
(T).
Extensive property
Intensive property =
mass

Property Mass Momentum Energy

Extensive m mv E
Intensive 1 v e

Energy per
unit mass

Consider a system with properties as in Figure 10.1(a). When it is divided into two equal
halves the magnitude of extensive properties reduces to half the original value, whereas the
intensive property values remain unaltered as in Figure 10.1(b).

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 Control Volume Approach

m m/2 m/2 Extensive (half

mg mg/2 mg/2 the original
T value)
T T
P P P Intensive (Same
ρ ρ ρ value)

(a) (b)
Figure 10.1: (a) A system with given properties and (b) System divided into two
equal halves
The amount of extensive property B contained in a control volume at a given instant is given
by
Bcv    dm   d  (10.10)
cv cv

Where dm and d are the differential mass and differential volume, respectively and the
integral is carried out over the control volume.

10.2. Property transport across the control surface

When fluid flows across a control surface, properties such as mass, momentum and energy are
transported with the fluid either into or out of the control volume. Consider the flow through
the control volume in the duct in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 10.7: Control surfaces represented by area vectors and velocities by

velocity vectors
If the velocity is uniformly distributed across a surface, the mass flow rate is given by
m  V  A (10.11)

Mass flow rate:

At section 1: m1  1 A1 V1

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 Control Volume Approach

At section 2: m2  2 A2 V2
Sign convention: it is obvious that all surface areas have two sides, so we must establish a
rate is that the area vector always points outward from control volume as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Therefore, at inlet it is always negative ( V1  A1  V1 A1 ) and at outlet it is always positive (
V2  A2  V2 A2 )

Figure 10.8: The control surfaces represented by area vectors and velocities
velocity vectors.
The net mass outflow rate   2 A2 V2  1 A1 V1
= 2 V2  A2  1V1  A1 (10.12)
mnet =  V  A
cs

i. The above states that if dot product V  A is summed for all control surfaces
of a control volume the result is the net mass flow rate out of the control
volume.
ii. If the summation is positive, the net mass flow rate is out of the control volume, if it is
negative, the net mass flow rate is into the CV.
iii. If the inflow and out flow rates are equal  V  A  0
cs
In a similar manner, the net rate of flow of an extensive property B out of the control volume
is
Bnet    V  A (10.13)
cs
m

The above derivations are applicable for all one dimension flows. To reinforce the validity of
the above equation one may consider the dimensions involved. The above equation states that
the flow rate of B is given by
 m

 B  mass   B 
     flow rate of B  B (10.14)
 mass  time   time 
For velocity varying across a flow section, the velocity across the section needs to be integrated
to obtain the flow rate and therefore the general expression for net rate of out flow of an
extensive property is written as
Bnet    V  d A (10.15)
cs m

The above equation will be used in the most general form of the Reynolds transport theorem.

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 Control Volume Approach

10.3. Reynolds Transport Theorem

Most principles of fluid mechanics are adopted from solid mechanics, where the
physical laws dealing with the time rate of change of extensive properties are
expressed for systems. In fluid mechanics, it is usually convenient to work with
control volumes, and thus there is need to relate the changes in a control volume to
the changes in a system. The relationship between the time rates of change of an
extensive property for a system and for a control volume is expressed by the Reynolds
Transport Theorem. This also relates the Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches. The
Reynolds transport theorem is derived by considering the rate of change of an
extensive property of a system as it passes through a control volume.

Figure 10.9: Progression of a system through a control volume

A control volume with a system moving through it is shown in Fig. 10.7. The control
volume is enclosed by the control surface identified by the dashed line. The system is
identified by the darker shaded region. At time t the system consists of the material
inside the control volume and the material going in, so the property B of the system at
this time is
Bsys ,t  Bcv, t  Bin (10.16)
At t  t the system has moved and now consists of the material in the control volume
and the material passing out. Thus
Bsys,t t  Bcv, t t  Bout (10.17)

Recall that our objective is to relate the rate of change of any arbitrary extensive
property B, of the system to the time variations of the property associated with the
control volume. From the definition of a derivative, the rate of change of extensive
property Bsys of the system is given by
dBsys Bsys ,t t  Bsys ,t
 lim (10.18)
dt t 0 t
Here, Bin defines the extensive property that has moved into the control volume in
time t , Bout defines the extensive property that has moved out of the CV in time t
. From Eq. (1.2)
Bsys ,t t   Bcv , t t  Bin   Bout (10.19)

Substituting Eqs. (10.16) and (10.17) into Eq. (18)

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 Control Volume Approach

dBsys Bcv , t t  Bcv , t  Bout  Bin

 lim
dt t 0 t

= lim
B cv , t t  Bcv , t 
 lim
Bout B
 lim in
(10.20)
t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t

Term1 Term 2 Term 3

Term 1: lim
B cv , t t  Bcv ,t 

dBcv
t 0 t dt
Bout
Term 2: lim  Bout
t 0 t
Bin
Term 3: lim  Bin
t 0 t

Combining terms 2 and 3: Bnet  Bout  Bin

Eq. (1.5) can now be written as
dBsys dBcv
  Bnet (10.21)
dt dt
dBsys d
dt cv
  d    V  d A (10.22)
dt cs

It is important to mention in this context that in the derivation of RTT, the control
volume is considered to be fixed in a frame of reference in which the velocity field is
described. Moreover, for evaluation of rates of outflow and inflow of properties, the
velocities must be measured with respect to the control surface because it relates to
the mass flux across the surface. Eq. (10.22) is the most general form of Reynolds
transport theorem. The left side of the equation is the Lagrangian form; that is, the rate
of change of property B evaluated moving with the system. The right side is the
Eulerian form; that is, the change of property B evaluated in the control volume and
the flux measured at the control surface. The application of this equation is called the
Control volume approach.
The Reynolds Transport equation may be expressed in words as
Rate of change   Rate of change   Net outflow 
     
 of property B    of property B    of property B 
 of system  in control volume   through control surface 
     
This equation also provides the connection between the Lagrangian and Eulerian
descriptions of fluid.

10.4 Multiple inlets and outlets:

If the mass crossing the control surface occurs through a number of inlet and outlets,
and if the velocity, density, and intensive property 𝛽 are uniformly distributed across
each port, then

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 Control Volume Approach

dBsys d
dt cv
  d    V  A (10.23)
dt cs

where the summation is carried out for each port crossing the control surface. An
alternative form can be written in terms of the mass flow rates as
dBsys d
   d   mo o  mi i (10.24)
dt dt cv cs cs
for steady state = 0 outlets inlets

10.5 Conclusions on Reynolds transport theorem

i. The theorem relates Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches
ii. Theorem helps to calculate transport of any extensive property of fluid flow
iii. Bsys can be mass, momentum or energy

10.6 General form of continuity equation

The continuity equation derives from the law of conservation of mass which in Lagrangian
form, the mass of the system is constant.
msys = constant
The Eulerian form is obtained from the Reynolds transport theorem. The extensive property is
mass and intensive property is unity
Bsys = msys ; 𝛽 = 1
The general form of the continuity equation is obtained by substituting the properties for
mass into the Reynolds transport theorem, resulting in
dmsys d
dt CV
 dV   VdA (10.25)
dt CS

However,
dmsys
0 (10.26)
dt
Therefore,
d
 dV  CS VdA  0
dt CV
(10.27)

The equation can be written in words as

The accumulation rate of mass in the CV+
The net outflow rate of mass through the CS = 0
If the mass crosses the control surfaces through number of inlet and exit ports, the continuity
equation simplifies to
d
mcv  mout  min  0 (10.28)
dt cs cs

where 𝑚𝑐𝑣 is the mass of fluid with in the control volume.

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 Control Volume Approach

10.7 Continuity Equation for Steady One Dimensional Flow in Conduits

Several simplified forms of the continuity equation are used by engineers for flow in a pipe.
The equation is developed by positioning a control volume inside a pipe, as shown in Figure
10.1. Mass enters through station 1 and exits through station 2. The control volume is fixed to
the pipe walls, and its volume is constant. If the flow is steady, then mcv is constant so the
mass flow formulation of the continuity equation reduces to
mout  min

Figure 10.10: Flow through pipe

For flow with a uniform velocity and density distribution, the continuity equation for steady
flow in a pipe is
 A V
out out out

in AV
in in
(10.29)

If the flow is incompressible, then

A V
out out
 AV in in
(10.30)
If there are more than two ports, then the general form of the continuity equation for steady
flow is

m
cs
out  min
cs
(10.31)

If the flow is incompressible,

Q
cs
out  Qin
cs
(10.32)

When we have uniform velocity at each inlet and outlet

V .A  0
cs
(10.33)

10.8 Examples
Example 10.1: A 10 cm jet of water issues from a 1m diameter tank, as shown in Figure 11.2.
Assume that the velocity in the jet is 2gh m/s. How long will it take for the tank surface in
the tank to drop from ho=2m to hf =0.5m?

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 Control Volume Approach

Figure 10.11: Emptying of tank

Solution:
Using continuity equation
d
mcv  mout  min  0
dt cs cs

d
mcv  mout   V . A
dt
Accumulation rate term,
d dh
mcv   AT
dt dt
AT is the cross sectional area of the tank and inflow of mass is equal to 0. The Outflow mass
term is given by,

m
cs
out  AV
1 1  A1 2 gh

Substituting the terms in the continuity equation,

d  AT h
 V1 A1 
dt
AT dh
   A1 2 gh
dt

AT
dt   dh
A1 2 gh
Integrating on both sides
2 AT
t h C
A1 2 g
At t = 0, h = ho

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 Control Volume Approach

2 AT
h C
A1 2 g
2 AT
t ( ho  h ) (10.1)
A1 2 g
Example 10.2: Consider the Figure 11.3 given below. Find the velocity in pipe 2 with an area
of 0.2 m2. The velocity in pipe 1 and 3 are 5 m/s and 12 m/s. Their respective area of cross
sections are 0.2 and 0.3 m2. Discharge through pipe 4 is 0.1 m3/s.

Figure 10.12: Tank with multiple ports

Solution: The flow directions are assumed as shown in Figure11.4.

Figure 10.13: Tank with multiple ports

Applying continuity equation,

d
mcv  mout  min  0
dt cs cs

m
cs
out  min
cs

A1 V1  A2 V2  A3 V3  Q4

A1 V1  A3 V3  Q4  5*0.2   12*0.5   0.1

V2  
A2 0.2

V2  4.5m / s
Note: At pipe 2, flow is going into the network.

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 Control Volume Approach

Example 10.3: As shown in Figure 10.5, water flows steadily into a tank through pipes 1 and
2 and discharges at a steady rate out of the tank through pipes 3 and 4. The mean velocity in
pipe 1, 2, and 3 is 50 ft/s, and the hypothetical outflow velocity in pipe 4 varies linearly from
zero at the wall to a maximum at the center of the pipe. What are the mass rate of flow and
the discharge from pipe 4, and what is the maximum velocity in pipe 4?

Figure 10.14: Tank with multiple ports

Solution:

Because the flow is steady and incompressible,

 cs
Qi  cs Qo

Q3  Q4  Q1  Q2
Q4  Q1  Q2  Q3
 V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3

 50    D12  D22  D32 
4

 50 
4 144
1

1  22  1.52 

Q4  0.750ft 3 s  0.021 m3 s
In pipe 4,

 r
V  Vmax 1  
 r0 
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 Control Volume Approach

r0  r
Q   VdA   Vmax 1   2  rdr
 r0 
A 0

r0  r
Q  2  Vmax  1   rdr
 r0 
0

1 1
 2  Vmax r02   
 2 3
1
  Vmax r02
3
3Q 3  0.750
Vmax    2.86 ft/s  0.872 m/s Ans.
 r02   12 2

Example 10.4: Consider the boundary layer formed when an incompressible fluid flows over
a flat plate. The velocity profile within the boundary layer at any section is given by Vx = V0
f(ƞ) where ƞ = y/δ with δ as the boundary layer thickness at that location. Outside the
boundary layer the x component of the velocity is V0 everywhere.
(a) Using ABCD as the CV, show that mass crosses into the boundary layer at CD.
(b) To find Vy near the edge of the boundary layer, use ABCE as the CV.
For f(ƞ) = (3/2) ƞ- (1/2) ƞ3, determine Vy at ƞ =1.
Solution:

(a) Control volume: ABCD

  
 d  
 Vx dy  dm   Vx dy    Vx dy x
dx  0 

  
across DC
0

0

across AD across BC



d  
1

  f  d  for     
dm d 3 1 3
   Vx dy  V0
dx dx 0 dx  0  2 2


dm 5 d  5
 V0  d m  V0 d
dx 8 dx 8
 
int oCV

(b) Control volume: ABCE

DE = δy

By mass continuity

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 Control Volume Approach


 
 Vx dy  V0d  Vy dx    Vx dy 
   0

0

 acrossDE acrossCE 
acrossAD acrossBC

1  1 
V0   f  d   V0 d  Vy dx  V0   f  d 
0  0 

1  5 3 d
  f  d    V y  V0
0  8 8 dx

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